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Marcela Caete
Felipe A. Real H.
Professor Paula Ross
Applied Linguistics & Communication LET1723-1
25 June 2007
Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition: A Research on Oxfords Taxonomy
Introduction
Inside the vast array of study fields with which Applied Linguistics interacts, Second
Language Acquisition (SLA) has been a phenomenon of the utmost importance on the last thirty
years. Now, a variety of external factors such as teachers, textbooks or the learners group,
plus the determinant factor of the learner characteristicsaffect directly the way in which
Second Language (L2) is acquired. These characteristics, which include age, gender, aptitude,
motivation and strategies, can be different in each subject and vary accordingly.
Now, amongst this multitude of L2 learning phenomena, Learning Strategies have proved
to be one of the most difficultbut at the same timemost enlightening and enlivening field of
expertise within SLA framework. This is an easily demonstrable fact, from the numerous amount
of research that has put their attention on the strategies themselvesand more importantlyon
the consequences for language learners derived from their use. Furthermore, all Learning
Strategies taxonomies have been strongly argued, because of the implicit learning theories that
they involvedand the possible consequences of one or anothers acceptance.
This can be seen on the debate that followed Oxfords six category taxonomy and the
appropriate instrument publication, from 1990 to nowadays. As a result, researchers have been
arguing for or against Oxfords work, through multiple studies and methodologies.
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Consequently, this research will try to inquire on this fascinating area inasmuch as the data
obtained on English Letters Major First Year Students allows. In order to do this, Oxfords
taxonomy and her Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (S.I.L.L.) instrument will be used,
subsequently using the data obtained to perform a regression analysis with Students results on
the ALTE 2 Test.
Finally, this research paper is structured as the following: the Introduction that you have
already read, the Theoretical Framework on which this research is based, the Methodology of the
study, the Analysis of the data obtained and the Conclusions and Projections that result form it.
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Theoretical Framework
The study of Second Language Acquisition Learning (SLA) is defined by Kramsch in her
article A New Field of Research: SLA-Applied Linguistics as the systematic exploration of
the conditions that make the acquisition of a foreign language possible, both in natural and in
instructional setting. (1.978). In studying the L2 acquisition phenomenon during the last thirty
years, a great emphasis has been made on studying the differences between the so-called
effective learners those who perform well in tests or examination and those whose
performances are not that good. Moreover, Oxford and Hsiao comment the increasing popularity
of one individual-difference variable L2 Learning Strategies amongst researchers (Chamot,
Barnhardt, El-Dinary and Robbins, Cohen, Hsiao, MacIntyre and Noels, Oxford and Cohen)
interested in the language learning process (368). Consequently, much scrutiny has been done in
this particular field of expertise, in search for a taxonomy that appropriately reflects the results
obtained through data and furthermore, that helps researchers and teachers to advocate for faster
and better foreign language learning processes.
Nevertheless, SLA scholars do not agree in the definition of L2 Learning Strategies nor in
which taxonomy fits the empirical evidence accordingly. This disagreement is presented by
various authors, such as Bruen, Kramsch, Oxford and Hsiao, Rivers and Tseng et al., in their
own studies theoretical frameworks. However, Oxford six-category allotment (1990) has
outshone other L2 learning theories because it has proved consistent with experimental evidence
(Bruen, Rivers). This ordering includes:
Cognitive strategies involve identifying, retaining, storing and retrieving words, phrases
and other elements of the second language. Metacognitive strategies, on the other hand, allow
learners to control their own cognition by coordinating the planning, organizing and evaluation
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of the learning process. Socialstrategies include actions taken to interact with others through the
target language while affective strategies serve to regulate emotions, motivation and attitudes.
Memory-related strategies help to commit material to memory and finally compensatory
strategies include all of those that help to make up for gaps in knowledge.(Bruen, 159) [our
emphasis]
In contrast, whilst this sorting is theoretically arguable, its most noticeable repercussion is
the famous Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) that is described by Bruen as one
of the most widely used and comprehensive strategy questionnaires currently available. (158)
This instrument has been used in various studies including those that have came to fruition by
Bruen, Rivers and furthermore, it was demonstrated to be statistically reliable by Hsiao and
Oxford confirmatory factor analysis.
In addition to the abovementioned, one of the more relevant aspects of L2 Learning
Strategies is the construction of learner autonomy. This can be comprehensively defined as: (a)
willingness to perform a language task with little or no assistance, with flexibility according to
the situation, and with transferability to other contexts; and (b) relevant action, including the use
of appropriate L2 learning strategies for accomplishing the task. (Oxford and Hsiao, 369) This
consequence has been thoroughly analyzed in Rivers study Autonomy at All Costs: An
Ethnography of Metacognitive Self-Assessment and Self-Management among Experienced
Language Learners and has been concluded to be related to the metacognitive category of the
learning strategies proposed by Oxford.
In opposition to the previously stated, Wen-Ta Tseng, Zoltn Drnyei and Norbert
Schmitt have proposed a new approach to study strategic learning. In their study A New
Approach to Assessing Strategic Learning: The Case of Self-Regulation in Vocabulary
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Acquisition they affirm that a series of problems [have] weaken the theoretical basis (78) of
L2 Learning Strategies studies. Amidst these problems, they identify as a one of crucial
importance the psychometric properties of the assessment instruments used. (78) For that
reason, they strongly criticized Oxfords SILL questionnaire because [its] scale descriptors
indicate frequencies of strategy use which results in behavioural items that [cannot lead to]
linear relationship between individual items scores and the total scores. (83) As shown, the
SILL scores are not cumulative and therefore, cannot be computed into mean scale scores. In
summary, the SILL could possibly lead us to a contradiction with language learning theories; i.e.
that extensive and vary learning strategies are better than few but intensive ones. This conclusion
that is the theoretical basis for Tseng et alstudy is absolutely refutable. First, because the
SILL Data Analysis always correspond to the researcher as in any investigationand the
conclusions extracted from it must be carefully considered beforehand. Secondly, because the
fact that an experienced learner has a large number of learning strategies doesnt necessarily
mean that they are shallow or not intensive and thirdly and the most important of all
because all factual evidence in the last fifteen years have proved congruous with Oxfords
survey, in spite of the fact that educational psychologists have abandoned this research area
which is another strong argument against SILL proposed by Tseng et al.
In conclusion, as a result of all the experimental evidence presented, this study will
uphold for Oxfords taxonomy and her SILL questionnaire a self-respond instrument that
consists of 50 questions related to Oxfords six-category distribution. All the data gathered will
then be analyzed through a regression that will correlate the 2007 English Language I Students
results on the ALTE 2 Test, with their answers to the SILL examination for students of English
as a second or foreign language. Finally, that inquiry will allow us to determine the significance
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and value of the coefficients factors that statistically give us relevant information so to
conclude whether the learning strategies are determinant or not in the achievement of better
academic results.
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Methodology
SUBJECTS AND THEIR BACKGROUND
16 Chilean students aged between 17 and 19-years-old participated in this research. They
were 14 women ands 2 men, all native speakers of Chilean Spanish. They all have a prior general
knowledge of the English Language, as consequence of their studies in secondary and high
school or what they have learned via mass media, prior attending to university.
They had completed their first semester (consisting of 16 weeks) at the university
studying English at an intermediate level (7 modules per week; i.e. 9 hours and 20 minutes plus 2
modules of English Grammar, i.e., 2 hours and 40 minutes) They also have oral activities, one
module per week of Speaking i.e. hour and 20 minutes. This module consists in conversations
and discussions about relevant current issues. They have also had to go through ALTE 2 Test,
which measures the students knowledge of English. The test includes reading comprehension,
grammar and writing skills.
They all have never been informed about learning strategies and in general they have
never heard about them when they answered the questionnaire.
S.I.L.L. INSTRUMENT
The S.I.L.L.developed by Rebecca Oxfordmeasures the levels and types of strategic
activity on language learners. It is based on Oxfords classification of learning strategies into 6
groups, named metacognitive, cognitive, social, affective, memory-related and compensatory. It
consists in 50 questions and was developed for learners of English as L2. The questionnaire
requires the subject to rate on a scale of five steps how true each statement is for them. The
levels are: 1 Never or almost never true of me, 2 Usually not true for me, 3 Somewhat true
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of me, 4 Usually true of me and 5 Always or almost always true of me. In the survey itself,
Questions 1 to 9 (Part A) concern memory-related strategies, whilst Questions 10 to 23 (Part B)
are related to cognitive strategies. Questions 24 to 29 (Part C) regard compensatory strategies
and Questions 30 to 38 (Part D) pertain to metacognitive strategies. Finally, Questions 39 to 44
(Part E) involve affective strategies and Questions 45 to 50 (Part F) are referred to social
strategies.
PROCEDURE
The students completed the S.I.L.L in week 16 of the semester (June 2007). The
questionnaire was completed during class time, in the first half hour of the first module. They
were told that results would be used for research purposes only. The questionnaire took each
student approximately thirty minutes to finish it. The results of the ALTE 2 Test were published
on University website and are accessible through the Nmero de Alumno that was willingly
provided by students themselves.
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Analysis
Thanks to the linear regression analysis developed by SPSS for Windows from the
Inputcomposed by S.I.L.L. questionnaire results and the ALTE 2 Test Results the following
statistic reality was obtained (all the results are expressed in percentages).
Chart 1: Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation
ALTE 2 Test Results ,7894 ,14704
Memory-Related Strategies,6075 ,10376
Cognitive Strategies ,7031 ,10867
Compensatory Strategies ,6394 ,11750
Metacognitive Strategies ,7087 ,11690
Affective Strategies ,6481 ,07609
Social Strategies ,7763 ,13460
This chart shows the mean-for both the dependent and the independent variables- and
their respective standard deviations, for n=16. In this sense, the students' mean qualitative
measure is always greater than 60 per cent of achievement, along with a standard deviation that
reveals that this achievement percentage will not fall beyond a 40, including the 95.54
percentage of the cross-section. Now, regarding ALTE 2 Test results, the mean is roughly a 79
per cent whilst standard deviation shows that 95.54 percentage of the cross-section is above 50
per cent of achievement.
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Chart 2: Coefficients
UnstandardizedCoefficients
StandardizedCoefficients
t-statistic CollinearityStatistic
p-value
VariableLabel
VariableName B Std. Error Beta VIF Sig.
(Constant) 1,436 ,457 3,140 ,012
Memory-RelatedStrategies
1
-,848 ,710 -,598 -1,1943,309861
,263
CognitiveStrategies
2
,569 ,515 ,421 1,1061,909337
,298
CompensatoryStrategies 3
-,065 ,393 -,052 -,1651,301264
,873
MetacognitiveStrategies 4
,030 ,604 ,024 ,0503,046805
,961
AffectiveStrategies 5
-,469 ,613 -,243 -,764
1,329452,464
SocialStrategies 6
-,267 ,367 -,245 -,7281,486799
,485
a) Dependent Variable: ALTE 2 Test Results
Chart 2 describes regression analysis results. From the coefficients encountered, the
model can be expressed in the following equation
++= 654321 267.0469.0030.0065.0569.0848.0436.1y
In this case, the first noticeable characteristic of this study is the correlation between
meaningful variables and the dependent variable. As it can be seen above, memory-related,
affective, social and compensatory strategies have been found to be negatively correlated with
the independent variable. Hence, it can be deducted that it is not a determinant factor to have
learning strategies to obtain better academic results. Also, it is possible to state that a student
with metacognitive or cognitive strategies will achieve a better result in the ALTE examination
that one without these ones, but with one or more of the aforementioned negative variables. This
is directly related to the positive weight of the model's constant
In contrast, the VIF's results within the range of 1 to 5, suggests the existence of
moderate multicollinearity between meaningful variables. This is a sign of the impossibility of
separating one learning strategy form another on the overall effect produced on the learner's
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results. As a result, the coefficients can be mixed up inasmuch as the adjacent nature of the
boundaries between learning strategies.
Meanwhile, the significance of the modeldetermined by a t-statistic smaller than
1.96allows us to say that the model is not significant at a 95 per cent. This is even more clearly
affirmed by the p-value grater than 0.05. In brief words, the meaningful variables-from 1 to 6
are not significant.
On the contrary, the constant of the model has a t-statistic equal to 3.140 and a p-value of
0.012. This result indicates that the model is almost entirely explained by the existence of the
constant and therefore, the meaningful variables selected are not sufficient to explain the
dependent variable's behavior.
The constant include in any model has the purpose of explaining the effect produced by
other meaningful variables not included in the model. In this case, we could infer that the
constant encompasses aspects such as students' aptitude, previous experience on the English
Language, Motivation and other learner characteristics, which could possibly explain better the
dependent variable than the learning strategies, chosen to be inquired on this research. This can
be seen through the R-square parameterthat measures the significance of the model as a
wholeand that vary between 0 and 1. The closest this value gets to 0, the less relationship
between dependant and meaningful variables exist. Now, since the increase on the amount of
meaningful variables affects this measurement, it should be considered the adjusted value for this
parameter, which in this case is negative. In conclusion, it can be affirmed that there is no true,
statistic relationship between the dependant variableALTE 2 Test Resultsand the
meaningful variableslearning strategies according to Oxfords S.I.L.L. instrument present
on this research.
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Table 3: Model Summary
a) Predictors: (Constant), Social Strategies, Affective Strategies, Memory-Related Strategies, CompensatoryStrategies, Cognitive Strategies, Metacognitive Strategiesb) Dependent Variable: ALTE 2 Test Results
Model R
R
Square
AdjustedR
Square
Std. Errorof the
Estimate
Change Statistics
Durbin-
Watson
RSquare
Change
F
Change df1 df2
Sig. F
Change1 ,564(a) ,318 -,137 ,15679 ,318 ,699 6 9 ,658 ,488
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Conclusions
As a result of the analysis previously developed, it can be concluded that:
Oxfords S.I.L.L. instrument does not reflect the reality as well as it was thought. Indeed,
the dataand the analysis made from it show that Drnyei et. al. critics were well-
based. This is especially clear from the negative relationships that relate 4 of the 6
Oxfords learning strategies categories with the academic measurement.
Considering that, it is an obvious inference that Oxfords taxonomy of L2 Learning
Strategies is not as accurate as it was supposed to be. To illustrate this, it is only
necessary to analyze the significance of the experiments constant. In other words, that
the variables not considered in this experimentand that are supposed to be in a ceteris
paribus state were more determinant in the academic results that the variables studied.
Nonetheless, it is interesting to notice that the only 2 variables that were positively
related to the academic results are the ones which have been acknowledged as the most
important of Oxfords allotment. These are cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Thus,
we can conclude that these variables have still proved to be important in the SLA area.
Finally, it is highlight that these outcomes lead to advocate for a new approachas it was
proposed by Drnyei et. al.to develop the language learning field of expertise.
In brief, it is nevertheless considerable to remember that this research can have suffered
from many structural problem; i.e. that the data obtained can have been not properly
isolated, producing therefore a non-realistic study and conclusions.
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Projections
From the conclusions obtained in this research, we can project that:
A lot of research must be done in SLA, especially studies that focus on Native
Spanish speakers whom are learning English as a L2. Besides that, this field of
expertise must be considered as a foundation for English language classes, so to help
learners to develop a better and faster learning processes.
A broader spectrum study could be done with English Language I students, to relate
their marks on the course with these types of questionnaires, during a larger period of
time and accompanied by personal surveys that allow the researchers to avoid the
intromission of non-desirable variables in their studies.
More research could be done on the New Approaches to language learning, such as
the one proposed by Drnyei et. al., to develop comparative studies afterwards
between New and Old Theories, so to conclude on guidelines that could lead
language learning research and orientation to learners in the future.
In summary, it is important to advocate for more research on L2 learning strategies,
insofar as they can improve learners experiences and language learning processes.
Nowadays, this issue is not less considerable, as a result of the burgeoning interest on
learning foreign languages in our country.
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Works Cited
Bruen, Jennifer. The Parallel Development of Oral Proficiency and Use of Language Learning
Strategies Die Unterrichtspraxis / Teaching German 34, 2. (158-168) 7 June 2007
Drnyei Zoltn, Schmitt Norbert and Tseng Wen-Ta. A New Approach to Assessing Strategic
Learning: The Case of Self-Regulation in Vocabulary Acquisition Applied Linguistics.
27, 1 (78-102) 7 June 2007
Hsiao, Tsung-Yuan and Oxford, Rebecca L. Comparing Theories of Language Learning
Strategies: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis The Modern Language Journal 86, 3 (368-
383) 7 June 2007
Kramsch, Claire. A New Field of Research: SLA-Applied Linguistics. PMLA 115, 7. Special
Millennium Issue.Dec., 2000. (1978-1980) 7 June 2007
Rivers, William P. Autonomy at All Costs: An Ethnography of Metacognitive Self-Assessment
and Self-Management among Experienced Language Learners. The Modern Language
Journal 85, 2 (279-290) 7 June 2007
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