1
School Construction Strategiesfor Universal Primary Education in
Africa
I. Lessons Learned
2nd Africa Region Education Capacity Development Workshop“Country Leadership and Implementation for Results in the EFA-FTI Partnership”
Tunis, December 4, 2007
Serge Theunynck Sr. Implementation Specialist, The World Bank
2
Construction Needsfor EFA in 2015
To buildTo build 2 million classrooms2 million classrooms Offices/storagesOffices/storages Sanitation in all schools Sanitation in all schools
(today 55%)(today 55%) Water in all schools Water in all schools
(today 45%) (today 45%) Furniture for all Furniture for all
studentsstudents
To financeTo finance BetweenBetween
$ 23 billion$ 23 billion $ 30 billion$ 30 billion
depending on strategy depending on strategy
School construction in School construction in Africa will be the most Africa will be the most important single important single construction business in construction business in the worldthe world
3
Can Technology save cost?
Five main technologies have been Five main technologies have been implemented over the four last decadesimplemented over the four last decades
Modern TechnologyModern Technology Local materials Local materials SheltersShelters Industrialized Prefabrication Industrialized Prefabrication The “classic” school constructionThe “classic” school construction
4
Sophisticated Modern Construction(all countries 1960-70)
Procurement Approach Procurement Approach Large ContractorsLarge Contractors ICBICB
Expected ResultsExpected Results Large CapacityLarge Capacity Economies of ScaleEconomies of Scale Quality of WorksQuality of Works Simple ProceduresSimple Procedures
Actual ResultsActual Results Few Schools BuiltFew Schools Built Very High Costs : US$ Very High Costs : US$
500 per m500 per m22
No Local Development No Local Development Cumbersome Cumbersome
ProceduresProcedures
5
Local Materials( all countries 1970-80)
Approach Approach Test by NGOsTest by NGOs Scale Up by DonorsScale Up by Donors
Expected ResultsExpected Results Low CostsLow Costs Local Development Local Development Economy of cementEconomy of cement Community Community
appropriationappropriation Easy Scale UpEasy Scale Up
Actual ResultsActual Results No Cost SavingsNo Cost Savings Large Technical Large Technical
AssistanceAssistance No cement savingNo cement saving No appropriationNo appropriation Abandon Abandon
6
The Shelter(Few countries 1980-2000)
ApproachApproach Administration provides Administration provides
roof (ICB / NCB)roof (ICB / NCB) Communities complete Communities complete
buildingbuilding
Expected ResultsExpected Results Very low costVery low cost Quick implementationQuick implementation Community Community
appropriationappropriation Massive productionMassive production
Actual ResultsActual Results Very low cost (60%)Very low cost (60%) Quick implementationQuick implementation Second-class statusSecond-class status Abandon when pressure Abandon when pressure
decreasesdecreases
7
Industrialized Prefabrication(few countries 1970-80)
Approach Approach Off-site manufacturingOff-site manufacturing Large contracts Large contracts
Expected ResultsExpected Results Low costLow cost Quick constructionQuick construction Mass-productionMass-production Modernization of the Modernization of the
construction industryconstruction industry
Actual ResultsActual Results Higher cost that “classic”Higher cost that “classic” Long delaysLong delays Few schools builtFew schools built No contribution to local No contribution to local
development development AbandonAbandon
8
Industrialized-PrefabricationThe example of USA
2001 (the most industrialized country)
2 million enterprises (stable number since 1970)2 million enterprises (stable number since 1970) Majority of micro-contractorsMajority of micro-contractors Labor Intensive Industry Labor Intensive Industry
9
These Technologies have failed
Four technologies have proven failed to lower cost Four technologies have proven failed to lower cost
and / or scale upand / or scale up
Modern Technology : expensiveModern Technology : expensive Local materials: not replicable, no cost saving Local materials: not replicable, no cost saving Industrialized Prefab: not implementableIndustrialized Prefab: not implementable Shelters: second-class, not sustainedShelters: second-class, not sustained
And what ?And what ?
10
The “Classic” School Building (all countries 1980-2000)
ApproachApproach Modern non-sophisticated Modern non-sophisticated
technologytechnology Small / medium contractors Small / medium contractors
from formal / informal sector from formal / informal sector Procurement NCB / LCB / Procurement NCB / LCB /
NS)NS)
Expected ResultsExpected Results Technology known by local Technology known by local
contractorscontractors Quick implementationQuick implementation Massive productionMassive production Local development Local development Appropriation by Appropriation by
communitiescommunities
Actual ResultsActual Results Quality construction (acceptable Quality construction (acceptable
to good )to good ) Quick deliveryQuick delivery No limitation of production No limitation of production
capacitycapacity Local developmentLocal development The school plays a role model The school plays a role model
for low cost housingfor low cost housing Becomes the universal modelBecomes the universal model
11
Wide Range of Costs of the “Classic” model
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Proj 1 Proj 2 Proj 4 Proj 5 Proj 6 Proj 7 Proj 6 Proj 7
US$/m2
Example of unit costs achieved in one country by several projects
12
Why areSchool Construction Costs so
different What do We Know ?
The Implementation Arrangements
“WHO does WHAT, HOW and for HOW MUCH ?”
13
The Actorspublic private
Local commu-
nity
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
School commu-
nity
CBO
Local Governmt
Medium contractor
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
Small contractor
Local office
CMA/NGO
communities
Central Governmt
CMA or NGO
Large national
contractor c
entr
aliz
ed
governement semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector
Schoolbuilding
14
The 3 management approaches
1.1. Management by Public AdministrationsManagement by Public Administrations
2.2. Delegation of Management Delegation of Management
3.3. DecentralizationDecentralization
15
3 options3 options: :
ICBICB ICB combined with Community ICB combined with Community
Participation or Micro-EnterprisesParticipation or Micro-Enterprises NCBNCB
1. Management by MoE
16
1.1. Centralized Management with ICB
JustificationsJustifications Weak procurement Weak procurement
capacity capacity Limited construction Limited construction
industry capacity industry capacity Weak monitoring Weak monitoring
capacitycapacity
ResultsResults Cumbersome Cumbersome
proceduresprocedures High prices: US$15,000 High prices: US$15,000
to 30,000 per classroom to 30,000 per classroom Small quantitiesSmall quantities Long delaysLong delays
public private
builds the
subcontract school(often hidden procedure)
builds the
school
School institution
School commu-
nity
Local Governmt
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
c
entr
aliz
ed
semi-public and NGO sectors
Central Governmt
governement communities
ICB for large contract
Medium contractor
Small contractor
Large national
contractor
Local commu-
nity
private sector
dece
ntra
lized
Schoolbuilding
17
1.2 ICB with Community Participation
ExpectationsExpectations Cost saving on Cost saving on
materials and labormaterials and labor Community ownershipCommunity ownership
ResultsResults Too complexToo complex Cost savings : Cost savings :
Yes / ICBYes / ICB No / NCBNo / NCB
Long delays: Difficult Long delays: Difficult synchronizationsynchronization
Who? BF, Gambia, Who? BF, Gambia, Zambia, Senegal, Zambia, Senegal, Bangladesh Bangladesh
Scale up ? No: Abandoned.Scale up ? No: Abandoned.
public private
supply imported materials
mobilizes Schools
provides support
provides support to supervision
mobilizes the school community
dec
entr
aliz
edce
ntr
aliz
ed
ICB supply of imported materials
semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector
Local MediumGovernmt
contractor
Local commu-
nity
governement communities
Internat. supplier/
contractor
(institution)
Village/ neighbor-
-hood
School commu-
nityprovides
labor
Large national
contractor
School institution
Central Governmt
(MoE)
Schoolbuilding
18
1.3 Centralized Management With NCB ExpectationsExpectations
Reduce cost Reduce cost Use national contractors Use national contractors
(SME)(SME) Achieve larger scaleAchieve larger scale
ResultsResults CompetitionCompetition Cost-saving: US$/m2 180 Cost-saving: US$/m2 180
(44% cost saving/ ICB)(44% cost saving/ ICB) Increased but still limited Increased but still limited
capacity capacity Delivery delaysDelivery delays
All countries and almost all All countries and almost all donors with few exceptions donors with few exceptions
Scale-up: YesScale-up: Yes
public private
procures works through NCB
builds the
school
private sector communities
cent
raliz
ed
Central Governmt
(MoE)
governement semi-public and NGO sectors
Local Governmt
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
Local commu-
nity
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
School commu-
nity
Large national
contractor
Small
contractor
Medium contractor
Schoolbuilding
19
Procurement of school Construction by Administration
Shift from ICB to NCB
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
ICB before 1990
ICB after 1990
NCB after 1990
US$ per m2
20
To CMAs (AGETIPs)To CMAs (AGETIPs) To NGOsTo NGOs To Social FundsTo Social Funds
2. Delegation of Contract Management
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2.1 Delegation to CMAs (AGETIPs) ExpectationsExpectations
Compensate lack of Compensate lack of Administration’ capacityAdministration’ capacity
procurement capacity procurement capacity business opportunities business opportunities
for SMEsfor SMEs
ResultsResults Initial cost-saving vs. ICBInitial cost-saving vs. ICB No cost saving vs. NCB No cost saving vs. NCB
by admin.by admin. Capacity to deliver Capacity to deliver Often limited to urban Often limited to urban
areasareas
Who? Mostly Francophone Who? Mostly Francophone countries countries
Scale up: YesScale up: Yes
public private
Memoran dum
of Agree ment
contracts
works through
NCB executes the
works
School institutionde
cent
raliz
ed
Local Governmt
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
Local commu-
nity
Small contractor
Medium contractor
School commu-
nity
communities
Central Governmt
Contract
Managt
Agency
semi-public and NGO sectors
Large national
contractor
c
entr
aliz
ed
governement private sector
Schoolbuilding
22
2.2 Delegation to NGOs ExpectationsExpectations
community community participation/ownershipparticipation/ownership
costcost Compensate lack of local Compensate lack of local
const. industry capacityconst. industry capacity
ResultsResults Small cost-saving Small cost-saving
compared to NCBcompared to NCB Community participation Community participation
irregularirregular Substitute to local industry Substitute to local industry
= no sustain.= no sustain.
Who ? BF, Chad, Gambia, Who ? BF, Chad, Gambia, Guinea, Mali, Moz, Sen, Guinea, Mali, Moz, Sen,
Scale up ? NoScale up ? No
public private
Memoran dum
of Agree ment
mobilizes community to provide labor
provides
materials tools
technical assistance
and supervision
provides labor paid by NGO
provides
work
NGOLarge
national contractor
c
entr
aliz
ed
governement
Central Governmt
Local Governmt
Medium contractor
Small contrator
Individual worker
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
Local commu-
nity
School commu-
nity
communitiessemi-public and NGO sectors
private sector
Schoolbuilding
23
2.3 Delegation to Social Funds(when SF acts as CMA)
ExpectationsExpectations Demand-driven responseDemand-driven response Community empowermtCommunity empowermt costcost proc capacityproc capacity
ResultsResults No cost-saving compared No cost-saving compared
to centralized NCBto centralized NCB Limited com. empowermt Limited com. empowermt Large capacity (fragile Large capacity (fragile
states)states)
Who ? Angola, Ethiopia, Who ? Angola, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Burundi, Madagas. Eritrea, Burundi, Madagas.
Scale up ? YesScale up ? Yes
public private
Memoran dum
of Agree ment
contracts
works through NCB or
3-quotations expresses
needs
executes contributesthe works to the works
semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector
Social Fund
Large national
contractor
School commu-
nity
Medium contractor
communities
Small contractor
Local commu-
nity
c
entr
aliz
ed
governement
Central Governmt
Local Governmt
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
Schoolbuilding
24
2.4 Delegation of Contract Management
050
100150
200250
300350
ICB (admin)
NCB (admin)
CMA (AGETIP)
NGOs (cont. orCMA)
SocialFunds as
CMA
US$ per m2
25
To lower levels of To lower levels of AdministrationAdministration
To Local GovernmentsTo Local Governments To CommunitiesTo Communities
3. Decentralisation of Contract Management
26
3.1 Delegation to Local MoE Offices(acting by themselves) ExpectationsExpectations
Smaller contractsSmaller contracts Increased competitionIncreased competition Procurement closer to Procurement closer to
beneficiaries (reduce beneficiaries (reduce corruptioncorruption))
ResultsResults Cost: mixed results Cost: mixed results Average cost similar NCBAverage cost similar NCB Low efficiency: long Low efficiency: long
delaysdelays Neglect of educational Neglect of educational
mandatesmandates
Who ? BF, Mozambique, Who ? BF, Mozambique, Madag (+), Ethiopia, Guinea Madag (+), Ethiopia, Guinea (-)(-)
Scale up ? NoScale up ? No
public private
delegates implementation responsibility
procures works through NCB
executes the works
Small
contractor
governement semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector
cent
raliz
ed
Local Governmt
Local Office of
MoE
Large national
contractor
Central Governmt
(MoE)
communities
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
Medium contractor
Local commu-
nity
dece
ntra
lized
School commu-
nity
School institution
Schoolbuilding
27
3.2 Delegation to Local Governments(acting by themselves) ExpectationsExpectations
Smaller contractsSmaller contracts Increased competitionIncreased competition Procurement closer to Procurement closer to
beneficiaries (reduce beneficiaries (reduce corruptioncorruption))
ResultsResults Cost: mixed results Cost: mixed results Average cost similar NCBAverage cost similar NCB Low efficiency: long Low efficiency: long
delaysdelays Neglect of educational Neglect of educational
mandatesmandates
Who ? BF, Mozambique, Who ? BF, Mozambique, Madag (+), Ethiopia, Guinea Madag (+), Ethiopia, Guinea (-)(-)
Scale up ? NoScale up ? No
public private
Fiscal Transfer
procures work through NCB expresses needs
executesworks
c
entr
aliz
ed
governement semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector communities
Central Governmt
Large national
contractor
Local Governmt
Medium contractor
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
Small contractor
Local commu-
nity
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
School commu-
nity
Schoolbuilding
28
Delegation to MoE Local Officesor Local Governments (acting by themselves of through CMA)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
ICB (admin)
NCB (admin)
CMA (AGETIP)
NGOs (cont. orCMA)
Local OffMoE/ Admin
LG (self orCMA)
US$ per m2
29
These delegations have expanded capacitybut not saved costs
2.1 : CMAs NCB2.1 : CMAs NCB 2.2 : NGOs themselves2.2 : NGOs themselves 2.3 : SFs NCB2.3 : SFs NCB 3.1 : LL of MoE NCB3.1 : LL of MoE NCB 3.2 : LGs NCB3.2 : LGs NCB
And So What ?And So What ?
30
4. Delegation toCommunities
1 : MoE communities1 : MoE communities 2.1 : CMAs 2.1 : CMAs 2.2 : NGOs communities2.2 : NGOs communities 2.3 : SFs communities2.3 : SFs communities 3.1 : LL of MoE communities3.1 : LL of MoE communities 3.2 : LGs communities3.2 : LGs communities
31
4.1 Direct delegation by MoE to Communities
ExpectationsExpectations Demand-driven responsesDemand-driven responses Community Empowerment Community Empowerment
procurement / fin. managt)procurement / fin. managt) Local developmentLocal development
ResultsResults High cost-saving (60%/ICB, High cost-saving (60%/ICB,
35% / NCB) 35% / NCB) Large capacity Large capacity Community ownership on Community ownership on
schoolschool
Who ? Mauritania, India, Laos Who ? Mauritania, India, Laos (IDA) Uganda, Zambia, Ghana (IDA) Uganda, Zambia, Ghana (MPP)(MPP)
Scale up ? YesScale up ? Yes
public private
signs school
Financing community Agreement requests
with CBO financing for the for its construction school of the project
school
executes procures providesworks works support
contributes to work
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
Small contractor
Local commu-
nity
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
School commu-
nity
Central Governmt
(MoE)
Large national
contractor
Local Governmt
Medium contractor
governement semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector communities
c
entr
aliz
ed
Schoolbuilding
32
4.1 Delegation to Communities
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
ICB (admin)
NCB (admin)
CMA (AGETIP)
NGOs (cont. orCMA)
Local OffMoE/ Admin
LG (self orCMA)
commu nities
US$ per m2
33
4.2 Delegation by NGOsto Communities
public private
Memoran dum
of Agree ment
mobilizes community to provide labor
provides
materials tools
technical assistance
and supervision
provides labor paid by NGO
provides
work
NGOLarge
national contractor
c
entr
aliz
ed
governement
Central Governmt
Local Governmt
Medium contractor
Small contrator
Individual worker
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
Local commu-
nity
School commu-
nity
communitiessemi-public and NGO sectors
private sector
Schoolbuilding
public
Memoran dum of Agree ment
Financial Agreement for sub-project
procures contract
executes
the works
Local commu-
nity
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
School commu-
nity
supe
rvis
ion
Local worker
Local Governmt
Medium contractor
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
Small contractor
private
c
entr
aliz
ed
governement semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector communities
Central Governmt
NGOLarge
national contractor
Schoolbuilding
34
4.2 Construction by NGOs the 3 approaches
NGO as contractor : no NGO as contractor : no cost saving / NCBcost saving / NCB
NGO as CMA : no cost NGO as CMA : no cost saving / NCBsaving / NCB
NGO delegate to NGO delegate to communities = cost communities = cost saving saving 0
20406080
100120140160
NGO as contractor NGO as CMA
NGO delegate tocommunities
US$ per m2
Who?Burkina ChadGambiaGuineaMozambiqueSenegal
Who?MaliGuinea
Who?BurkinaGhana
35
4.3 Delegation by Social Fundsto Communities
public private
Memoran dum
of Agree ment
contracts
works
through
NCB or 3-quotations expresses
needs
executes contributes
the works to the works
semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector
Social Fund
Large national
contractor
School commu-
nity
Medium contractor
communities
Small contractor
Local commu-
nity
c
entr
aliz
ed
governement
Central Governmt
Local Governmt
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
Schoolbuilding
public private
Memoran dum
of Agree ment
signs
financing agreement with
community and finances expresses
community needs
contracts works
executes contributesthe works to the works
c
entr
aliz
ed
governement semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector communities
Central Governmt
Social Fund
Large national
contractor
Local Governmt
Medium contractor
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
Small contractor
Local commu-
nity
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
School commu-
nity
Schoolbuilding
Direct procurement Delegation to Communities
36
4.3 Social Funds Social Funds act as Social Funds act as
CMAsCMAs
Who ? Angola, Ethiopia, Who ? Angola, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Burundi, Eritrea, Burundi, MadagascarMadagascar
Scale up ? YesScale up ? Yes
0
50
100
150
200
Social Funds acting as CMAs
Other agencies, NCB, same countries
US$/m2
Social Funds delegate Social Funds delegate to communitiesto communities
Who ? Benin, Malawi, Who ? Benin, Malawi, Senegal, ZambiaSenegal, Zambia
Scale up ? yesScale up ? yes
020406080
100120140
Social Funds delegate to
communities
Other agencies though NCB
(same countries)
US$/m2
37
4.4 Delegation by Local Governmentsto Communities (the CDD approach)Direct procurement Delegation to
Communitiespublic private
Fiscal Transfer
procures work through NCB expresses needs
executesworks
c
entr
aliz
ed
governement semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector communities
Central Governmt
Large national
contractor
Local Governmt
Medium contractor
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
Small contractor
Local commu-
nity
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
School commu-
nity
Schoolbuilding
public private
Fiscal Transfer
expresses needs
Finances Community SubProject
contract works
executes contributesthe works to the works
Village/ neighbor-
hood institution
Small contractor
Local commu-
nity
dece
ntra
lized
School institution
School commu-
nity
Central Governmt
Large national
contractor
Local Governmt
Medium contractor
governement semi-public and NGO sectors
private sector communities
c
entr
aliz
ed
SchoolbuildingSchoolbuilding
38
4.4 Delegation to Local Governments : the 3 approaches
LGs procure by LGs procure by themselves: no cost themselves: no cost saving / NCBsaving / NCB
LGs procure through LGs procure through CMA : no cost saving / CMA : no cost saving / NCBNCB
LGs delegate to LGs delegate to communities = cost communities = cost saving saving
0
50
100
150
200
250
LGs by themselves
LGs through CMA
LGs delegate to communities
US$ per m2
Who?GhanaGuineaMadagascarRwandaSenegal
Who?MauritaniaSenegal
Who?BeninGhanaUganda
39
4.5 Delegation to Communities (Whoever Delegates) and Other Agencies
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
ICB (admin)
NCB (admin)
CMA (AGETIP)
NGOs (cont. orCMA)
Local OffMoE/ Admin
LG (self orCMA)
commu nities
US$ per m2
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