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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING COMPUTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
LABORATRIO | PROJECTO 2
MDULODECOMPETNCIASLINGUSTICASSEBENTA_VOCABULRIO_GRAMTICA_EXERCCIOS
2009 | 2010
Ana Margarida Barata (ABT) 2009
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CONTENTS
1_Verbs
_The 40 Most Essential Verbs
_Practice_ Revising Verbs
_Common Verbs used at University Level2_Nouns
_Common Nouns and Noun Phrases used at University Level
_Practice_ Enlarging Vocabulary
3_Conjunctions and Adverbs: Linking Ideas
_Practice
4_Wordbuilding
_ Practice
5_Passive Voice
_Practice
6_Modals
_Practice
7_Relative Pronouns and Relative Clauses
_Practice
8_Prepositions
_Time Prepositions and Expressions
_Place Prepositions
_Practice
9_Adjectives+Prepositions
10_Verbs+Prepositions
_Prepositional verbs
_Phrasal verbs
_Practice
11_Making Comparisons
_Practice
Bibliography
2
2
2
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4
5
6
8
9
10
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14
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17
18
19
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21
22
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27
28
29
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1_VERBS
_The 40 Most Essential Verbs
Verb-inf. Past, Past Participle (Translation) Verb-inf. Past, Past Participle (Translation)
affect
allow
appear
apply
(a)rise (from)
assume
cause
change
consider
constitute
contain
determine
develop
emerge
find
follow
form
include
increase
indicate
-ed, -ed (afectar)
found, found (encontrar)
investigate
involve
lack
leave
matter
obtain
occur
produce
prove
provide
reach
reduce
reflect
relate
remain
represent
require
result (in)
seem
tend
In: Eli Hinkel, Teaching Academic Esl Writing: Practical Techniques In Vocabulary And Grammar, (London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers, 2004), p. 193.
_Practice_ Revising Verbs
1. In the empty columns above write the past, past participle (in English) and translation into Portuguese of the
verbs in the list.
2. To enlarge your vocabulary, create semantic domains of verbs, i.e., make a list of verbs with similar meaning as
shown in the example below. Complete the given list and enlarge it with verbs that appear in the texts you will
deal with.
Abandon give up leave
accelerate
access
accompany
accomplish
appear
choose
continue
conclude
discover
discuss
finish
investigate
leave
maintain
reject
remove
review
search (for)
start
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_Common Verbs used at University Level
abandon
accelerate
access
accompany
accomplish
accumulate
achieve
acquire
adhere
adjust
administer
advocate
affiliate
affirm
agitate
aid
align
allegeallude
alter
analyze
appeal
append
appraise
appreciate
approach
arouse
ascribe
assemble
assert
assess
assign
assimilate
assume
assure
attach
attain
avail
benefit
bore
breed
cancel
capturecater
cease
challenge
circulate
clarify
coincide
collide
commit
communicate
compel
compensate
complement
complicate
comply
compound
comprehend
comprise
compute
conceive
concentrate
conclude
condense
conduct
confer
confineconflict
conform
confront
conserve
consist
console
constitute
construct
construe
consult
consume
contact
contaminate
contemplate
contend
contract
contradict
contrast
contribute
convene
converge
converse
convert
cooperate
coordinatecorrelate
correspond
create
debate
declare
decline
dedicate
defect
defer
define
deflect
degenerate
degrade
deliberate
demonstrate
denote
deny
depress
deprive
derive
design
detect
deviate
devise
devotedictate
diffuse
digest
discern
dispense
disperse
displace
dispose
dispute
dissipate
dissolve
distinct
distort
distribute
diverge
dominate
edit
elaborate
elevate
elicit
eliminate
emancipate
embody
embrace
emergeemphasize
enable
enhance
enlighten
enrich
ensure
enumerate
equate
err
establish
estimate
evaluate
evaporate
evoke
evolve
exclude
execute
exert
exemplify
exhaust
expand
expel
explain
exploit
exportexpose
extract
facilitate
factor
fare
feature
fluctuate
focus
forgo
formulate
found
frustrate
fuel
fulfill
function
fund
fuse
generate
grant
guarantee
harbor
identify
ignore
illuminate
illustrateimpact
implement
imply
import
impose
impress
incorporate
indicate
induce
infer
inhibit
injure
insist
inspect
institute
instruct
integrate
interact
interlock
interpret
interrelate
intersect
interview
intervene
invadeinvest
investigate
invoke
involve
irrigate
isolate
issue
justify
label
launch
lecture
legislate
liberate
locate
maintain
manifest
manipulation
migrate
notify
notate
oblige
obtain
occupy
occur
orientateoscillate
overlap
participate
perpetrate
persist
incline
pervade
plead
plot
postulate
precede
precipitate
predict
presume
prevail
proceed
process
proclaim
procedure
prohibit
project
propagate
prosper
protest
provokepublish
purport
pursue
quote
react
rebel
recur
refer
reform
refute
reign
reinforce
reject
release
rely
remove
render
repress
reproduce
repudiate
require
research
respond
restore
restrictretain
retard
reveal
reverberate
reverse
revise
revive
revoltrevolverotateroutesaturatescheduleschemescoreseekselectshiftshrinksignifysketchspecifyspeculatestarvestatestimulatestress
strengthenstructuresubdividesubsidesubsidizesubtlesufficesumsuperimposesupplementsuppresssurveysuspendsustain
switchsumtapeteamtiretoleratetracetransacttransfertransformtransmittransportundergounderlieunderlineundertakeutilizeuttervaryverifyviolatewithdrawx-ray
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2_NOUNS
_Common Nouns and Noun Phrases used at University Level
abstract
access
acid
adjectiveadult
aesthetic
affect
affluence
aggression
aid
algorithm
ally
alternative
ambiguity
analogy
anomaly
anthropology
apparatus
appeal
appendix
approach
area
aristocrat
arithmetic
aspect
aspiration
assent
asset
astronomyatmosphere
atom
attitude
attribute
auspices
awe
axis
battery
benefit
bomb
bore
breed
bubble
bulk
bureaucracy
calendar
capture
carbon
career
catalog
category
cell
challenge
chapter
chemicalcircuit
circumstance
classic
client
clinic
cluster
code
coefficientcollapse
column
comment
commodity
commune
competence
complement
complex
component
compound
compulsion
concentrate
concept
conduct
configuration
conflict
confront
congress
conjunction
consent
console
constant
construct
contact
contextcontingent
continent
contract
contrast
controversy
convert
creditor
crisis
criterion
critic
crystal
culture
currency
cycle
cylinder
data
debate
decade
decimal
decline
deflect
democracy
denominator
design
detrimentdiagram
diameter
digest
dimension
discourse
doctrine
domestic
draindrug
duration
dynamic
economy
electron
element
embrace
emotion
energy
entity
environment
episode
equilibrium
equipment
equivalent
ethics
exhaust
expert
exponent
export
extract
faction
factor
fallacy
farefeature
finance
fluid
focus
fossil
fraction
fragment
fraud
friction
frontier
fuel
function
fundamental
fund
geography
geometry
germ
goal
grant
graph
gravity
guarantee
harbor
heredity
hierarchyhypothesis
image
impact
implement
import
impulse
incentive
incidentincline
income
index
individual
inflation
innovation
instance
instinct
integer
intellect
interlude
interval
interview
intimacy
issue
item
job
journal
label
laboratory
labor
launch
layer
lecture
leisurelens
locomotion
logic
luxury
magic
magnitude
major
margin
material
mathematics
matrix
maximum
medium
metabolism
method
microscope
minimum
momentum
morphology
motive
muscle
negative
nerve
network
normnotion
null
objective
option
orbit
outcome
overlap
parenthesisperiod
perspective
phase
phenomena
philosophy
plot
pole
policy
pollution
portion
positive
postulate
potential
premise
preposition
prestige
principle
priority
process
program
project
propensity
proportion
proprietor
protestprudence
psychology
quote
radical
radius
range
ratio
rebel
rectangle
reform
region
reign
release
relevance
research
reservoir
resident
residue
resource
reverse
rhythm
rigor
role
route
sanctionsatellite
schedule
scheme
score
section
segment
sequence
seriesshift
sibling
site
skeleton
sketch
sociology
source
species
spectrum
sphere
statistic
status
stereotype
stress
structure
style
sum
summary
supplement
surplus
survey
switch
symbol
symptom
synthetictangent
tape
task
team
technique
technology
telescope
tense
terminology
territory
theft
theorem
theory
tissue
tone
topic
trace
tradition
traffic
trait
transition
treaty
trend
triangle
usagevelocity
version
vertical
vocabulary
voltvolumewirex-ray
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_Practice_ Enlarging Vocabulary
3. Similarly to what was suggested in the verbs section, create semantic domains of nouns and noun phrases, i.e.,
make a list of words/expressions with similar meaning as shown in the example. Complete the given list and
enlarge it with nouns and noun phrases that appear in the texts you will deal with. Do not forget that context is
essential to understand the meaning of a word!
affect feeling, emotion, sentimental
competence
fragment
sphere (1)
(2)
accomplishment
people
course
challenge
discovery
discussion
investigation
revision
development
opportunity
mistake
strategy
problem -
subject -
objective -
4. Read the following excerpt from a students term paper on the technological advancement in the 1990s. Improve
the paragraph by varying the vocabulary used (verbs and nouns). Use synonyms from the list below to substitute
the underlined words that are repeated.
As a development of science and technology, the research fields of human beings are changing
into more variety. Medical technology is also changing, and computers are changing everything.
Most of the projects cannot be completed by a person who just knows one field. These projects
require a researcher who knows many disciplines. This produces a contemporary scientific
research approach that is also changing. With the development of microelectronics, much
progress has been achieved in electrical engineering. The research are of electrical engineering has
increased much more. On the other hand, people change to care about themselves more and
more. There has been much development in medical fields in recent years. Research has given us
a lot of information that is always changing.
create / evolve / be familiar with / grow / strengthen / expand / develop / rise / be informed / be an expert / enhance / spread /broaden / transform / modify / have experience in / work in / improve / improvement / evolution / increase
5. Organize a list of synonyms in the board that follows with the vocabulary included in box above.
6. Improve the following sentence: This produces a contemporary scientific research approach that is alsochanging. Replace (or omit) the underlined words by more adequate ones.
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7. Improve the paragraph by varying the vocabulary used (nouns and noun phrases). Find similar
words/expressions to substitute the underlined words that are repeated.
The people with higher level education definitely have a better future than the people who have
less. Mostly, people also choose higher education because of its status. People would rather have an
average status than a low status. The reason is that the society views these people as underachievers
in the community In the 21st century, one of the reasons that people will try to get higher
education is to have better status. The other reason is to earn more money. With status and money,people can afford to have a higher standard of living.
______________ with higher level education definitely have a better future than the
___________ who have less. Mostly, ___________ also choose ___________________ because
of its status. ___________ would rather have an average status than a low status. The
___________ is that the society views these ___________ as underachievers in the community
In the 21st century, one of the ___________ that ___________ will try to get
_____________________ is to have better status. The other ___________ is to earn more
money. With status and money, ___________ can afford to have a higher standard of living.
3_CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS: LINKING IDEAS
_Noun substitutionA synonym, a more general term or a personal pronoun can be used to refer back to a previously mentionednoun, sentence or fact.
E.g.:A highly automated method was presented . The approachwas to use.
Large-Eddy Simulation has developed . Itis gaining
_Addition
When you want simply to add a point or idea to reinforce or support what you have already said, you can usethese conjunctions, adverbs and phrases:
also, again, furthermore, moreover, too, in additionequally, likewise, similarly, correspondingly
E.g.:
In addition, the investigations of the present study provided guidelines
Again, if there are no net forces on internal boundaries, it is possible to make constant terms in We. A, B and Ccancel for these phases
Similarly, from the unit displacement in direction 2 and 3, we can get the corresponding forces.
_Sequencing: referring backwards or forwards
Time relationships may be signalled by various phrases and words, such as adjectives, adverbs and verbs ornoun phrases. These can also be used to show the logical relationship between ideas or to connect what you aresaying with something you said previously. Words and phrases include:
so far, earlier, previous(ly), before that, until now, already, formerlyat present, presently, meanwhile, at this pointfirst of all, to begin with, to start withsecondly, then, nextfinally, eventually, afterwards, later, above all, last but not least
E.g.:
Finally, conclusions are drawn
Above all, however, models of this type are not
We encounter firstthe problem of expressing the equations at the current or the relaxed configurations
In the followingI will assume that elastic strains are negligible
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_Reformulation
This is where you want to express an idea in a different way, either to reinforce its importance or to makesomething clearer. Sometimes you want to suggest an alternative to what you said before. Phrases that can beused include:
to put it simply, better, rather, that is to sayin other words, alternatively, again
E.g.:In other words, regularly antisymmetric profiles with more than two layers behave essentially as a profile of equalthickness composed of an infinite number of layers, or alternatively, a homogenous profile.
_InferenceThis indicates a deduction from what you implied in the previous sentence. You can use phrases like:
otherwise, or else, that being so, in that case
E.g.: It is necessary to heat the mixture to 85 or elsethe desired results will not be achieved.
_HighlightingYou can emphasize or pick out particular words, points or ideas by using the following phrases:
namely, particularly, specifically
especially, notably, mainly, mostly, chiefly
E.g.: More specifically, the authors are interested in the propagation of fractures through bonded layered media.
_Cause and effectWords and phrases for expressing cause and effect are necessary for linking the different parts of a text. Theyare used to establish a logical connection between facts. This connecting function may be expressed byconjunctions, adjectives, adverbs, verbs and/or nouns.
The most common phrases for introducing cause are:due to, owing to, because of, resulting frombe caused by, spark off, give rise to, provoke, generate, bring about, stem from, arise out of,
originate from, result from, enable
the cause of, reason for, purpose of, with the aim ofsince, for, because
Effect may be expressed by:hence, thus, consequently, as a consequence, as a result, therefore, that is why, eventually, so,
finallyresult in, lead to, producethe result of, the consequence of
E.g.:
Owing toa shortage in food supply, large amounts of wheat had to be imported.
The accident was caused bythe icy conditions and not by any technical defects.
This is done so thatthey are compatible in the statistical mean with expressions for the axis values of
We thereforepropose a methodological approach on the basis of ISO 14040 Life Cycle Assessment.The result ofthese calculations will be a balance sheet of mass and energy flows in tabular form.
_Introducing a resultPhrases for expressing result include:
as a result, with the result that, so that, thus, therefore, consequently, as a consequence, hence,thereby, for this reason, because of this
E.g.:
the fluid can cause additional spring forces as a result ofcompression and inertial forces
Thus, a priori tests alone do not provide conclusive evaluation of a SGS model.
_Contrasting ideas
Useful phrases include the following:although, despite, in spite ofbut, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, yeton the contrary, by comparison, by contrast, in contrast to, on the one handon the other handinstead, alternatively, conversely, whereas
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f) ..youworkonyourwebsitedesign,rememberthathavingareallyappealingbusinessofferisthe
mostimportantsuccessfactor.
2.1. Now complete this:
The6connectorsinthepreviousexerciseareusedtoexpress
a)purpose b)contrast c)conditionalrelations
3. Find words in these extracts which mean the same as afterand if.
a) Youmaycancelthisagreementwithin7days,providedthatnoclaimhasbeenmadeandtheservicehasnotbeenused
duringthecurrentpolicyperiod.
b) Onexpiryof90days,youwillnotbeentitledtoarefund.
c) Intheeventthattheproductsfailtomeettherequiredstandard,pleasereturntotheaddressindicatedbelow.
4_WORD BUILDING
_Adjectives and adverbs
Form of adverbs
Most adverbs can be formed by adding ly, -y, -ally, orilly, depending on the spelling of the adjective or nounon which they are based:
expensive/ expensively full/ fullydramatic/ dramatically day/ daily
Adjectives vs adverbsAdjectives describe nouns. Adverbs describe verbs.
E.g.:
adjective: Weve had adramaticincrease in our orders. (Gives information about the noun increase.)
adverb: Our orders have increaseddramatically. (Gives more information about the verb have increased)
Adverbs + adjectivesAdverbs can also describe adjectives, past participles, and other adverbs:
adverb + adjective: She isextremelyintelligent.adverb + past participle Sheswellpaid.adverb + adverb: She does her jobabsolutelybrilliantly.
Verbs and adjectivesSome verbs are qualified by adjectives rather than adverbs. Most of these are verbs of appearance or verbs of thesenses (not usually used in technical writing):
appear be become feel getlook seem smell taste sound
E.g.:
Youlook exhausted. Why dont you take the day off?Hesounded very angryon the phone.
Goodand wellGoodis an adjective.Wellis an irregular adverb.
E.g.: Mr Hajimoto is agoodprogrammer. (adjective+noun)Mr Hajimotodevelopscomputer softwarewell. (verb+adverb)
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_Practice
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5_PASSIVE VOICE USE AND FORM
USE:
The passive structure is not a tense of the verb but a very common verb form; it has several uses and it isspecially found in formal, scientific, technical and academic English.
It can have a wide range of time references, either past, present, future or conditional. The most used passivetenses are present simple and continuous, past simple and continuous, present perfect simple, past perfect
simple, will future, and future perfect. There are also presentand past passive infinitives. The uses of the passive forms in English do not necessarily correspond to the uses in other languages. Some
languages may use passive forms where English uses active forms and vice versa.
Your written work will certainly be improved if you adopt this so-called impersonal style whenever appropriate, sopay attention to the following example and to the passive structure presented below.
Example:
The a dv anta ge s of c om pute rs as an a id in lang uag e learning can be demonstratedby a very simple e xperime nt in
the c ontext of a sc hool. Last yea r c om pute rs were usedby a group of c hildren in the ir Eng lish lea rning c lasses in a
village s primary sc hoo l. the ve rbs in bold/italic are in the passive.
FORM: Verb to bein the appropriate verb tense + Past Participleof the main verb in the sentence.
Examples:
Active: They play computer games everyday. (Present Simple)Passive: Computer games areplayed(by them) everyday. (Present Simple)
Active: Last month people held a manifestation against the rise in taxes. (Past Simple)Passive: Last month a manifestation against the rise in taxes was held. (Past Simple)
Active: Someone has brought that computer to be fixed. (Present Perfect)Passive: That computer has beenbroughtto be fixed. (Present Perfect)
Active: Someone is leaving a computer to be fixed next door. (Present Continuous)Passive: A computer is beingleftto be fixed next door. (Present Continuous)
Verbs with two objects can be made passive in two ways (idiomatic passive) it depends on thesubject you want to emphasize.
Examples: James was givena present. A present was givento James.
Common verbs of this type: bring, give, lend, pass, pay, promise, sell, show, send, tell
_Practice
1. Fill in the gaps in these sentences with the appropriate passive form of the verbs in brackets.
a) The Analytical Engine, which ________________________________ (to design) by Babbage in the 19th,
__________________________ (can / to visit) in the Science Museum in London.
b) If science had been more developed in the 19th
century, Babbages inventions
________________________________ (to build).
c) The first digital computer _______________________ (to develop) in the University of Pennsylvania and it
_______________________ (to call) ENIAC.
d) Due to researches in war time, enormous advances ___________________________ (to make) in computer
technology.
e) During that period machines like the Mark I, and later the EDVAC, the UNIVAC and the Z3
______________________________ (to devise).
f) Before the development of Internet, the ARPANET ________________________ (to test) by the US Defense
Department.
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g) The changes that are taking place in our present society _________________________ (can / to ignore /
negative).
h) Many families __________________________ (already / to interview) for the survey on the impact of
computers in human beings life, but many others ____________________________ (still / to ask) to
participate.
2. The sentences below are in the active voice. Turn them into the passive.
a) Sometimes, science fiction writers give the wrong impression about technology.b) The audience applauded the professor at the end of the lecture.
c) The binary code can represent any number greater than zero.
d) Computers have already simulated events like landings on the moon.
e) Around the 1970s IBM released the first personal computer.
f) In a few years time, probably computers will control the world even more than they control today.
3. Rewrite these sentences beginning with the underlined words.
a) Thieves robbed a woman. __________________________________________________________
b) They offered Nancy a salary increase. ___________________________________________________
c) We need to correct the mistakes. _____________________________________________________
d) Someone reported the experiment had been a success. ___________________________________
e) They are testing a new drug. ________________________________________________________
4. Active or Passive? Choose the correct verb forms in this news report about a storm.
Millions of pounds worth of damage has caused/has been caused by a storm which swept/was swept across
the north of England last night. The River Ribble burst/was burst its banks after a heavy rain. Many people
rescued/were rescued from the floods by fire-fighters, who received/were received hundreds of calls for help.
Wind speeds reached/were reached ninety miles an hour in some places. Roads blocked/were blocked by
fallen trees, and electricity lines brought/were brought down, leaving thousands of homes without electricity.
Everything possible is doing/is being done to get thing back to normal, a spokesman said/was said.
5. Read the story and write the missing words. Use one word only in each gap.
During periods of terrorist activity by the IRA, people in Britain are always (1)_________________ warned to look
out for bombs. Any bag or parcel without an owner (2)_____________________ seen as a risk to the public.
Some time ago a cardboard box was found at the entrance to Bristol Zoo one day. It was noticed
(3)___________________ a visitor and reported to the director. Clearly, if it was a bomb and it went off, people
might (4)_____________________ killed. Thus army bomb experts (5)_________________ called in, and the
box was safely blown up in a controlled explosion. Soon afterwards (6)______________________ was reported
that the box had (7)_________________ left there by a boy wanting to find a new home for his pet rat. He wastired of the rat, he explained, but he was unwilling to have it put to sleep (8)____________ a vet, so he left it in a
box outside the zoo. The director of the zoo (9)____________ thought (10)___________ be unenthusiastic about
looking after peoples unwanted pets.
6. Write a second sentence having the same meaning as the first one. Use the word in brackets.
a) We have to test these products. (be)
b) They pay doctors a lot of money. (are)
c) I hope they interview me for the job. (to)
d) We will analyse the characteristics of a specific paradigm. (be)
e) Someone was using the laboratory late at night. (being)
f) Everyone agreed that the plan should go ahead. (it)
g) They say writing is essential in your degree. (be)
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6_MODALS
_Characteristics: Modal auxiliaries do not change their form they do not have the third person present simple s and do not form
tenses.
Modal auxiliaries are always followed by a verb infinitive (without to).
The meaning of modal auxiliaries depends on the context they are used. Read the explanations that follow
attentively:
MEANING/FUNCTION MODAL AUXILIARY USE:EXAMPLES
Ability can / cant / cannot (Present)
could / couldnt (Past)
be able to (used instead of can toform other tenses)
Sofia canspeakFrench and English fluently.Can you lifta 19 monitor alone, Alice? Of course I can!
Jane could already swimvery well when she was 9.Paul couldntplaythe guitar when he was 6.
Will you be able to teach Joan how to play that game? (Future)
Jim had neverbeen able to dance so well before! (Past Perfect)
Permission
(asking for, giving and
refusing permission)
can / cant
could
may
allowed / not allowed to (usedinstead of can to form other tenses)
Can I leaveearlier, please? (Neutral)You cant go outtonight. End of discussion!, his father pointed.
Could I leaveearlier? (Polite) - No, you cant.
May I leaveearlier? (Very Polite) Yes, you may.
You wont be allowed to gocamping in summer if you fail. (Future)
Possibility oruncertainty
may / might (Present)
could (uncertainty, especially whenused with
be) (Present)
might have/ may have/ could have+ past participle (Past)
Joan might goto Sweden next year. (It is possible)I may/might havesome news for you next week. (Perhaps I will; itis uncertain)
He couldbestuck in the traffic (Perhaps he is.)
Maria might/ may/ could have takenthe bus. (Its possible,perhaps she did.)
Impossibility orcertainty
must / cant (Present)
must have / cant have + pastparticiple (Past)
President Bush cant win the next election. (Its impossible.)He mustbeat an important meeting. (Im sure he is.)She cantbein Greece! I saw her today! (Im sure she isnt.)
Charles canthave boughta new car. He is completely broken! (Imsure he didnt.)
Obligation must / have to
mustnt (describes something that isforbidden)
dont have to (describes an
unnecessary action)
had to / didnt have to (used toexpress the past)
1. When explaining that something is necessary:I mustfinishthis information sheet before 8 p.m.. = I have tofinishthis information sheet before 8 p.m..
2. When describing official rulesorany rulefrom an externalauthority: If the traffic lights are red, you have tostop.
3. Emphasis to show that an action is very important: You mustbehere by 8.00, or the bus will leave without you.
You mustnt smokein a gas station.
You dont have toturn onthe central heating. Its automatic.
When I was in kindergarten we had towearuniform.Joseph didnt have todoany homework yesterday.
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Advice andopinion
should / shouldnt (Present)
ought to / ought not to (Present)
had better(non-modal) (Present)
should have / shouldnt have +past participle (Past)= ought to have / ought not to have+ past participle (more formal)
Advice: (I think) youshould talkto your teacher about it.Opinion: I think the police shouldnt besoft with criminals.Expectation: They should arriveat 10 a.m..
The same use as should / shouldnt (more formal):The police ought not to besoft with criminals.
In my opinion youd betterstayat home and rest. You look tired.
Wed better notforget to turn off the computer!
Used in the past, they often describe a criticism:
You should have worked harder!You shouldnt have eaten so much yesterday!
Asking, acceptingand refusing
can / will / would Can you helpJoan? Sorry, I cant/ Of course I can. (neutral)
Will you waita few minutes? (formal)
Would you waita moment, please? (formal)
Asking for
information
can / could / would Can you tellme the time were having exam? (neutral)
Couldyou tellme? (more polite)
Wouldyou mind tellingme? (most polite)
Making an offer todo something
shall Shall I carrythis suitcase for you?
Offers andpreferences
would
would rather(+ verb infinitive)
would prefer(+ gerund / noun)
Offering: Would you likea soft drink?Asking preferences: Do you preferwesterns or sci-fi films?
Id ratherwatcha western today.
Id preferwatchinga western.Id prefertea, please.
Promises will / will not = wont Ill be backin a few minutes.
I wont doanything silly, dont worry!
Requests can / could / would Can you turn onthe lights, please? (neutral)
Could you turn onthe lights, please? (more polite)
Would you mind helpingme? (most polite)
Suggestions shall / could Shallwe goto the cinema tonight?Wecouldgoto the cinema.
Other expressions used with this meaning:How aboutgoingto the theatre?Letsgoto the caf.Why dont wevisitJoan next weekend?
_Practice
1. Choose the correct option in brackets o complete the sentences.a) Thechemistwasopen,soluckilyI___________________buysomeaspirin.(can/cant/didcan/wasableto)b) Susanhastoworkveryhard.I___________________doherjob,Imsure.(cant/couldnt/dont/shouldnt)c) Wehadapartylastnight._____________________spendallmorningclearingupthemess.(Imusthave/Ivebeento/
Ivehadto/Ivemust)d) Therewasnooneelseattheboxoffice.I_________________________inaqueue.(didntneedtowait/mustntwait/
neednthavewaited/needntwait)e) _____________________Icarrythatforyou?~Oh,thankyou.(Do/Shall/Will/Would)
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2. Must / Have to / Need to
2.1. Complete the rule below:
Intheirpositiveform,must,haveto,andneedtohaveasimilarmeaning.Weusethemtosaysomethingisnecessaryorobligatory.Butintheirnegativeform,themeaningsareverydifferent.
Tosaysomethingiswrongorprohibited,weuse..
To
say
something
is
not
necessary,
we
use
or
.
3. Complete these sentences with dont have toor mustnt.
a) Itseasytomakeageocacheandyou______________spendalotofmoney.
b) You____________________leaveyourgeocacheinadangerousplace.
c) You____________________putthingslikeknives,drugs,alcohol,orfireworksinthecontainer.
d) Ifyoufindacache,you__________________leaveamessageonthewebsite,butitsniceifyoudo.
e) You__________________breaktheserules:takesomething,andwriteinthelogbook.
f) Somepeoplewritejokesandstoriesinthelogbooks.Itsnice,butyou___________________
g) Leavethecachewhereyoufindit.You______________________moveacachetoanewlocation.
h) You____________________leavefoodingeocaches,becauseanimalswillsmellitanddestroythecontainer.
i) You_____________________
be
very
rich
to
buy
aGPS.
They
start
at
about
$100.
j) You_____________________speakEnglishtoplaygeocatching.Itsplayedallovertheworld.
3. Put in couldor was/were able to. Sometimes either is possible. Use a negative if necessary.a) Suddenlythelightswentout.We__________________seeathing.
b) Thecomputerwaswrong,butluckilyEmma___________________putitrightagain.
c) Therewasabigpartylastnight.You_______________________hearthemusichalfamileaway.
d) Ilearnttoreadmusicasachild.I_______________________readitwhenIwasfive.
e) Thetrainwasfull.I________________________findaseatanywhere.
4. Read about each situation and then make a request. Use the word in brackets in the correct form.a) Itiscoldintherestaurant.Askthewaitertoshutthewindow.(could)b) Youarebuyingapen.Asktheassistantforareceipt.(can)
c) Youwanttoknowthetime.Asksomeoneinthestreet.(could)
d) Youarecarryingatray.Asksomeonetoclearaspaceonthetable.(would)
5. Complete the dialogues withmight have, couldnt have, must have beena) Mathew:Imsurethecomputerdidntmakeamistake.Thatsimpossible.
Emma:No,ofcourse___________________________________________.
b) Mark:Icantseetheletterherenow.Soclearlysomeonepostedit.
Alan:Yes,____________________________________________________.
c) Natasha:ItspossibleEmmadidnthearthealarm.
Rachel:Well,Isuppose_________________________________________.
d) Sarah:Henrydroveat100milesanhour.Dontyouthinkthatsdangerous?
Mark:Yes,Ido._________________________________________________.
e) Daniel:IjustdontbelievethatAndrewhasfailedtheexam.
Vicky:Andrew?Impossible!_______________________________________.
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6. Read this extract from an agreement between an internet service provider and customers. Find phraseswith the verb bewhich mean the same as mustor must not.
All new customers are required to submit a signed copy of the applicable
Server and Domain Registration Agreements.
Accounts still outstanding on the last day of the month are subjected to
immediate termination.
You are prohibited from sending unsolicited bulk mail messages (junk mail or
spam).
Virtual Servers which use CPU processing capacity on the Physical Server in
excess of the designed processing capacity will be subject to immediate
deactivation.
7. Rewrite each of these sentences using one of the following modal forms:
should (not), must (not), need to, need not, have to, do not have to.
a) The company rules do not allow you to take money out of the country.
b) The company does not expect you to sign until you have legal advice.
c) The insurer does not recommend that you lend your car to another driver.
d) The company requires you to sign by the end of the month.
e) The insurer strongly advises that you let them know if you change job.
f) The company prohibits you from holding a non-European account.
7_RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND RELATIVE CLAUSES
o A geek is a computer expert whois extremely intelligent and devoted to his profession.
o The computer (which/that) you bought has got a large hard disk capacity!o Bill Gates, whois the main responsible for the development of Microsofts products, is one of the richest men
in the world.
o Internet, whichis an extraordinary source of information, is used by almost everyone around the world.
Relative Pronouns: WHO (subject) WHOM (object; obligatory after a preposition) WHICH refers only to things
THAT refers to things and people WHOSE (possession) refers to both things and people
Defining Relative Clause
It is essential to the meaning of the sentence; it defines the subject.
It is not between commas.E.g.: The girl who was sitting next to you in the English class is very nice.
Contact Clause: The relative pronoun may be omitted if it is not the subject of the relative clause:
E.g.: They didnt have the computer program I wanted.
When the preposition is entirely independent from the verb, it always precedes the relative:
E.g.: The speaker asked a questiontowhich I didnt know the answer.
The relative pronoun thatcan only be used in defining relative clauses instead of who, whom, which. A preposition can never be placed before the relative that:
Defining relative clauses occur both in spoken and in written English.
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5. Rewrite the following sentences using a relative pronoun. Use commas appropriately and make contactclauses whenever possible.
a) Internetisusedinalmosteveryschoolnowadays.Itisanextraordinarysourceofinformation.
b) TheinstructionsarekeptintheROMsection.Theycannotbechangedorerased.
c) Floppydisksareveryusefultotransferacopyofafiletoanothercomputer.Theyarestoragedevices.
d) The
RAM
capacity
is
very
important
in
a
computer.
It
can
be
improved
by
adding
extra
chips.
e) TheengineeristeachingAlgorithmicLanguageandProgramming.Itoldyouabouthim.
f) ComputerScienceengineershavetoworkhard.Theywanttobesuccessful.
g) Imwaitingforthebus.Itislate.
h) Laurapaintedapicture.Itisbeingshowninanexhibition.
i) AuntJoanisabitdeaf.Shedidnthearthephone.
j) Illseeyounearthepostoffice.Wemeettheretheotherday.
8_PREPOSITIONS
_Time prepositions and expressions
In Years
Months
Seasons
Centuries
in2005
inNovember
inthe autumn
inthe 21st Century
Parts of the day inthe morning
inthe afternoon
inthe evening
OnDays onThursday onmy birthday
At Times
Night
at4.00
atnight
atmidday atmidnight
During Periods of time I didnt feel nervous duringthe performance.
Calendarreferences
We say:
We write:
Dates
the seventeenth of September or September the seventeenth
7 September 7th September September 7th
are written DAY/MONTH/YEAR in British English: 07/09/2005
Day references If TODAY is 29th October: tomorrow (30th October)
the day after tomorrow (31st October)
yesterday (28th October)
the day before yesterday (27th October)
Periods of theday
this morning
yesterday morning
tomorrow morning
this afternoon
yesterday afternoon
tomorrow afternoon
tonight
last night
tomorrow night
For Forrefers to a period of time:e.g.: I have lived here for two years. She studied German for three years.
Sincerefers to a point at the beginning of a period of time:
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Since
Ago
e.g.: I have lived here since 2003. She has been waiting since 3.30.
Agorefers to a point in the past:e.g.: We arrived four hours ago. I knew that ages ago!
Once
One day
Oncerefers to a state in the past:e.g.: Once Jim owneda motorbike. (He doesnt own it anymore.)
One daycan refer to PAST or FUTURE:
e.g.: One day Kathy was walkingin the garden when she met Brian.One day you wi llbesuccessful computer science engineers!
Now
Nowadays
Nowrefers to an exact moment, or a general state:e.g.: You have to finish now!
John used to study civil engineering but now hes studying computer science.
Nowadaysis used when we generalize about the present:e.g.: Nowadaysalmost all types of jobs are dependent on computers.
Then
Afterwards
After
Later
Thenrefers in the past to the following momente.g.: We had a pizza in a nice restaurant, and thenwe went to the cinema.
Afterwardscan be used in the same as thenis used:e.g.: We had a pizza in a nice restaurant, and afterwardswe went to the cinema.
When afteris used there is an object (1) or a gerund (2):e.g.: (1) Afterdinner we went to the cinema. Afterthat we went home.
(2) Afterhaving dinner went to the cinema. Afterthat we went home.
Latermeans at a later time:
e.g.: Mr. Smith isnt here at the moment. Can you come back later?
Until
By
Untilrefers to the latest point in a period of time:e.g.: She waited for Alex until 6.00, and then she left.
Ill be hereunti l the end of December.
Bymeans at a time before:e.g.: John studied the whole afternoon, so by 7.00he was exhausted.
(not exactly at 7.00, but not later than that time.)
At last
In the end
At the end
We use at lastwhen we are pleased that a long wait has ended:e.g.: At lastJane arrived!
In the enddescribes the final result:e.g.: I studied a lot for maths but in the endI failed.
At the enddescribes a point at the end of something:e.g.: At the endof the semester well have exams.
On time
In time
On timemeans at the hour which was arranged:e.g.: The conference started exactly on time.
In Timemeans with enough time to do something:e.g.: We arrived in timetohave a cup of coffee before the conference started.
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_Place prepositions
in
inside
out
inand inside
Ingenerally describes things contained by something else.
e.g.: There are some cupsinthat cupboard.We use insideto emphasize the idea of containing.
e.g.: Luckily there was nobodyinsidethe blazing house.
Compare:Kate is in. (she's at home)Kate is out. (she's not at home)Kate is inside. (in the house, not outside in the garden)
There are many expressions with in. This is a selection.a country My parents arein Canadaat the moment.a city My sister livesin Madrid.street Jack livesin Garden Avenue.road She was walkingin the road, not on the pavement.mirror Tony could see his facein the mirror.hole lcrack There was ahole inmy shoe.hand Ellen had a bunch of flowersin one hand.armchair She satin an armchair.
country Paul and Mary livein the country, not in the city.hospital Sally is ill, and isin hospital.prison Keith stole some money and ended upin prison.
on onOngenerally describes a thing on the surface of another thing.
Don't leave your bag on the floor.
Expressions with on.transport There were few passengers on the plane l bus l train.chair She sat on a chair.television What's on television l the radio this evening?wall Let's hang this picture on that wall.
injuries Tim cut his foot on a piece of glass.left/right There's a cinema on the left.side There are small houses on this side of the street.pavement She was walking in the road, not on the pavement.
at
in
to
Atand inare used to describe a person's position.
Atdescribes position at a point or place.
Indescribes position in a place which has walls (like a building). lt is also used with cities and towns,
etc.
The difference between atand inis clear in these examples:We met at the airport. (the place in general)We met in the airport building. (inside the building)I'llsee you at the cinema. (the place in general)
I'llsee you in the cinema. (inside the building) Atand inare used with arrive.
e.g.: We arrived in Prague. (the city) We arrived at Prague Airport. (the place
Tois used with verbs of motion.
e.g.: Last night we went to the cinema.Expressions with
atand to At
There's a cafat the end ofthe street.Do you sitat the frontorat the backof the class?John isn't at school. He's at home.Mr King wasn'tat workyesterday.
ToCould youtakethis lettertothe post office?
Isenta parceltomy sister.
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above
over
below
under
aboveandover
abovemeans higher than.e.g.: You can see the top of the towerabovethe trees.
overmeans higher than, but in the same position.e.g.: The alien spaceship hoveredoverthe building.
It also means across or covering.
e.g.: There was a plastic sheetoverthe hole in the roof.There is a footbridgeoverthe motorway.
belowandunder
belowmeans lower than.e.g.: From the mountain, I could see the lakebelow.
undermeans lower than, but in the same position.e.g.: I keep my suitcaseundermy bed.
next to
near
by
beside
next toandnear
Next tomeans exactly at the side ofe.g.: Maria sits next to Paula.
Nearmeans close to.e.g.: Tom's house is near the sports centre.
besideandby
Besidemeans the same as next toe.g.: Maria satbesidePaula in the class.
Bymeans the same as neare.g.: There was a tablebythe window.
He was standing bythe door when his sister arrived.
opposite Oppositemeans exactly on the other side of a space:e.g.: There is a caf oppositeISEP.
Practice1. Putintheprepositions.Sometimesmorethanoneansweriscorrect.
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2. Completetheconversation.Choosethecorrectpreposition.a) Vicky: I felt really afraid when I was walking home from/off the club. All the time I could hear someone
behind/infrontofme,butIdidntdareturnround.Rachel:Iexpectyouwereimaginingit.
Vicky:No Iwasnt! Isawhimafter Idcome inacross/throughthegate.Hewaswearinga longblackcoatthatcamedownwellbelow/underhisknees.
b) Daniel: You knowAdam,dont you?Hes very strange.Hewalked right along/pastme yesterday as Iwas coming
among/downthestairs,buthedidntsayhello.
Matthew:Theotherdayhewassittingbeside/oppositemeatlunch,soIcouldnthelplookingathim.Isaidhello,but
hedidntsayaword.
3. Lookattheplanandexplainwherethingsare.
a) Thebankis_______________thegiftshop.
b) Thetravelagencyis___________________thesportsshopandtheartgallery.
c) Thesportsshopis_________________thebank.
d) Therestaurantis________________theartgallery.
e) Thegift
shop
is
_______________
the
bank
and
the
restaurant.
f) Theartgalleryis_________________thetravelagency.
4. Completeeachsentencewiththeappropriatepreposition(ofplace).a) Rachelwaslying__________thegrassreadingabook.
b) Itsmyholidaynextweek.Imgoing____________Spain.
c) Therewasabigcrowd________________theshopwaitingforittoopen.
d) Themanisanidiot.Hepushedme_______________theswimmingpool.
e) Iwent____________thechemistsjustnow,butIdidntnoticeifitwasopen.
f) Davidhurthimselfwhenhefell___________hisbike.
g) Theresacaf
________________
top
of
the
mountain.
You
can
have
acoffee
there
before
you
go
down.
h) Thesheepgotout_______________aholeinthefence.
i) Pompeiiisquite______________Sorrento.Itsonlyashorttrainride.
j) Theressuchacrowd.Youwontfindyourfriend___________________allthesepeople.
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5. Putintheprepositionin,on,orat(place)a) Wespentthewholeholiday____________thebeach.
b) Ireadaboutthepopfestival____________amagazine.
c) Melaniewasholdingasmallbird___________herhands.
d) Illmeetyou___________theairport.
e) Londonis__________theThames.
f) Thepassengershadtostand_____________aqueue.
g) Myparentsflatis__________thetwentyfirstfloor.
h) Iwasstanding__________thecounterinthebakersshop,waitingtobeserved.
i) Therewerentmanybooks___________theshelves.
j) Thewomensittingnexttomeleftthetrain____________Coimbra.
6. Completethedialoguewithin,on,atornothing.Ifyoudonotneedaprepositionputa()inthegap.(time)Mark: Im sorry Iwasoutwhen you called____________ yesterdayafternoon,Alice. Look, Im free________ the
fifteenthofMarch.Canwemeetthen?
Alice:Imprettybusy____________nextweek,Imafraid.Icantseeyou__________Friday.
Mark:Idliketohaveameeting____________thismonthifpossible.Illbeverybusy________April.
Alice: Im going away___________ Easter, so how about theweek after? Shallwemeet_________ the twenty
seventh?ThatsaWednesday.
Mark:Ivegotanappointment_________themorningbutnothing___________theafternoon.Letsmeet________
Wednesdayafternoon________halfpasttwo.
7. Putinfor,sinceorago.a) How longhaveyoubeen learningEnglish?~Well Istudied it__________ fiveyearsatschool,and Ivebeenhaving
eveningclasses____________lastsummer.
b) Mytelephonewasbroken___________amonth.Butitisworkingnow.Itwasfixedthreedays________.
c) Areyou
staying
here
___________
three
months?
~Thats
right.
Ive
been
here
___________
the
end
of
April.
Im
going
toLondon____________aweekbeforeIgohome.
d) Thisfilmlooksfamiliar.Didntweseeitatthecinemaabouttwoyears___________?
8. Completethesentenceswithintimeorontime.a) Iftheplaneislate,wewontgettoParis__________________forourconnectingflight.
b) Wewereupveryearly,____________________toseethesunrise.
c) Howcanthebusespossiblyrun_______________withallthesetrafficjams?
d) Thepostgoesatfive.Imhoppingtogetthisletterwritten__________________.
e) Thecoachwillbehereat12:13ifits___________________.
9. PutinbyoruntiltocompleteRachelsconversationwithherteacher.Ms.Lewis:Youllneed tohandyourproject in____________ theendof theweek. Id like tohave it_________Friday,
ideally.
Rachel:Well,Imgoingonathreedaystudytriptomorrow.Illbeaway_____________Thursday.Theprojectwillprobably
takeme_____________themiddleofnextweek.Icantfinishit_____________theendofthisweek.
Ms.Lewis:Well,letmehaveit___________Wednesdayofnextweek,then.
10. Completewithduringorwhile.a) Didyoutakenotes________________thelecture?
b) Shallwehaveacoffee_______________werewaiting?
c) Trynot
to
make
any
noise
______________
the
bay
is
asleep.
d) Thefirealarmrang_______________yesterdaysmeeting.
e) Trevortriedtofixtheshelves________________Laurawasoutshopping.
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11. WritethemissingwordsinPollyspostcard.Useonlyonewordineachgap.Sometimesmorethanoneansweriscorrect.Thisisourfirstrealholiday___________ages,andImenjoyingittremendously.Ilovebeing___________anisland.We
arrivedherealmostaweek___________,andIcantbelievethetimeisgoingsofast.Wefinallycompletedthejourney
here_____________Fridayevening_____________about11oclock.Thejourneywasnttoobad,butwehadtowaitages
______________airportforourflight.
Ourapartmenthereisfine.Its_____________thetopfloor.Thebeachisntfarawaywecanwalkthere__________five
minutes.Theonlyproblemisthatwehavetoget___________abusymainroad,whichcanbedifficult.
Wedontdomuch________________theday,butwegoouteveryevening.Lastnightsdiscowentonverylateandtoday
weslept_______________eleven.
9_ADJECTIVES + PREPOSITIONS
_Study these groups of ADJECTIVESAND PREPOSITIONS. Sometimes other preposit ions are possible.
nice/ kind/ good/ generous/ mean/ stupid/ silly/ intelligent/ clever/ sensible/ (im)polite/ rude/ (un)reasonable OFsomeone(to dosomething):E.g.: Thank you. It was very nice / kind of youto help me dealing with this program.
BUT: (to be) nice/ kind/ good/ generous/ mean/ stupid/ silly/ intelligent/ clever/ sensible/ (im)polite/ rude/ (un)reasonable TOsomeone:E.g.: My boss has always been very nice / kind to me.
angry/ annoyed/ furious ABOUT somethingWITH someone FOR doing something
E.g.: Im really annoyed about my Internet server! Its running too slowly.Im furious with you, John, for not keeping up with the timetable! I hope youll hurry up; otherwise Ill look for another webdesigner.
delighted/ pleased/ satisfied/ disappointed WITH something
E.g.: They are delighted with the incredible tasks their computer is able to accomplish.
surprised/shocked/ amazed/ astonished AT/ BY somethingE.g.: My teacher was really surprised at my research work about the History of Computers.
excited/ worried/ upset ABOUT somethingE.g.: Some people are worried about what might happen if technological development surpasses human control.
afraid/ frightened/ terrified/ scared OF someone/somethingE.g.: People neednt be frightened of technological improvements, but some are.
proud/ ashamed/ jealous/ envious/ suspicious OF someone/somethingE.g.: Im very proud of my son! He has just become an engineer in Computer Science.
aware/ conscious OF somethingE.g.: Are you conscious of what a hacker can do?
good/ bad/ excellent/ brilliant/ hopeless AT (doing) something
E.g.: A good professional in computing must be brilliant at solving any kind of problems in that area.
impressed BY/ WITH someone/somethingE.g.: Im really impressed with/by the Internet world!
famous/ responsible FOR somethingE.g.: A hacker was responsible for breaking the codes in our company system and for the loss of thousands of important files.
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different FROM someone/ somethingE.g.: An HP-DeskJet 840C printer is very different from an HP Office Jet R45 printer.
similarTO something
E.g.: This monitor is very similar to the one I had before, but it offers a much sharper image.
interested IN somethingE.g.: Im interested in knowing more about the new Microsoft products.
capable/ incapable OF somethingE.g.: JavaScript is capable of making pages jump, move, and respond to a site visitors input.
full/ short OF somethingE.g.: Hes short of money, so he wont be able to renew his software.
tired OF somethingE.g.: Im tired of waiting for you to work out the problem in that disk drive; Ill look for another technician.
keen ON somethingE.g.: Young people are keenon picking up all kind of music in Internet sites.
crowded WITH (people)E.g.: The conference room was crowded with experts in computing.
10_VERBS + PREPOSITIONS
Prepositional Verbs
Verbs + Prepositions Examples: To accuse of He was accused of cheating on the exam.
To advertise for That student wants to advertise for selling his old computer.
To aim at The new educational measures aim at improving the learning/teaching system.
To apologise for(+ing) James apologized for having been rude to his classmate.
To apply for At the end of their degree, students will apply for a job.
To approve of She didnt approve of him working till midnight.
To blame for Sometimes students blame the system for their bad results.
To beg for
The baby is begging for his parents attention. To believe in Adults usually dont believe in fairy tales.
To belong to That book belongs to Joana, not to Miguel.
To borrow from Miguel has borrowed this book from Joana. She lent it to him two weeks ago.
To care for It is very important to care for the environment.
To congratulate on The professor congratulated his students on their results.
To complain about / of He is always complaining about having long classes.
To concentrate on You should concentrate a little more on your work.
To consist of(be made of)
To consist in(be based on)
Bolognaise sauce consists of minced beef, onion, tomatoes, garlic and seasoning.
The beauty of Porto consists in the life by the Douro river and in the downtown.
To convince about He was trying to convince me about the importance of having another digital camera but Ididnt buy it.
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To crash into / against John crashed into his neighbours garage last night. He made quite a damaged!
To depend on Every working machine depends on a power supply to keep on working.
To dream of / about James dreams of having a new and more powerful laptop. He dreamt about it last night.
To fight for There still are many people around the world that have to fight for their freedom.
To happen to Jane happened to have been present when the car crash occurred.
To hear about / of I heard about the launching of Garcia Marquezs new book. I heard of it last on the news.
To hinder from He is hindering his iPod from his younger brother.
To insist on They insisted on offering me a new cellular phone.
To listen to He is listening to music, so he cant hear the phone ringing.
To live on He will live on the memory people have of him..
To look at I love looking at the stars.
To object to I dont object to the adoption of a new book, but I prefer this one.
To pay for He is paying for the mistakes he made in the past.
To refer to You have to refer to Babbages work when writing about the History of computers.
To rely on
To search for
To separate from
To speak to
To spend on
To talk to
To think of / about
To wait for
To write to
Not always can you rely on technology.
He is searching for information on network typologies.
Some people separate their private life completely from their professional activities.
She doesnt speak to Michael about politics.
She spent a lot of money on books.
Im talking to you, please, listen to what Im saying.
John was thinking about his last summer holidays in Japan. He is thinking of travelling to
India for the next holidays.
They have been waiting for their teacher since 2 p.m..
Paul is writing to his mother asking for a new mobile phone.
Phrasal Verbs Meaning:
To account for To justify
To ask for When you make a request
To back up To save; to make a copy of a file or computer program / To agree with what someone is saying
To be done for To be broken, damaged
To be up / over To end
To break off To interrupt
To bring about To lead to something, to cause something to happen
To bring in To introduce
To carry out To conclude, to accomplish something
To come across To meet or to find unexpectedly
To get over To recover from an illness or problem
To go on To continue
To go up To rise, to ascend
To lay off To fire someone
To make out To understand an idea after considering some evidences
To take on To accept something
To switch off To disconnect
To switch on To connect
To take to To dedicate to doing something
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ISEP
Gram
To To To To_Pr
-DEI | LAPR 2
ar and Vocabula
turn on
turn off
work out
write out
actice
1. Under
2. One-w
3. Word
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rasal Ver
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the computer /
s.
verbs.
rbs.
28
the lights)
Languag
A
e Skills Module
a Barata 2009/
| GVP
010
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11_ MAKING COMPARISONS
FormThe regular comparative and superlative forms of descriptive words (adjectives and adverbs) areshown below:
1. Words of one syllable add the ending er(in the comparative) and est(in the superlative).
Examples:
Absolute Comparative Superlative
Adjectives newoldbig
newerolderbigger
newestoldestbiggest
Adverbs soonlate
soonerlater
soonestlatest
2. Words with three or more syllables are preceded by moreand most.
Examples:
Absolute Comparative Superlative
Adjectives interesting
convenientbeautiful
more interesting
more convenientmore beautiful
most interesting
most convenientmost beautiful
Adverbs easilycarefully
more easilymore carefully
most easilymore carefully
3. Adjectives with two syllables may be like 1 or 2 above in that they will add the ending er (in the
comparative) and est(in the superlative) if they end in y or ly, -ow, -leand er.
Examples:
Absolute Comparative Superlative
-y
-ly
-ow
-er
tinyspeedy
earlyfriendly
shallownarrow
clever
tinierspeedier
earlierfriendlier
shallowernarrower
cleverer
tiniestspeediest
earliestfriendliest
shallowestnarrowest
cleverest
4. Most of the remaining two-syllable adjectives take more (in the comparative) and most (in thesuperlative) in front of them.
Examples:
Absolute Comparative Superlative
careful
carelessboringawfulcomplex
more careful
more carelessmore boringmore awfulmore complex
most careful
most carelessmost boringmost awfulmost complex
5. Some common two-syllable adjectives can have either type of formation.
Examples:
Absolute Comparative Superlative
common
gentle
quiet
commoner/more common
gentler/more gentle
quieter/more quiet
commonest/most common
gentlest/most gentle
quietest/most quiet
6. Two-syllable adverbs ending in lytake moreand most.
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Examples:
Absolute Comparative Superlative
carefulcarelessboringawfulcomplex
more carefulmore carelessmore boringmore awfulmore complex
most carefulmost carelessmost boringmost awfulmost complex
7. A small number of adjectives and adverbs have an irregular comparative and superlativeform.Examples:
Absolute Comparative Superlative
Adjectives badfargoodmany
worsefurther/ fartherbettermore
worstfurthest/ farthestbestmost
Adverbs badlyfarlittlemuchwell
worsefurther/ fartherlessmorebetter
worstfurthest/ farthestleastmostbest
Use in sentences
Comparisons may show equivalence, non-equivalence, the highest degree of something, and parallelincrease.
1. Equivalence: the following words/constructions are used to show that things or people are similar insome way.
as asas many asas much asthe same as
similar tothe same
are similarequal tois likesimilar/ ly
equal/ lycompared to/ with
eacheitherallboth and
alike
Examples:
1. Here, the term processor is equivalent tothe central processing unit.
2. Laptops are aspowerfulasmicrocomputers.
3. Some companies have as manycomputers asemployees.
4. Some companies use bothdisks andconventional filing systems for storing data.
2. Non-equivalence: the following words/constructions are used to compare or contrast things or peoplethat are separate from each other.
not as as
-er thanmore thanfewer thanless than
greater than
not as many asnot as much asnot equal to
unequal / ly
unlikenot the same asnot all
Examples:
1. Learning to use a computer is notasdifficultaslearning to program.
2. A fax board costs less thana fax machine.
3. Unlikefactory-sealed software, pirated versions may contain viruses.
4. You can save money with a network because you will need fewerprinters.
3. The highest degree: the following words/constructions are used to compare one member of a group
with the whole group (superlative).
the -est the most the least
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Examples:1. This is the most popularpackage on the market today.2. BASIC is the least difficultprogramming language to learn.3. The bestprograms are those adapted specifically to your own needs.
4. Parallel increase: the following words/constructions are used to show parallel increase (twocomparatives).
the -er, the more the more , the -er thet -er, the less
Examples:1. The more memoryyour computer has, the more datait can store.2. The biggeryour computer system, the less timeyou spend waiting.3. The moretraining you give to your employees, the betterthey will perform.
_Practice
1. Complete the following passage with adjectives from the list below.
Oneadvantageofcomputersisthattheycandocalculationsveryquickly,theyarevery_______________comparedto
peoplewhoarecomparativelyslow.Becausecomputersaremachines,theyare_______________,theydontmake
mistakes,and
also,
they
dont
mind
working
for
_______________
hours
on
_______________
jobs.
The
first
computers
cost
alotofmoney;theywere_______________,andtheywerevery_______________too;sometimestheyoccupiedawhole
room.
Adjectives:
fast __________________________
intelligent__________________________
expensive__________________________
unreliable__________________________
large__________________________
difficult__________________________
boring__________________________
full__________________________
long__________________________
good__________________________
2. Look at the list of adjectives above once more. Write the opposite of the adjectives inside the board.
Degrees of Adjectives:
3. Complete the following sentences using the comparative or superlative forms of the adjectives in brackets.
a) A32bitprocessoris_____________________a16bitprocessor.(fast)
b) Acolourmonitoris_____________________amonochromemonitor.(expensive)
c) Paulboughtthe_________________computerinthemarket!(good)
d) Moderncomputersare____________________thefirstmainframecomputers.(reliable)
e) CharlesBabbagesAnalyticalEnginewasthe_______________computereverbuiltbutitneverreallyworked!(large)
f) Laser
printers
are
___________________
daisywheel
printers.
(quiet)
g) JimisgoingtobuyaToshiba.Itisntthe__________________modelbutitisagoodPC.(recent)
h) Thatwasthe_________________filmIveeverseen.(funny)
i) Theweatherisgetting_________________.(bad)
j) Itwas____________thanusualintowntoday.(busy)
k) Itwasthe___________________speechIveeverheard.(boring)
4. Complete the second sentence in each item so that it has a similar meaning to the first. Use the words inbrackets and make the necessary changes in the sentences.
a) Thistrainismoreconvenientthanalltheothers.(most)
Thistrainis____________________________________________________________________________.
b) Thelivingroomisntasbigasthekitchen.(bigger)
Thekitchen____________________________________________________________________________.
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c) Imnotasfitasyou.(am)
Youre________________________________________________________________________________.
d) Thetableandthedeskarethesamesize.(big)
Thetable_______________________________________________________________________thedesk.
e) Pricesjustgethigherallthetime.(and)
Prices_________________________________________________________________________________.
f) Thedressischeaperthantheskirt.(expensive)
Theskirt_______________________________________________________________________thedress.
g) Thiscrosswordistheeasiest.(difficult)
Thiscrossword___________________________________________________________________________.
h) Theirexcitementwasincreasingallthetime.(excited)
Theyweregetting________________________________________________________________________.
i) Iveneverreadamoreromanticstory.(most)
Itsthe_____________________________________________________________________________read.
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ISEP-DEI | LAPR 2 Language Skil ls Module | GVPBIBLIOGRAPHY
EASTWOOD, John (1992). Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford University Press.
HEWINGS, Martin (1999). Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press.
Hinkel, Eli (2004). Teaching Academic Esl Writing: Practical Techniques In Vocabulary And Grammar.
London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.HUGHES, Rebecca (2005). Exploring Grammar in Writing. Cambridge: CUP.
MILLS, Gordon H. & John A. Walker (1986). Technical Writing. New York: CBS college Publishing.
ROGERS, John (2003). Market Leader (Practice File). Edinburgh: Longman.
SVOBODOVA, Zuzana et al. (2000). Writing in English: A Practical Handbook for Scientific and Technical Writers A
Pilot Project. European Commission: Leonardo da Vinci Programme.
VINCE, Michael (1998). Intermediate Language Practice. Macmillan Heinemann.
VINCE, Michael (2003). Advanced Language Practice. Macmillan Heinemann.
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