RElATlVEWlN D
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X-WIND
AERODYNAMICPRINCIPLES
forPROFESSIONAL
PILOTSLES KUMPULAProfessor (Emeritus)
Department of Aeronautical ScienceEmbry-Riddle Aeronautical University
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AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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2 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
For PROFESSIONAL PILOTS
By
Les Kumpula Professor (Emeritus)
Department of Aeronautical Science Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
COPYRIGHT WARNING
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3
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
This book examines the principles of aerodynamics that apply primarily to flight technique issues. Unlike air-craft performance and design, where aerodynamic equa-tions provide numerical data, precision flying requires a thorough understanding of non-numerical aerodynamic principles. In the development of piloting skill, aerody-namic principles are applied qualitatively rather than quantitatively.
While most technical books have many words and a few illustrations, most of the principles explained in this book utilize graphical means. Text comments are mainly used for introductory comments and the summarizing of critical points.
Further applications of aerodynamic principles to flight technique issues can be found in a new book series which emphasizes the development of jet transport flight procedures. The new series expands the content of the Aeronautical Science academic text titled Flight Tech-nique Analysis for Professional Pilots and includes com-puterized demonstrations, tools and additional related sub-ject areas. The first book in the new series, Advanced Air-manship Book 1 Precision Flying, is currently available and the remaining two books are scheduled for release in 2011. Additional information on these new books and up-dated editions of Professor Les Kumpulas current text books is available on the publishers web site: www.cchpublishing.com
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4 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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5
Table of Contents
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6 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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7
Properties of the Atmosphere
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8 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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9
Flight Deck Task Management Properties of the Atmosphere
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10 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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11
Flight Deck Task Management Properties of the Atmosphere
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12 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
The calculations on this and the following pages are not critical for understanding the standard atmosphere. They are used in the creation of a computer program that will cal-culate the standard atmospheric variables at any altitude.
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Flight Deck Task Management Properties of the Atmosphere
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14 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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15
Review of Aerodynamic Tools Properties of the Atmosphere
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16 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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17
Review of Aerodynamic Tools Properties of the Atmosphere
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18 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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19
Review of Aerodynamic Tools Properties of the Atmosphere
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20 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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21
Airspeed Measurement
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22 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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23
Review of Aerodynamic Tools Airspeed Measurement
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24 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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25
Review of Aerodynamic Tools Airspeed Measurement
Since equivalent airspeed is an unfamiliar term to many pilots, it may be easier to think of it as perfect indicated airspeed. Equivalent airspeed is what an airspeed indicator would read if it had no errors.
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26 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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27
Review of Aerodynamic Tools Airspeed Measurement
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28 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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29
Review of Aerodynamic Tools Airspeed Measurement
The drain hole in the pitot tube does not affect airspeed indicator accuracy because the hole is small relative to the volume inside the pitot head.
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30 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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31
Review of Aerodynamic Tools Airspeed Measurement
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32 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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33
Review of Aerodynamic Tools Airspeed Measurement
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34 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
In summary, equivalent airspeed and true airspeed are the most important airspeed variables. Equivalent airspeed is used for determining aerodynamic forces while true air-speed is useful for navigation purposes.
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Transonic Flight Characteristics
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36 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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37
Speed Stability Transonic Flight Characteristics
Transonic flow is the most complicated of all the flow regions, since it consists of both subsonic and supersonic flow regions whose size and intensity change with angle of attack and airspeed.
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38 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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39
Basic Equations Transonic Flight Characteristics
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40 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
Subsonic aircraft are more efficient than supersonic aircraft. However, flight at high Mach numbers for subsonic designed aircraft is limited due to transonic flow effects while flight at high equivalent airspeed is limited due to structural considera-tions. At high altitudes, these two limiting speeds come together at the coffin cor-ner.
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41
Constant Velocity Aircraft Control Transonic Flight Characteristics
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42 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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43
Pitch and Power Relationships Transonic Flight Characteristics
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44 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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45
Pitch and Power Relationships Transonic Flight Characteristics
Transport aircraft and other airplanes with an air data computer show computed airspeed on the airspeed indi-cator. Computed airspeed is indicated airspeed corrected for errors and is essentially the same as equivalent airspeed.
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46 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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47
Aerodynamic Force Relationships
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48 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
The flight controls determine the angles appropriate to their axes of rotation. These angles, along with airspeed and density, determine the aerodynamic forces acting on a par-ticular airplane.
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49
Pitch and Power Relationships Aerodynamic Force Relationships
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50 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
It should be noted that lift and drag are not independent forces. They are perpendicular components of the total aero-dynamic force created by the air flow conditions.
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51
Pitch and Power Relationships Aerodynamic Force Relationships
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52 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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53
Pitch and Power Relationships Aerodynamic Force Relationships
These facts are direct applications of Newtons laws of motion.
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54 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
Note that the vector sum of all the forces is zero for both constant velocity flight conditions.
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55
Pitch and Power Relationships Aerodynamic Force Relationships
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56 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Pitch and Power Relationships Aerodynamic Force Relationships
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58 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Pitch and Power Relationships Aerodynamic Force Relationships
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60 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Pitch and Power Relationships Aerodynamic Force Relationships
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62 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Pitch and Power Relationships Aerodynamic Force Relationships
In a glide, the forward acting parallel component weight takes the place of thrust to keep the airspeed con-stant.
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64 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Pitch and Power Relationships Aerodynamic Force Relationships
It should not be a surprise that lift is less than weight in both a constant velocity climb or descent since lift ap-proaches zero in both vertical climbs and vertical descents.
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66 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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67
Turn Relationships
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68 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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69
Turn Relationships
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70 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
Centrifugal force does not exist. The concept of cen-trifugal force throwing a body to the outside of a turn is not really a force at all. Rather, the tendency of a body to move to the outside of a turn is really its tendency to move in a straight line. For example, as you sit in a car while turning, the tendency of your body to move to the outside of the turn is really your body wanting to move in a straight line while external forces accelerate the car to the center of the circle. People tend to attribute this tendency to a force acting to-ward the outside of the turn, but in reality what is felt is the centripetal force caused by friction of the seat accelerating the body toward the center of the circle. In a banked aircraft, the horizontal component of the force pushing up on your body by the seat provides the centripetal force.
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Turn Relationships
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72 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Turn Relationships
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74 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Turn Relationships
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76 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Turn Relationships
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78 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Turn Relationships
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80 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Turn Relationships
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82 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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The Three Basic Pitch Transition Rules Efficient Use of the Flight Instruments Turn Relationships
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84 PRECISION TRANSITIONS FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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85
The Three Basic Pitch Transition Rules Slips and Skids
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86 PRECISION TRANSITIONS FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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The Three Basic Pitch Transition Rules Efficient Use of the Flight Instruments Slips and Skids
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88 PRECISION TRANSITIONS FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Slips and Skids
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90 PRECISION TRANSITIONS FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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91
Slips and Skids
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92 PRECISION TRANSITIONS PRECISION TRANSITIONS FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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93
Slips and Skids
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94 PRECISION TRANSITIONS PRECISION TRANSITIONS FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
Since no acceleration is occurring in this constant ve-locity case, the ball simply sits at the lowest spot in the race-way.
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Slips and Skids
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96 PRECISION TRANSITIONS FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Slips and Skids
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98 PRECISION TRANSITIONS FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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99
Adverse and Proverse Yaw
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100
TRACKING AND GLIDE SLOPE RULES FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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101
Adverse and Proverse Yaw
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102 TRACKING AND GLIDE SLOPE RULES FLIGHT TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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103
Adverse and Proverse Yaw
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104 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Adverse and Proverse Yaw
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Adverse and Proverse Yaw
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108 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Adverse and Proverse Yaw
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110 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Subsonic Aerodynamics
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Subsonic Aerodynamics
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Subsonic Aerodynamics
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116 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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The Lift Equation
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118 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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The Lift Equation
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The Lift Equation
By definition, stall occurs where the angle of attack effect on lift is a maximum. No other angle of attack will produce more lift. All other stalling variables, such as stall-ing speed, occur when the angle of attack is at the stall angle and the lift coefficient is a maximum.
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122 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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123
The Lift Equation
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The Lift Equation
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The Lift Equation
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The Lift Equation
From a pilots perspective, this page illustrates an im-portant concept. The point to remember is that lift depends on the combination of angle of attack and EAS (perfect indicated airspeed) for a particular airplane and configura-tion, while keeping in mind that the angle of attack factor reaches its limit at the stall angle of attack.
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130 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Stall Relationships
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Stall Relationships
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Stall Relationships
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Stall Relationships
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Stall Relationships
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Stall Relationships
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Stall Relationships
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Stall Relationships
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Takeoff and Climb Analysis Stall Relationships
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Takeoff and Climb Analysis Stall Relationships
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Takeoff and Climb Analysis Stall Relationships
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152 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Stall Relationships
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Stall Relationships
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156 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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157
Takeoff and Climb Analysis Airspeed vs. Angle of Attack
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158 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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159
Airspeed vs. Angle of Attack
Since a high angle of attack corresponds with low air-speed and vice versa, it is possible to maintain the correct approach speed using either reference. An advantage of us-ing angle of attack as a reference is that its approach value does not change with weight. A disadvantage is that turbu-lence can cause inappropriate autothrottle responses.
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160 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Airspeed vs. Angle of Attack
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162 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Airspeed vs. Angle of Attack
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164 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Airspeed vs. Angle of Attack
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166 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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167
Takeoff and Climb Analysis Airfoil Shape Effects on Lift
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168 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Airfoil Shape Effects on Lift
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170 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Airfoil Shape Effects on Lift
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Airfoil Shape Effects on Lift
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174 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Takeoff and Climb Analysis The Drag Equation
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176 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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The Drag Equation
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178 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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179
Takeoff and Climb Analysis Airfoil Shape Effect on Drag
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180 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Airfoil Shape Effect on Drag
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182 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Lift and Drag Combined - The L/D Ratio
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184 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Lift and Drag Combined - The L/D Ratio
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186 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Lift and Drag Combined - The L/D Ratio
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188 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Takeoff and Climb Analysis Propellers
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190 AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
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Propellers
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Propellers
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Propellers
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Takeoff and Climb Analysis Engine Characteristics
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Engine Characteristics
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Engine Characteristics
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Engine Characteristics
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Engine Characteristics
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Performance Airspeeds
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Performance Airspeeds
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Performance Airspeeds
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Note that on the following pages, the best performance conditions are found at the maximum or minimum points on the curve and the point where a line drawn from the origin is tangent to the curve.
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Performance Airspeeds
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Performance Airspeeds
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Performance Airspeeds
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Performance Airspeeds
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Performance Airspeeds
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Performance Airspeeds
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Performance Airspeeds
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Performance Airspeeds
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Performance Airspeeds
Although time and effort is needed to find the data de-scribed on the previous pages, no special equipment is re-quired. It is worth the effort to know exactly how an aircraft that you fly regularly really performs.
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Instrument Approach Profiles High Lift Devices
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High Lift Devices
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High Lift Devices
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High Lift Devices
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High Lift Devices
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High Lift Devices
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High Lift Devices
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High Lift Devices
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High Lift Devices
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High Lift Devices
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The computer program used in this example calculates Cessna 172 flight data for any combination of airspeed, flight path angle and flap setting.
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High Lift Devices
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High Lift Devices
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The use of flaps to slow down while maintaining a con-stant pitch attitude is the most common flap application. Since flaps are extended when the pilot intends to fly slower, it makes sense to utilized flap extension to aid the slowdown.
Extending flaps while pitching down to maintain a con-stant airspeed, thereby increasing the descent angle, is typi-cally used only during partial flap approaches to adjust a final approach that is too high.
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High Lift Devices
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Three Dimensional Aerodynamics
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Wing Shape Effects Three Dimensional Aerodynamics
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Landing Technique Wing Shape Effects Three Dimensional Aerodynamics
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Wake Turbulence
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Wake Turbulence
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Ground Effect
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Ground Effect
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Ground Effect
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Ground Effect
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Ground Effect
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Induced Drag
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Induced Drag
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Downwash changes the flow direction at the wing, thereby causing the lift to be tilted rearward. Lift now has a rearward component relative to the free stream direction. This rearward component of lift is called induced drag.
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Induced Drag
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It is important to note that the strongest wingtip vor-tices and their associated down wash occur at slow speeds. Since down wash is responsible for induced drag, it is great-est at slow speeds and is reduced as air speed increases and wing vortex and down wash strength decrease.
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Induced Drag
The above drag equation shows the induced and para-site contributions to total drag. Observe that induced drag is proportional to 1 / EAS2, while parasite drag is proportional to EAS2.
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Speed Stability
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Speed Stability
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In the speed stable region, airspeed tends to remain constant with no pilot action required. In the neutral speed stability region, any airspeed deviation tends to remain unless the pilot changes thrust to return the speed to its original value. In the speed unstable region, airspeed is con-stantly deviating from the desired value and the pilot must continuously work to return the speed to the correct value.
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Speed Stability
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Speed Stability
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Speed Stability
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Speed Stability
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Speed Stability
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Speed Stability
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Speed Stability
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In summary, light airplanes are typically in the speed stable region during approach, especially if operated at a higher than normal approach speed due to traffic considera-tions. Jet transports typically operate in the neutral speed stability region during approach, while fighters normally operate in the speed unstable region, especially during slow carrier approaches. If higher approach speeds are used dur-ing runway approaches, some fighters may operate in the speed neutral region.
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Wing Shape Effects
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Wing Shape Effects
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Wing Shape Effects
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Wing Shape Effects
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Wing Shape Effects
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Aircraft Type Differences
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Aircraft Type Differences
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Aircraft Type Differences
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Aircraft Type Differences
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Aircraft Type Differences
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Aircraft Type Differences
Additional landing comment: At slower airspeeds, where an increase in angle of at-tack results in a large drag increase with little increase in lift coefficient, raising the nose can cause a speed reduction that more than offsets the increase in lift coefficient, causing a lift reduction and an increase in the rate of descent rather than a decrease.
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Stability and Control
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Stability and Control
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Stability and Control
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Stability and Control
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Stability and Control
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Stability and Control
Authors note: Most of the remaining diagrams in this section are taken from Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators. Since they are excellent representations of the concepts involved and are in the public domain, I have chosen to add comments to them where appropriate rather than try to duplicate their classic qualities. Other diagrams from Professor Hurts text appear in this book for the same reason.
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Stability and Control
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Stability and Control
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Stability and Control
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Stability and Control
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Stability and Control
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Stability and Control
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Special Stability & Control Considerations
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Yaw Factors
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Yaw Factors
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Yaw Factors
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Yaw Factors
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Yaw Factors
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Special Comparisons
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Takeoff and Landing Performance
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Takeoff and Landing Performance
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The higher speeds required at increased weights and higher density altitudes affect both takeoff and landing. How-ever, decreased thrust at higher altitudes and increased mass at heavier weights greatly decrease takeoff acceleration. Thrust is not involved in landing distance calculations and heavier weights proportionately increase braking force. Therefore, take-off acceleration is strongly reduced by increased weights and higher density altitudes while landing deceleration is relatively unaffected. For this reason, takeoff distance is more strongly affected by increased weight and density altitude.
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Takeoff and Landing Performance
The worst case method involves computing the take-off distance based on the worst case conditions that you would normally encounter. If none of the worst case condi-tions are exceeded and the runway is adequate for this take-off distance, including an appropriate safety factor, then a takeoff performance data check has essentially been pre-pared and does not need to be done again. If any of the worst case conditions are exceeded, then a new takeoff per-formance data check must be performed.
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Short Field Landings
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Short Field Landings
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Tricycle vs. Tailwheel Airplanes
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Tricycle vs. Tailwheel Airplanes
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Tricycle vs. Tailwheel Airplanes
Takeoff description using the above corrections: Add significant right rudder pressure as takeoff power is added. Increase right rudder pressure as you begin to raise the tail. Then, re-duce the right rudder pressure after the tail is up. Slightly reduce the right rudder pressure at the beginning of rotation and increase right rud-der pressure as climb pitch attitude is established. Then, continue to hold significant right rudder pressure throughout the climb.
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Tricycle vs. Tailwheel Airplanes
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Tricycle vs. Tailwheel Airplanes
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Tricycle vs. Tailwheel Airplanes
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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When the tube area begins to constrict, pressure waves radiating at the speed of sound travel forward and accelerate the flow to a higher speed.
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
In supersonic flow, when the tube area begins to con-strict, pressure waves radiating at the speed of sound cannot travel forward to accelerate the flow, so the air molecules bunch up to a higher density and slow down.
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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As the supersonic speed of an object increases, the dis-turbances moving at the speed of sound cannot keep up with the source of the disturbances. They bunch up along a shock wave, which is at an angle to the flow. This shock wave is known as an oblique shock wave.
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
Although similar to subsonic flow, when supersonic flow moves into a larger volume, no change in direction occurs until the first expansion wave. Until this point, the flow does not know that a larger volume is approaching. The flow then changes smoothly across a series of expansion waves. The an-gle of the first expansion wave is determined by the initial flow conditions and the angle of the last expansion wave is deter-mined by the final flow conditions.
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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The changes that take place across shock and expan-sion waves are very complex. Changes are normally deter-mined by computer analysis or by tables such as these illus-trated here or graphs like those shown on the following pages.
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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Supersonic Aerodynamics
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Spaceflight Principles
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Spaceflight Principles
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Spaceflight Principles
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Spaceflight Principles
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The concept of escape velocity can be understood by imagining the throwing of a ball upward. The faster you throw it upward, the higher it goes. If you throw it fast enough, it will escape gravity and not come back. That speed is the escape velocity.
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Spaceflight Principles
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Spaceflight Principles
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Spaceflight Principles
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Spaceflight Principles
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Spaceflight Principles
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Spaceflight Principles
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Appendix
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Summary of Aerodynamic Facts
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Summary of Aerodynamic Facts
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NOTESNOTESNOTESNOTES
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AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES For PROFESSIONAL PILOTSINTRODUCTIONTable of Contents - 5Properties of the Atmosphere - 7Airspeed Measurement - 21Transonic Flight Characteristics - 35Aerdynamic Force Relationships - 47Slips and Skids - 85Adverse and Proverse Yaw - 99Subsonic Aerodynamics - 111The Lift Equation - 117Stall Relationships - 131Airspeed vs. Angle of Attack - 157Airfoil Shape Effects on Lift - 167
The Drag Equation - 175Airfoil Shape Effect on Drag - 178
Lift and Drag Combined - The L/D Ratio 183Proopellers - 188Engine Characteristics - 196Performance Airspeeds - 206High Lift Devices - 231UntitledThree Dimensional Aerodynamics - 257Wake Turbulence - 263Ground Effect 267Induced Drag - 277Speed Stability - 285Wing Shape Effects - 303Aircraft Type Differences - 313
Stability and Control - 325Yaw Factors - 351Takeoff and Landing Performance - 363Tricycle vs. Tailwheel Airplanes - 373Supersonic Aerodynamics - 385Spaceflight Principles - 411Summary of Aerodynamic Facts - 433
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