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Jon A. Schmidt, PE, SECB
Associate Structural Engineer
Burns & McDonnell
Kansas City, MO
The Decline ofEngineering Judgment
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SummaryTrends in Western Culture
Philosophy, History, SocietyThe Nature of Engineering Practice
Knowledge, Rationality, JudgmentConsequences for the Profession
Social, Technical, Ethical
Introduction
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Principle of Sufficient Reason (Leibniz/Goldman)Intellect, reality, knowledge, truth, certaintyObjectivity, universal, absolute, necessaryAbstract, theory, contemplation, understandingPrediction, unique, closed, timeless
Principle of Insufficient Reason (Goldman)Will, experience, belief, opinion, probabilitySubjectivity, particular, relative, contingentConcrete, practice, action, useAnticipation, plural, open-ended, historical
Western Philosophy
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Sufficient vs. Insufficient Reason (Goldman)Science vs. engineeringPlato vs. SophistsPure reason vs. pragmatic actionIdeal solution vs. making tradeoffsKnowing vs. willing
Western Philosophy
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Western PhilosophyKinds of knowledge (Aristotle)
EpistemeTechnePhronesis
Forms of human activity (Aristotle)Theoria = contemplation/thinkingPoiesis = production/makingPraxis = (inter)action/doing
= theoretical knowledge= technical rationality= practical judgment
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Western PhilosophyTheoretical Knowledge
Propositional
Eternal Truth
Conceptual Beliefs
Facts
Understanding
Intelligent
Evidence
Data
Mental
Memory
Student
Instructing
Technical Rationality
Procedural
External Success
Instrumental Abilities
Proficiencies
Skill
Competent
Method
Rules
Physical
Habits
Apprentice
Training
Practical Judgment
Personal
Internal Integrity
Ethical Dispositions
Virtues
Wisdom
Prudent
Intuition
Experiences
Social
Conscience
Disciple
Mentoring
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Western HistoryTheoretical Knowledge
Technical Rationality
Practical Judgment
Propositional Procedural Personal
Eternal Truth External Success Internal Integrity
Conceptual Beliefs
Instrumental Abilities
Ethical Dispositions
Facts Proficiencies Virtues
Understanding Skill Wisdom
Intelligent Competent Prudent
Evidence Method Intuition
Data Rules Experiences
Mental Physical Social
Memory Habits Conscience
Student Apprentice Disciple
Instructing Training Mentoring
Theoretical Knowledge
Technical Rationality
Practical Judgment
Propositional Procedural Personal
Eternal Truth External Success Internal Integrity
Conceptual Beliefs
Instrumental Abilities
Ethical Dispositions
Facts Proficiencies Virtues
Understanding Skill Wisdom
Intelligent Competent Prudent
Evidence Method Intuition
Data Rules Experiences
Mental Physical Social
Memory Habits Conscience
Student Apprentice Disciple
Instructing Training Mentoring
Theoretical Knowledge
Technical Rationality
Practical Judgment
Propositional Procedural Personal
Eternal Truth External Success Internal Integrity
Conceptual Beliefs
Instrumental Abilities
Ethical Dispositions
Facts Proficiencies Virtues
Understanding Skill Wisdom
Intelligent Competent Prudent
Evidence Method Intuition
Data Rules Experiences
Mental Physical Social
Memory Habits Conscience
Student Apprentice Disciple
Instructing Training Mentoring
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The Great Reversal (Tabachnick)Plato’s “kingly techne” vs. Aristotle’s
“phronetic rule”Augustine: “prudence of flesh” vs. “prudence
of spirit”Aquinas: top-down conscience vs. bottom-up
phronesisMachiavelli: politics as techne for strong
rulersHobbes: natural laws vs. fallible human
guessesEnlightenment: purge any and all irrational
elementsKant: universal principles vs. experience
Western History
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Back to the Rough Ground (Dunne)Knowledge-how is aligned with knowledge-that
Theory loses contemplative aspirationScientific information contains technical
imperativesTechnical rationality is treated as value-neutral
Efficiency and economy are embedded valuesPrivileged status due to seeming coincidence with
structure of rationality itselfHegemony of techne
“It is no longer seen as a form of rationality, with its own limited sphere of validity, but as coincident with rationality as such.”
Western Society
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Consolations of Techne (Moore)Problem: “the delusory fantasy … that,
through technology, we will finally be able to overcome the challenges which we face.”“Easy access to information can corrupt us. When
I can always look it up, I have no reason to learn it.”
“The analysis or critique of work principally becomes the analysis of whether proper procedure was followed.”
Solution: “pursue the difficult prudence of phronesis while resisting the all-inclusive allure of techne.”“One cannot repair one’s marriage in the same way
that one repairs one’s computer.”
Western Society
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Practical Wisdom (Schwartz and Sharpe)Psychology and cognitive scienceRules and incentives vs. discretion and
judgmentDoctors: health care costs vs. qualityLawyers: client advocacy vs. justiceTeachers: standardized test scores vs.
educationEngineers?
Western Society
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Categories (Vincenti)Fundamental design conceptsCriteria and specificationsTheoretical toolsQuantitative dataPractical considerationsDesign instrumentalities
Engineering Knowledge
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Application (Bailey and Gainsburg)Fundamental design conceptsCriteria and specifications
Structural systems criteriaAppropriate structural elements
Theoretical toolsQuantitative dataPractical considerations
Rules of thumb and estimatesConstruction feasibility and ease
Design instrumentalitiesOrganization of workEngineering politics
Engineering Knowledge
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Findings (Bailey and Gainsburg)Schematic design, design development, and
contract documents phases are dominated by design instrumentalities, appropriate structural elements, and fundamental design concepts
Engineering politics increases over time and is most common during construction
Most EK is technical and some is procedural; relatively little is social, visual, or financial
More than 70% of structural EK across all phases is practice-generated, rather than historically established
Engineering Knowledge
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Knowledge-That vs. Knowledge-HowTheoretical vs. practicalAimed at truth vs. successManifested in words vs. actionsPossessed by someone who is informed vs.
skilledLacking in someone who is ignorant vs.
incompetentIn each case, which is more applicable to
engineering?
Engineering Knowledge
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PerceptionRational solution of technical problems
RealityEngineering problems often ill-structured or
“wicked”No definitive answers from following rigid
rulesEngineers must define problems before solving
themRationality vs. intentionality
Engineering Rationality
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Engineering Method (Koen)Strategy for creating best change in poorly
understood situation within available resourcesUse of heuristics – anything that provides
plausible aid or direction in solution of problem but is in final analysis unjustified, incapable of justification, and potentially fallible
Engineering Rationality
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Design Procedures (Addis)Inputs: knowledge(-that), experience
(knowledge-how)Constraints: client requirements, costs, time,
codes and standards, construction methodsOutputs: description (drawings and
specifications), justification (calculations)Nature: not deterministic; different DPs can
lead to similar structures, similar DPs can lead to significantly different structures
Engineering Rationality
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ModelsSupposed to capture important aspects of
realityAbstraction – neglecting certain aspects in
order to gain better understanding of remaining aspects
Idealization – replacing complicated aspects with simplified versions
Approximate representations serving as epistemic tools
Analysis is straightforward, but construction is an art
Informed by designer’s unique way of “seeing” structure
Two different models can produce different results, yet both be “correct”
Engineering Rationality
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Types of Inference (Peirce)Abduction – creative hypothesisDeduction – deterministic analysisInduction – experiential synthesisCycle repeats, which develops …
Engineering Rationality
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Definition (Davis)Disposition (including ability) to act as
competent members of the discipline actMore than just knowledge-that or even
knowledge-howEmbodiment of high likelihood of making
certain decisions in appropriate way at appropriate time
Neither arbitrary nor algorithmicDiscipline-specific form of phronesis?
Engineering Judgment
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Dreyfus Model of Skill AcquisitionNovice – complies with strict rules based on
context-free features of task environmentAdvanced Beginner – recognizes situational
aspects and follows maxims to adjust actions accordingly
Competent Performer – selects plan, goal, or perspective for establishing which elements are relevant
Proficient Performer – sees what needs to be done and then chooses how to go about doing it
Expert – intuitively perceives both what needs to be done and how to do it
Engineering Judgment
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Dreyfus Model – ObservationsAdvancement is only possible by means of
experienceHigher levels are characterized by less rational
deliberation and greater emotional involvementExperts revert to novice and advanced
beginner behavior when confronted with unfamiliar circumstances
Engineering Judgment
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Dreyfus Model for EngineersFormal education imparts rules for the novice
(M=wl2/8)Engineer intern becomes advanced beginner
by picking up on maxims (“least weight does not equal least cost”)
Competence is achieved when engineer can focus instinctively on what really matters and converge quickly on viable solutions (abduction)
Engineering Judgment
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ConcernWill Rogers: “Good judgment only comes
through experience, and a lot of that is bad judgment.”
The public wants certainty and control as provided by technical rationality
Low tolerance for mistakes/failures inhibits development of judgment
Engineering Judgment
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Captivity (Goldman)Intellectual – widespread misconception that
engineering is merely applied scienceSocial – problems themselves and terms of
acceptable solutions are decided by non-engineers
Values and priorities of employer/client take precedence
Most engineers are content with this, but …Commoditization/Computerization/
GlobalizationPublic does not understand/appreciate what we
doWe are not properly compensated for our
servicesDifficult to differentiate if all engineering is the
same
Social Consequences
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Alternative (SEI Case for Change)Become leaders and innovators
Recognized as stewards of the built environmentIntegrating factor, rather than supporting castEngaged in policy, aesthetics, and finance as well
as technicalRenowned for curiosity and commitment to
learningAttractive field for the best and brightestRequires changes in education processwww.asce.org/uploadedFiles/visionforthefuture.pdf
Social Consequences
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Prescriptive Codes and Standards (Dunne)Knowledge implicit in skillful performance is
“abstracted for encapsulation in explicit, generalisable formulae, procedures, or rules.”
“The ideal to which technical rationality aspires, one might say, is a practitioner-proof mode of practice.”
Criteria become ever more detailed and prescriptive
Well-meaning but ultimately misguided attempt to legislate design outcomes by providing increasingly elaborate set of instructions
Technical Consequences
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AlternativePerformance-based approaches
Legally binding provisions set basic objectives and fundamental principles
Commentary stipulates methods that are “deemed to comply”
Engineers make decisions on project-by-project basis
Peer review typically required to assist code officials
Technical Consequences
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DeontologyBasis: rules, duties, obligationsExample: code of ethicsFlaw: not every situation fits
ConsequentialismBasis: actual or expected resultsExample: liabilityFlaw: not every outcome is foreseeable
Ethical Consequences
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AlternativeVirtue ethics
Virtuous Engineers assert their responsibilityfor engaging in a combined human performancethat involves the exercise of practical judgmentto enhance the material well-being of all peopleby achieving safety, sustainability and efficiencywhile exhibiting objectivity, care and honestyin assessing, managing and communicating risk
“Your Practice Is Your Ethics!”www.VirtuousEngineers.org
Ethical Consequences
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Engineering = IngenuityNot repetition
Engineering = ArtNot science
Engineering = JudgmentNot technique
Conclusion
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Jon A. Schmidt, PE, SECB
twitter.com/JonAlanSchmidt
www.LinkedIn.com/in/JonAlanSchmidt
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