ADVANCED PLACEMENT PSYCHOLOGYChapter 17: Social Cognition
Social Psychology: The study of how people influence, and are influenced by, other people
Social Cognition: The mental processes associated with the ways in which people perceive & react to other individuals & groups
SELF-CONCEPT – (NOUN.) BELIEFS ABOUT WHO WE ARE & WHAT CHARACTERISTICS WE HAVE
Two main theories about how we form our self-concept:- Social Comparison Theory- Social Identity Theory
SELF-ESTEEM– (NOUN.) EVALUATIONS OF PERSONAL WORTH AS HUMAN BEINGS
SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORYWE KNOW WHO WE ARE BY COMPARING OURSELVES TO OTHERS
Objective Measures: Things that can be measured Ex: height, weight, age, etc.
Non-objective Measures: Things that cannot be measured Ex: attractiveness, athletic prowess, etc.
1. Social Comparison – Evaluation of the self by comparing to others
2. Reference Groups – Categories of people to which individuals see themselves as belonging & to which they compare themselves
3. Relative Deprivation – Occurs when a person’s relative standing is poor compared to a social reference group (no matter how much you’re getting, it’s less than you deserve)
SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORYWE KNOW WHO WE ARE THROUGH OUR ROLE IN
SOCIETY (PART OF OUR SELF-CONCEPT)
Social Identity: our beliefs about the groups to which we belong
“I am _____________.” Physical Attributes
Tall Smart Athletic
Social Attributes a student American a [sport] player
Cultural Differences Individualist Cultures – Tend to define themselves
more by physical attributes Collectivist Cultures – Tend to define themselves more
by social attributes
LINKAGES: SOCIAL COGNITION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
1. Self-Schemasa) Unified Self-Schemas – Same characteristics across
situationsb) Differentiated Self-Schemas – Different characteristics
across situations Those with unified self-schemas are more prone to
developing mental disorders
Parts of the Self-Schema1. Actual Self – What the person is like2. Ideal Self – What the person wants to be3. Ought Self – Who the person should be (morals)
Perceived discrepancies between the parts of the self may be the trigger for distress & then mental disorders
SOCIAL PERCEPTIONTHE ROLE OF SCHEMAS, FIRST IMPRESSIONS, ATTRIBUTION, & SELF-PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS
Social Perception: the process through which people interpret information about others, form impressions of them, & draw conclusions about the reasons for their behavior
Social perception influences our thoughts, feelings, & actions!
ROLE OF SCHEMASGESTALT PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION: TOP-DOWN PROCESSING“FILLING IN THE BLANKS” ABOUT OTHER PEOPLE
Attention Schemas affect what we pay attention to & what we ignore Attributes consistent with our schemas get more attention
than those inconsistent with schemas Processing speed is quicker for characteristics that confirm
our schemas Memory
Schemas influence what we remember Attributes consistent with our schemas are easier to
remember than those inconsistent with schemas You will remember more about a random person if you knew
their profession ahead of time. Attribution
Schemas affect how we judge behavior of others A man and a woman doing the same thing get different
judgments of their behavior
FIRST IMPRESSIONSIS THE FIRST IMPRESSION THE MOST IMPORTANT?
1. Forming Impressions Influenced heavily by schemas & top-down processing Assumption: Others hold attitudes & values similar to your
own Negative information is more potent than positive
information Why?
There are many reasons for why someone might act positively Only one reason for why someone might act negatively
2. Lasting Impressions First impressions are very slow to change New information is filtered by the existing framework
through top-down processing
3. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Schemas that lead people to behave in line with our
expectations
EXPLAINING PERCEPTION: ATTRIBUTION Attribution – Process of explaining the causes of behavior
Attribution helps to understand the causes of behavior, predict future behavior, & decide how to control the situation itself
Scenario: A student asks Ms. de Bari for an extension on an assignment
a) Internal Attribution Behavior caused by characteristics of the person “Sigh… laziness…”
b) External Attribution Behavior caused by situational factors “Something must have happened that prevented him/her
from being able to work on the assignment.”
Similar to locus of control, but what’s the difference?
SOURCES OF ATTRIBUTIONSKELLEY’S THEORY FOR UNDERSTANDING ATTRIBUTIONS
You ask Ms. de Bari for an extension on an assignment & she yells at you before refusing
a) Consensus Degree to which other people’s behavior is similar to that of the actor Consensus = External Consensus = Internal None of your other teachers ever give you extensions. All your other teachers give you extensions when you ask.
b) Consistency Degree to which the behavior is the same across time Consistency = Internal Consistency = External Ms. de Bari has never given you an extensions before. Ms. de Bari use to always give you extensions except this time
c) Distinctiveness Degree to which similar stimuli elicit the same behavior from the actor Distinctiveness = External Distinctiveness = Internal Ms. de Bari gives everyone extensions but you. Ms. de Bari gives extensions to NO ONE!
ATTRIBUTION ERRORS & BIASES
Fundamental Attribution Error Tendency to over-attribute
the behavior of others to internal factors, such as personality traits
Ultimate Attribution Error Tendency to attribute
negative behaviors of out-groups to stable traits, & positive behaviors as exceptions
Actor-Observer Bias Tendency to over-
attribute the behavior of self to external factors
Self-Serving Bias
Success Internal attribution
Failure External attribution
Explanation: Self-esteem Claims success & disowns
failures
Fundamental Attributional Error
Other Attributional Biases
SELF-PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS People are motivated to maintain their self-esteem Ignoring negative information is one way to do it
Ex: If you just failed your last exam (hopefully not!) you are more likely to blame me as the teacher instead of painfully admitting that you got the grade you deserved
Unrealistic Optimism [Unique Invulnerability] The tendency to believe that:
Positive events are more likely to happen to you than others Negative events are more likely to happen others than you
Tends to persist even in the face of contradictory evidence
Can lead to unhealthy behaviors Alcoholism Reckless Driving Drugs
ATTITUDESTHE TENDENCY TO THINK, FEEL, OR ACT POSITIVELY OR NEGATIVELY TOWARD OBJECTS IN OUR ENVIRONMENT
Three components of attitudes1. Cognitive – Beliefs held about something (Ex: you believe
drunk driving is bad) 2. Affective – Emotional feelings toward something (Ex: you feel
angry when people drive drunk) 3. Behavioral – The way one acts towards something (Ex: you
participate in demonstrations against drunk driving)
People will consciously or subconsciously try to maintain consistency between the components of their attitude
Factors Affecting Consistency [of behavior] Cognitive & affective consistency [What you believe and how you
feel are consistent] In line with subjective norm [View of how people around us want
us to act] There is a degree of perceived control [Belief one can actually
perform said behavior] Having had direct experience [Having first-hand experience]
FORMING ATTITUDESNO ONE IS BORN WITH ATTITUDES
Genetics Inherited predispositions of temperament
Learning Modeling & Social Learning – Children learn from
parents not just what objects are, but also how they should feel about them
Classical / Operant Conditioning – Naturally associating positive or negative feelings with the object
Mere-Exposure Effect All else being equal, attitudes toward an object will
become more positive the more frequently people are exposed to it
i.e. Spend enough time with the girl you like and maybe she’ll start liking you too.
CHANGING ATTITUDES Two Routes to Attitude Change
a) Three factors affecting attitude changei. Characteristics of the person communicatingii. Content of the messageiii. Audience who receives it
b) Elaboration Likelihood Modeli. Peripheral Route
Persuasion Cues are important How confident or attractive the persuader is
ii. Central Route Content of message is important How logical the argument is
Which Route Will Be Taken? Personal Involvement – How personally important the
information is [C] Cognitive Busyness – Thinking about other things [P] Need for Cognition – Need for thoughtful mental activities [C] Need for Closure – Discomfort with uncertainty [P]
ADVERTISEMENTSBILLIONS SPENT TO CHANGE YOUR ATTITUDE
ATTITUDE CHANGEFESTINGER’S COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY
Participants did mundane peg-turning activity
Advertised the task to others as “exciting & fun” Group 1: $1 reward Group 2: $20 reward
Group 1 More favorable attitude
towards the task Group 2
Small increase in attitude towards the task
Procedure / Results Explanation
Group 1
Group 2
ATTITUDE CHANGEFESTINGER’S COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY
People want their thoughts, beliefs, & emotions to be consistent with one another and with their behavior
In cases where the behavior & cognition can’t be changed, the attitude naturally shifts
ATTITUDE CHANGE SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY
You’re not quite sure yet how you feel about a particular boy or girl
You examine How excited you get when
you are on your way to spend time with him or her
How upset you get when others speak poorly about the boy or girl
How unhappy you get when you see him or her with others of the opposite gender
Does not presuppose internal tension when attitudes are inconsistent with behavior
Under ambiguous situations, people examine their behavior to infer their attitude.
Self-Perception Theory Best when there is weak/no
prior attitude Cognitive-Dissonance Theory
Best when there is strong/clearly defined attitudes and internal consistency is important for self-esteem
FIRST, SOME VOCABULARY
Some commonly interchange words Stereotype – Perceptions, beliefs, and expectations
about members of a group Prejudice – Positive or negative attitude toward an
individual because of his or her membership in a group
Discrimination – Differential treatment of individuals who belong to different groups
Group Dynamics In-group – Group to which one identifies with and
belongs to Out-group – Everyone else
THEORIES OF PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPING:MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
Motivational Theories Prejudice may enhance one’s sense of security Prejudice is especially likely among those with an
authoritarian personality trait Acceptance of conventional or traditional values Willingness to unquestioningly follow the orders of
authority Inclination to act aggressively towards those identified by
these authority figures as threatening the values held by one’s in-group
Prejudice may enhance one’s self-esteem by affirming their social identity with their in-group
THEORIES OF PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPING: COGNITIVE AND LEARNING
Cognitive Theories Social relationships are so numerous and complex that
we rely heavily on schemas People are then sorted into social categories
Categories that replace the individual details of a person Members of the same social category are perceived to be
quite similar to each other [saves cognitive energies: less attention]
“All you ____________ people look the same.”
Learning Theories Children learn prejudice by watching parents, peers,
and others Children often know about the negative characteristics
of groups before they ever meet a member
REDUCING PREJUDICE
Contact Hypothesis Stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will
diminish as contact with the group increases
Lessons Since 1954 [Brown vs. Board of Education]How to make desegregation work Members of the two groups had to be roughly the
same social and economic status Members of the two groups had to work together on
projects that required reliance and teamwork for success
Contact has to happen on a one-on-one basis Members of each group must be seen as typical
AND NOW, WHAT WE’VE ALL BEEN WAITING FOR…
KEYS TO ATTRACTIONAKA: THE LOVE MANUAL
The Environment Mere-Exposure Effect (forming attitudes section) Classical / Operant Conditioning
Similarity Attitudes, age, habits Balance
Similar attitudes towards mutual acquaintances “If you wanna be my lover, you gotta get with my friends, make it
last forever, friendship never ends…” – Spice Girls Conclusion: Opposites don’t actually attract Why?
We don’t know which direction the causality arrow points
Physical Attractiveness Matching Hypothesis – People tend to form committed
relationships with others of similar attractiveness Why?
Balance between attraction and likeliness of rejection
ANALYZING LOVETRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE
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