Xtra Introduction-Mass Communication
Transcript of Xtra Introduction-Mass Communication
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UNIT 3-THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Structure
3.0 Unit Objectives
3.1 Introduction3.2 Theories of Mass Communication
Authoritarian theory 3.2.2 Libertarian theory 3.2.3 Social Responsibility
3.2.4 Soviet Media 3.2.5 Development Communication 3.2.6 Democratization Theory
3.3 Summary3.4 Exercises and Questions3.5 Further Reading
3.0UNIT OBJECTIVES
To learn the concept of various theories of Mass communication To understand each theory through diagrammatic representation To study the importance of theories of Mass Communication
3.1INTRODUCTION
Of all the times in history to be studying the mass media, this is probably the best.
Not only the dizzying technological and economic upheavals within the media
industries themselves make it so, but also the outpouring of theory, argument, and
research on the mass media from diverse academic fields. Theories about mass
communication have never been more plural or more contentious.
The area of knowledge we provisionally call Mass Communication Theories is
an unsettled terrain, something of a frontier, and frontiers are known for adventuresand dangers, lawlessness and open vistas. It deals with central traditions of study,
topics of debate, and conceptual problems in media studies.
Mass communication theory is best understood as a branch of social theory.
Indeed, the attempt to theorize society and communication arise in the same
moment. A theorist is, one who argues, gives reasons and makes connections to
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larger problems. Theory is not only something that people do in their armchairs; it
is an art that every scholar, if not citizen and human, should cultivate. All theories
are a re-approach with the past of an established theory.
3.2 THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
3.2.1 Authoritarian Theory
The Authoritarian theory of the press can be traced to the very beginning of
printing. At that time, truth was thought to reside in those who held power-that is,
the governing agency. Thus there was strict control of the press through the
licensing of printers by the throne. Censorship was practiced if the ruler thought
that information should be with held from the masses. Therefore, although thegovernment did not necessarily own the press, it was looked on as being an
advocate of the state. Today many nations will not admit that their countries are
governed according to authoritarian principles, they publicly espouse libertarian
concepts, but behind the scenes authoritarian practices are carried out.
This term was first used by Siebert refers to an arrangement in which the press is
subordinated to state power and the interests of a ruling class. The theory justifies
advance censorship and punishment for deviation from externally set guidelines.
Unacceptable attack on authority, deviation from official policy, or offences
against moral codes should be criminal offences. Under certain circumstances,
media are subjected to authoritarian tendencies in democratic regimes as well,
especially in times of war and during internal and external emergencies. Other
media like film, video, etc are subjected to censorship. Even the press, which is
free, lost its independence and freedom during the emergency (1975-77). The
authorities can and do use the provisions of official secrets act to deny free access
to information, thereby hampering the freedom of press.
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The table below will highlight the practice of this theory:
Complete Control to varying Degrees of control
Complete press Criticism Special press Suppression
control allowed, but laws lead to of pressgovernment arrest of editors opposition is
invokes more covertCensorship
Soviet Union
China Colombia South Africa TurkeyYugoslavia Egypt Iran, Iraq Argentina
Syria Pakistan Indonesia
Lebanon
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1.Name countries, which have, complete control over the press?
3.2.2 Libertarian Theory
Today the open market place of ideas and the self-righting process define the
boundaries of the libertarian theory of the press. In the seventeenth century John
Milton defended the concepts of reason and the moral integrity of man in telling
right from wrong, good from bad, and truth from falsehood in a powerful argument
for intellectual freedom. Other exponents of this philosophy were John Stuart,
Thomas Jefferson and other who believed in freedom of expression, rationalism, and
natural rights. They saw as the presss function to inform, to sell, to entertain, to
uphold the truth, and to keep check on the government. Press ownership in countriesespousing the libertarian philosophy is likely to be private and should be free from
defamation, obscenity, impropriety and wartime sedition.
Countries practicing the libertarian philosophy today are the United States, Great
Britain, and other western European nations. Other theories related to libertarian
theory are the social responsibility theory and the objective theory of the press.
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Libertarian theory is also called as the free press theory and is based on the
fundamental right of an individual to freedom of expression, which is regarded as
the main legitimating principle for print media in liberal democracies. In its simple
form, it prescribes that an individual should be free to publish what he or she likes, it
is thus extension of other rights to hold opinions freely, to express them, to assemble
and organize with others. The free press theory needs no elaboration as is evident
from the first amendment to the American constitution, which states that congress
shall make no lawabridging the freedom of speech or of the press, it is thus simply
an absolute right of the citizen.
But the application of press freedom has hardly been straightforward. Milton, Stuart
Mill and many others argued that if freedom is abused to the extent of threatening
good morals and the authority of the state, it must be restrained. According to de
Sola Pool (1973), no nation will indefinitely tolerate a freedom of the press thatserves to divided the country and to open the flood gates of criticism against the
freely chosen government that leads its. Moreover, much difficulty has arisen
because press freedom has become identified with property rights (private
ownership) and freedom from interference in the market. The free press theory or the
libertarian theory thus protects the owners of media but fails to give equal
expression to the rights o editors and journalists or of the audiences.
3.2.3 Social Responsibility Theory
The social responsibility theory is an extension of the libertarian theory in that the
press recognizes that it has a responsibility to society to carry out its essential
functions. The social responsibility theory ascribes basically the same six functions
to the press as the libertarian theory:
1. Providing information, discussion, and debate on public affairs
2. Instructing and informing the public to make it capable of self government3. Protecting the rights of the individual against the government through its
watchdog function
4. Maintaining the economic equilibrium of the system by bringing togetherbuyer, seller, and advertiser
5. Providing entertainment6. Remaining independent of outside pressures by maintaining its own economic
self-sufficiency.
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The basic principles of the social responsibility theory uphold conflict resolution
through discussion; there is high regard for public opinion, consumer action, and
professional ethics and jealous guard over private rights and important social
interests. This theory emerged in the United States in the twentieth century, and it is
evidenced today in the Anglo-American nations.
The social responsibility theory is based on the assumption that media serve
essential functions in society. Therefore, it should accept and fulfill certain
obligations to the society. These obligations are to be met by setting high
professional standards in communication of information, truth, accuracy, objectivity
and balance. In accepting and discharging these obligations, the media should be
self-regulatory within the framework of law and established institutions. In the
public interest, the media should underplay that news which might lead to crime,
violence, and social tension or cause offence to ethnic or religious minorities. The
media should be pluralist, should reflect the diversity of their society and allowaccess to various points of view, including the right to reply.
This theory has lead to the establishment of self-regulatory bodies like the Press
Council, which is responsible for
Drawing up of statutes to protect editorial and journalistic practice
Framing of codes of ethics Ensuring implementation of anti-monopoly legislation, and
Regulation of advertising
3.2.4 Soviet Media Theory
This is also called as the communist media theory. Just as the social
responsibility theory is an outgrowth of the libertarian theory, soviet-communist
theory is an outgrowth of the authoritarian theory. However, whereas according to
the authoritarian theory the press resides outside the government, in the soviet media
theory the press and the state are held to be one. The main purpose of the soviet-
media theory is to ensure the success and continuance of the soviet socialist system
and to promote the objectives of the soviet socialist party. This system is found
mainly in the Soviet Union and other communist countries. In addition to the
authoritarian theory this theory is related to the power of the press, gate
keeping/information control, and agenda-setting theories.
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Russian media was reorganized after the revolution of 1917. This theory is derived
mainly from basic tenets of Marx and Engels. It envisages media to be under the
control of the working class whose interest they are meant to serve. Private
ownership of the press or other media is ruled out. The media must serve positive
functions in society relating to information, education, motivation, and mobilization.
The media must project society in accordance with the Marxist-Leninist principles.
They must support progressive movements in the country and abroad.
The media according to this theory are subject to the ultimate control of the state and
are integrated with other instruments of political life. Within these limits, the media
are expected to be self-regulatory. They must
Act with responsibility Evolve and follow norms of professional conduct, and Respond to peoples needs and aspirations.
The media as per this theory are not subject to arbitrary interference as in the case of
the authoritarian theory.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1.Give another name of Soviet Media Theory.
3.2.6 Democratization Theory
This is the most recent addition to the list of normative theories; is relevant to the
developed liberal societies but has some elements of the development media theory.
Mc Quail notes that it is most difficult to formulate this theory partly because it
lacks full legitimization and incorporation into media institutions and partly because
some of its tenets are already to be found in some of the other theories. In his
opinion, this theory represents a challenge to the reigning theories and merits
separate identification.
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The main feature of the democratic participant theory relates
to the needs, interests, and aspirations of the active receiver
in a political society. It is concerned with the right to
information, the right to answer back, the right to use the
means of communication for interaction in the small-scalesettings of the community. The theory favors
Multiplicity of media Smallness of scale, of operation and Horizontality of communication at all levels. It
opposes uniform, centralized, high cost, highly
professionalized and state-controlled media.
It is argued that the media should exist primarily for the
audiences and not for media organizations and professionals.
3.3 SUMMARY
Mass communication theory is best understood as a branch
of social theory. Indeed, the attempt to theorize society
and communication arise in the same moment. A theorist
is, one who argues, gives reasons and makes connections tolarger problems. Theory is not only something that people
do in their armchairs; it is an art that every scholar, if not
citizen and human, should cultivate. All theories are a re-
approach with the past of an established theory.
3.4 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
Q1. Discuss any two theories of Mass Communication?
Q2. What are the salient features of Authoritarian theory?Q3. What do we mean by Development Communication?Q4. What is the social responsibility of the press?
Q5. Explain the features of the Soviet Media?
3.5FURTHER READING
1.Mass Communication & Development Dr. Baldev Raj
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Gupta
2.Mass Communication in India Keval J Kumar3.Mass Communication Journalism in India D S Mehta4.Mass Communication Theory Denis Mc Quail
CHAPTER 1:
Development of Human Communication
The Meaning of Communication
Communication is an ever continuing process and an integral partof the world of all living things. The need for communication is
as basic as the hunger for food and drink, perhaps even more so.
It is an individual as well as a social need.
Derived form the Latin word communis, meaning common,
communication is a synonym for interchange, dialogue, sharing,
interaction or communion. It is the passing of meaningful
messages and the receiving of feedback. The Encyclopedia
Britannicadefines communication as the exchange of meaning
between indi viduals or groups through a common system of
symbols or l anguage.
Denis McQuail (Towards a Sociology of Mass Communication,
1975) sees human communication as the sending of meaningful
messages from one person to another. These messages could be
oral or written, visual or olfactory. He also includes laws,
practices, customs, ways of dressing, gestures, military parades
and flags as methods of communication.
Human communication went through different stages of
development. At first this development was driven by the process
of mankinds evolution from the lower species, later it was drivenby technological human progress.
Historical Survey of Communication:
The Age of Signs and Signals
The Age of Speech and Language
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The Age of Writing
The Age of Printing
The Mass Communication Age
The Age of Information Revolution
1. The Age of Signs and Signals
Prehistoric humans were physically unable to talk.
Communication was limited and determined by instincts. It was
the age of signs and signals - drum messages, smoke signals,music, dance etc.
2. The Age of Speech and Language
Mans first achievement was speech and language. It gave him an
eminent position over others. Growth of different languages gave
birth to different expressions that denoted distinctions within
communities. Certain languages acquired the traits of others, e.g.,
the language of conquerors was absorbed into the local dialect.
This then became the language of administration and commerce.
3. The Age of Writing
About 5,000 years ago, hieroglyphic writing was developed by
the Mayans and the Chinese. They used pictures with a
standardized meaning. The Sumerians developed a different form
of writing that represented sounds by symbols. This allowed
information to be stored and for traditions to be passed on in
writing. Clay, stone and later papyrus were developed and used
as portable media. Writing gave permanence to the spokenlanguage. Writing was slow to develop because the clergy, who
were the seats of power, wanted it to be their sole privilege.
4. The Age of Print
In the 1st century A.D, China invented paper. In the 8th century
the Arab world began to manufacture paper. In the 15th century,
the Gutenberg press was invented and printing began in Europe.
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As a consequence, information could be copied much faster and
with far fewer mistakes than before. Availability of information
was no longer restricted to the Roman Church and to nobility, but
open to a wider section of European societies. This was the basis
for further historical development that culminated in the Thirty-
Years-War. Books were followed by the development ofpamphlets and then newspapers in the 17th century. Some
newspapers began to be edited by the then subjugated Asians and
Africans in spite of severe opposition. Revolutionary journals
began to see the light of day and enjoyed wide readership.
5. The Mass Communication Age
In the 19th century, communication was determined by several
media forms. Print media, especially newspapers, were
supplemented by telegraph and telephone. The introduction ofradio, film and television in the 20th century saw the emergence
of the Mass Communication era.
6. The Age of Information Revolution
At present, we are living amidst an information revolution.
Integrated multimedia applications are now possible due to
networks established from the development of digital
communication technology. Hypertext structures form the basis
for communication and navigation within the system.
CONCLUSIONS
Communication is a carrier of a social process and man is a social
being because of communication.
Communication influences others and in turn is influenced by
them.
Communication gives people a sense of belonging and reduces
loneliness and frustration by helping people adapt to theirenvironment.
The communication revolution has marched along with the
industrial revolution and the media has been shaped by powerful
economic and social forces, such as the rise of democracy.
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CHAPTER 2:
Theories of Communication
Chapter 1 focused on the developmental stages ofCommunication and summed up Communication as a complex
and dynamic process leading to the evolution of meaning.
The study of communication and mass media has led to the
formulation of many theories: structural and functional theories
believe that social structures are real and function in ways that
can be observed objectively; cognitive and behavioral theories
tend to focus on psychology of individuals; interactionist
theories view social life as a process of interaction; interpretive
theories uncover the ways people actually understand their own
experience; and critical theories are concerned with the conflict
of interests in society and the way communication perpetuates
domination of one group over another .
The earliest theories were those propounded by Western theorists
Siebert, Paterson and Schramm in their bookFour Theories Of
the Press (1956). These were termed "normative theories" by
McQuail in the sense that they "mainly express ideas of how the
media ought to or can be expected to operate under a prevailing
set of conditions and values." Each of the four original or
classical theories is based on a particular political theory oreconomic scenario.
CLASSICAL THEORIES
Authoritarian Theory
According to this theory, mass media, though not under the direct
control of the State, had to follow its bidding. Under an
Authoritarian approach in Western Europe, freedom of thought
was jealously guarded by a few people (ruling classes), who were
concerned with the emergence of a new middle class and wereworried about the effects of printed matter on their thought
process. Steps were taken to control the freedom of expression.
The result was advocacy of complete dictatorship. The theory
promoted zealous obedience to a hierarchical superior and
reliance on threat and punishment to those who did not follow the
censorship rules or did not respect authority. Censorship of the
press was justified on the ground that the State always took
precedence over the individual's right to freedom of expression.
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This theory stemmed from the authoritarian philosophy ofPlato
(407 - 327 B.C), who thought that the State was safe only in the
hands of a few wise men. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679), a
British academician, argued that the power to maintain order was
sovereign and individual objections were to be ignored. Engel, a
German thinker further reinforced the theory by stating thatfreedom came into its supreme right only under Authoritarianism.
The world has been witness to authoritarian means of control
over media by both dictatorial and democratic governments.
Libertarianism or Free Press Theory
This movement is based on the right of an individual, and
advocates absence of restraint. The basis of this theory dates back
to 17th century England when the printing press made it possible
to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at cheap rates. TheState was thought of as a major source of interference on the
rights of an individual and his property. Libertarians regarded
taxation as institutional theft. Popular will (vox populi) was
granted precedence over the power of State.
Advocates of this theory were Lao Tzu, an early 16th century
philosopher, John Locke of Great Britain in the17th century,
John Milton, the epic poet ("Aeropagitica") and John Stuart
Mill, an essayist ("On Liberty"). Milton inAeropagitica in 1644,
referred to a self righting process if free expression is permitted
"let truth and falsehood grapple." In 1789, the French, in their
Declaration Of The Rights Of Man, wrote "Every citizen may
speak, write and publish freely." Out of such doctrines came the
idea of a "free marketplace of ideas." George Orwell defined
libertarianism as "allowing people to say things you do not want
to hear". Libertarians argued that the press should be seen as the
Fourth Estate reflecting public opinion.
What the theory offers, in sum, is power without social
responsibility.
Social Responsibility Theory
Virulent critics of the Free Press Theory were Wilbur Schramm,
Siebert and Theodore Paterson. In their bookFour Theories Of
Press, they stated "pure libertarianism is antiquated, outdated and
obsolete." They advocated the need for its replacement by the
Social Responsibility theory. This theory can be said to have
been initiated in the United States by the Commission of The
Freedom Of Press, 1949. The commission found that the free
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market approach to press freedom had only increased the power
of a single class and has not served the interests of the less well-
off classes. The emergence of radio, TV and film suggested the
need for some means of accountability. Thus the theory
advocated some obligation on the part of the media to society. A
judicial mix of self regulation and state regulation and highprofessional standards were imperative.
Social Responsibility theory thus became the modern variation in
which the duty to one"s conscience was the primary basis of the
right of free expression.
Soviet Media/Communist Theory
This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engel that
"the ideas of the ruling classes are the ruling ideas". It was
thought that the entire mass media was saturated with bourgeoisideology. Lenin thought of private ownership as being
incompatible with freedom of press and that modern
technological means of information must be controlled for
enjoying effective freedom of press.
The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to
educate the great masses of workers and not to give out
information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as it
was the only way the media would be able to cater to its interests.
Two more theories were later added as the "four theories of thepress" were not fully applicable to the non-aligned countries of
Asia, Africa and Latin America, who were committed to social
and economic development on their own terms. The two theories
were:
Development Communication Theory
The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that
there can be no development without communication. Under the
four classical theories, capitalism was legitimized, but under the
Development communication theory, or Development SupportCommunication as it is otherwise called, the media undertook the
role of carrying out positive developmental programmes,
accepting restrictions and instructions from the State. The media
subordinated themselves to political, economic, social and
cultural needs. Hence the stress on "development
communication" and "development journalism". There was tacit
support from the UNESCO for this theory. The weakness of this
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theory is that "development" is often equated with government
propaganda.
Democratization/Democratic Participant Media Theory
This theory vehemently opposes the commercialization of
modern media and its top-down non-participant character. The
need for access and right to communicate is stressed.
Bureaucratic control of media is decried.
2) MAGIC BULLET/ HYPODERMIC NEEDLE/
STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY
Before the first World War, there was no separate field of study
on Communication, but knowledge about mass communication
was accumulating. An outcome of World War I propaganda
efforts, the Magic Bullet orHypodermic Needle Theory cameinto existence. It propounded the view that the mass media had a
powerful influence on the mass audience and could deliberately
alter or control peoples' behaviour.
Klapper (1960) formulated several generalizations on the effects
of mass media. His research findings are as follows: "Mass-
media ordinarily does not serve as a necessary and sufficient
cause of audience effect, but rather functions through a nexus of
mediating factors and influences. These mediating factors render
mass-communication as a contributory agent in a process of
reinforcing the existing conditions."
The main mediating factors which he considers responsible for
the functions and effects of mass communications are
- selective exposure i.e., people's tendency to expose themselves
to those mass communications which are in agreement with their
attitudes and interests; and
- selective perception and retention i.e., people's inclination to
organize the meaning of mass communication messages into
accord with their already existing views.
3) TWO STEP FLOW THEORY
In the early 40"s, before the invention of television, Lazarsfeld,
Berelson and Goudet conducted an American survey on mass
campaigns. The study revealed that informal social relationships
had played a part in modifying the manner in which individuals
selected content from the media campaign. The study also
indicated that ideas often flowed from the radio and newspapers
to opinion leaders and from them to the less active sections of
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society. Thus, informal social groups have some degree of
influence on people and mould the way they select media content
and act on it.
Figure 2.1
Source: CIA Advertising atwww.ciadvertising.org/ortega/Theories.htm (used by permission)
4) ONE STEP FLOW THEORY
This theory simply stated that mass communication media
channels communicate directly to the mass audience without the
message being filtered by opinion leaders.
5) MULTI STEP FLOW THEORY
This was based on the idea that there are a number of relays in
the communication flow from a source to a large audience.
6) USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
This theory propounded by Katz in 1970, is concerned with how
people use media for gratification of their needs. An outcome of
Abraham Maslow'sHeirarchy of Needs, it propounds the fact
that people choose what they want to see or read and the different
media compete to satisfy each individual"s needs.
In the hierarchy of needs, there are five levels in the form of a
pyramid with the basic needs such as food and clothing at thebase and the higher order needs climbing up the pyramid. The
fulfillment of each lower level need leads to the individual
looking to satisfy the next level of need and so on till he reaches
the superior-most need of self-actualization.
Figure 2.2
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Source :William G Huitt - Valdosta University atchiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/ (used by permission)
The Uses and Gratifications approach reminds us that people
use media for many purposes. As media users become
increasingly confronted with choices, this approach should direct
our attention to the audience. Lull's television research found that
families used television for communication facilitation,
relationship building, intimacy, and for structuring the day. In
general researchers have found four kinds of gratifications:
1. Information - we want to find out about society and the
world- we want to satisfy our curiosity. This would fit the news
and documentaries which both give us a sense that we are
learning about the world.
2. Personal Identity - we may watch the television in order to
look for models for our behaviour. So, for example, we may
identify with characters that we see in a soap. The characters help
us to decide what feel about ourselves and if we agree with their
actions and they succeed we feel better about ourselves.
3. Integration and Social Interaction - we use the media inorder to find out more about the circumstances of other people.
Watching a show helps us to empathize and sympathize with the
lives of others so that we may even end up thinking of the
characters in programme as friends.
4. Entertainment - sometimes we simply use the media for
enjoyment, relaxation or just to fill time.
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Riley and Riley (1951) found that children in peer groups used
adventure stories from the media for group games while
individual children used media stories for fantasizing and
daydreaming. The study thus found that different people use the
same messages from the media for different purposes.
Katz replaced the question "what do media do to people?" with
the question "what do people do with the media?" Katz,
Gurevitch & Hass found that the media are used by
individuals to meet the following specific needs :
Cognitive needs (acquiring information, knowledge and
understanding);
Affective needs (emotional, pleasurable experience);
Personal integrative needs (strengthening self image);
Social integrative needs (strengthening self image);
Tension release needs (escape and diversion)
McQuail, Blumler and Brown suggested the following
individual needs categories:
1) Diversion (emotional release)
2) Personal Relationships (substitute of media for
companionship).
3) Personal identity or individual psychology (value
reinforcement, self understanding.)
4) Surveillance (information that may help an individual
accomplish tasks.)
B. Rubin and Bantz (1989) studied the uses and gratifications of
"new technology" by examining VCR use. They found the
following motives for VCR use:
1) library storage of movies and shows
2) watching music videos
3) Using exercise tapes
4) renting movies
5) letting children view
6) time-shifting7) Socializing by viewing with others
8) Critical viewing including TV watching and studying tapes
7) SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY
Propounded by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, this theory states that
the media publicizes opinions that are mainstream and people
adjust their opinions according to their perceptions to avoid being
isolated. Individuals who perceive their own opinion as being
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accepted will express it, whilst those who think themselves as
being a minority, suppress their views. Innovators and change
agents are unafraid to voice different opinions, as they do not fear
isolation.
Figure 2.3
Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/
8) CONSISTENCY THEORIES (1950s)
Festinger formulated the consistency theories that talked about
people"s need for consistency in their beliefs and judgements. In
order to reduce dissonance created by inconsistencies in belief,
judgments and action people expose themselves to information
that is consistent with their ideas and actions, and they shut out
other communications.
9) McCOMBS AND SHAW"S AGENDA SETTING
THEORY
This theory puts forth the ability of the media to influence the
significance of events in the public's mind. The media set the
agenda for the audience's discussion and mentally order and
organize their world. The theory is consistent with a "use and
gratification" approach. McCombs and Shaw assert that the
agenda-setting function of the media causes the correlation
between the media and public ordering of priorities. The people
most affected by the media agenda are those who have a high
need for orientation
10) Media Dependency Theory
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Developed by Ball-Rokeach and DeFluer, the key idea behind
this theory is that audiences depend on media information to meet
needs and reach goals, and social institutions and media systems
interact with audiences to create needs, interests, and motives in
the person. The degree of dependence is influenced by thenumber and centrality of information functions and social
stability. Some questions that this theory raised were :
Do media create needs?
Do people turn to media to achieve gratification and satisfy
needs?
Are media needs personal, social, cultural, political, or all of
these?
"The media are our friends"??
11) STEPHENSON"S PLAY THEORY
Play is an activity pursued for pleasure. The daily withdrawal of
people into the mass media in their after hours is a matter of
subjectivity. The effect of mass communication is not escapism
nor seducing the masses. Rather it is seen as anti-anxiety
producing, and are regarded as communication-pleasure.
12) MODELING BEHAVIOUR THEORY
Behaviors which are modeled from media experiences can
become habitual if found useful and/or if they are reinforced in
the environment. This is not about violent or criminal behavior.
13) STALAGMITE THEORIES
These theories suggest that mediated experiences induce longterm effects that are very difficult to measure. The effects are like
stalagmite drippings building up over time. Meaning Theory and
the Cultivation Theory are two of the most significant Stalagmite
theories.
MEANING THEORYMedia experiences mould meanings by putting things in a
particular framework. Does "NYPD Blue" depict the real world
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of New York City police detectives? Questions like this are
coming from a Meaning Theory focus on media.
CULTIVATION THEORYGeorge Gerbner tried to determine the influence of television on
viewers" ideas of the environment they lived in. He found thatdominance of TV created a common view of the world and that it
homogenized different cultures. TV portrayed the society as a
bad place to live in leading to people becoming distrustful of the
world. Over time, particular symbols, images, messages,
meanings become dominant and are absorbed as the truth.
Cultural stereotypes, ways of assessing value and hierarchies are
established.
Figure 2.4
Source : From the Internet at www.colorado.edu/.../Theory/
cultivation/sld001.htm
14) Diffusion of innovations theory
Pioneered in 1943 by Bryce Ryan and Neil Gross of Iowa State
University this theory traces the process by which a new idea or
practice is communicated through certain channels over time
among members of a social system. The model describes the
factors that influence people's thoughts and actions and the
process of adopting a new technology or idea.
15) Social learning theory
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Formulated by Albert Bandura at Stanford University, this
specifies that mass-media messages give audience members an
opportunity to identify with attractive characters that demonstrate
behavior, engage emotions, and allow mental rehearsal and
modeling of new behavior. The behavior of models in the massmedia also offers vicarious reinforcement to motivate audience
members' adoption of the behavior.
Baran and Davis (2000) classify mass communication theories
into three broad categories:
1. microscopic theories that focus on the everyday life of people
who process information - for example, uses and gratifications,
active audience theory, and reception studies;
2. middle range theories that support the limited effects
perspective of the media - for example, information flow theory,diffusion theory, and
3. macroscopic theories that are concerned with media's impact
on culture and society - for example, cultural studies theory.
Theories of mass communication have always focused on the
"cause and effects" notion, i.e. the effects of the media and the
process leading to those effects, on the audience's mind. Harold
Lasswell and Berelson have succinctly expressed this idea.
Lasswell's essential question is timeless (1949): "Who says what
in what channel to whom with what effects?" Berelson said:
"Some kinds of communication, on some kinds of issues, broughtto the attention of some kinds of people, under some kinds of
conditions, have some kinds of effects." (1949).
Figure 2.5
Wilbur Schramm stated: "In fact, it is misleading to think of the
communication process as starting somewhere and ending
somewhere. It is really endless. We are little switchboard centers
handling and rerouting the great endless current of
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information.... " (Schramm W.1954) quoted in McQuail &
Windahl (1981)
16) The Osgood and Schramm circular
model emphasizes the circular nature of
communication.
The participants swap between the roles of
source/encoder and receiver/decoder.
Figure 2.6
17) Gerbner's General Model
Gerbner's General Model also emphasizes
the dynamic nature of human communication.
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Figure 2.7
18) the Shannon-Weaver Model.
Shannon and Weaver produced a
general model of communication
known after them as the Shannon-
Weaver Model. It involved breaking
down an information system into sub-
systems so as to evaluate the efficiency
of various communication channels
and codes. They propose that all
communication must include six
elements:Source
Encoder
Channel
Message
Decoder
Receiver
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This model is often referred to as an " information model" of
communication. A drawback is that the model looks at
communication as a one-way process. That is remedied by the
addition of the feedback loop. Noise indicates those factors that
disturb or otherwise influence messages as they are being
transmitted
19) Berlo's S-M-C-R Model
Berlo"s SMCR (SOURCE, MESSAGE,
CHANNEL, and RECEIVER) model
focuses on the individual characteristics of
communication and stresses the role of the
relationship between the source and the
receiver as an important variable in the
communication process. The more highlydeveloped the communication skills of the
source and the receiver, the more
effectively the message will be encoded
and decoded.
Berlo's model represents a communication
process that occurs as a SOURCE drafts
messages based on one's communication
skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and
cultural system. These MESSAGES aretransmitted along CHANNELS, which can
include sight, hearing, touch, smell, and
taste. A RECEIVER interprets messages based on the individual's
communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and
cultural system. The limitations of the model are its lack of
feedback
Terms used in the chapter:
Mass-media:It is a collective phrase that represents not only the press, cinema,
radio, television and internet, but also to some extent, books
magazines, pamphlets , direct mail literature, posters, folk media,
and natural communication methods such as rumours, education
and preaching. It is so termed because its reach extends to vast
heterogeneous populations. Generally the mass media employ
technological means to communicate to the masses. They are
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founded on the idea of mass production and distribution. Wiebe
defined mass media as those readily available to the general
public.
Selective attention:
The media are full of competing messages. The process ofscreening vast amount of information in which one has no
interest through mental filters is called selective attention, for
example, an adult will be more tuned to listening to the news
while a child would rather watch a cartoon show.
Selective perception:This is the tendency to interpret communication messages in
terms of one"s existing attitudes. People of distinct psychological
character same media content in different ways. This depends on
factors such as age, values, family, opinions etc. Selective
perception is influenced by social relationships.
Selective retention:The ability of an individual to retain certain messages in his mind
while ignoring others is called selective retention. This is
influenced by various psychological and physiological factors
such as choice, values, culture, emotions etc.
Selective exposure:Some individuals are exposed to certain media effects/messages
while some are not. This screening aspect depends on many
factors such as reach of media, accessibility, age, cultural
acceptability, taboos, etc.
Opinion leaders/change agents:The opinions of people in a group are influenced by what they
hear from "opinion leaders". An individual who is a member of a
group manifests certain characteristics in his thinking and
behaviour that contribute to the formation of "public opinion".
The opinion of the leader is based on rational thinking due to
education and experience. They weigh the pros and cons of the
information they receive and then give their judgement on it.
Encoder:In the process of communication, the sender or source of the
message is referred to as the encoder.
Decoder:The person receiving the message and decodes it is referred to as
the decoder.
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Feedback:Feedback, a term form cybernetics, the study of messages. It
refers to an inquiry, response or experiment. Feedback can be
positive (when the required result is achieved) or negative;
instantaneous(when the response is immediate) or delayed.
Feedback is used to gauge the effectivenss of a particularmessage put forth or situation that has taken place.
Noise:In all communication, there is a sender, a
message/communication and a receiver. The meaning of a
message is greatly dependent on the culture in which it is
transmitted. The sender encodes a message, the receiver decodes
it. Between the sender, the message and receiver, noise gets in the
way and complicates the process. A noiseless communication
does not exist. There always is some kind of noise entering thecommunication. Noise can be physical noise for example static or
psychological i.e. when culture, taboos or values come into play
to disrupt the normal transmission process of communication.
Misunderstanding of a particular message i.e. distortion of
meaning is a form of noise, example, the game of Chinese
Whisper"a person starts off with a particular message and the
original message may be distorted by the time it comes to the
final player
Chapter 3:
Uses and Effects of mass media
Chapter 2 focused on the various theories of communication and
the effects that the tools of media have on the audiences.
This chapter will focus on the several types of communication
classified on the basis of the social group in which it takes placeand upon the technical tools used for its facilitation. The various
types are:
Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is one-way communication.
Individual contemplation, internal reflection, prayers, etc. are
types of intrapersonal communication. This type can also be
termed as a form of internal persuasion. There are two types of
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messages, nonverbal and verbal. Examples of nonverbal
communication are facial expressions, posture, gestures, tone of
voice, touching, spacing and systematic use of time. Verbal
communication can be divided into three disciplines; syntactics,
semantics, and pragmatics.
In the persuasion context, one person is attempting to induce
change in the belief, attitude, or behavior in one other person. For
example: Jane persuading her sister Sarah to lend her pearls for
Janes school party.
In the persuasion context, there are various theories that explain
internal communication
Balance TheoryThis theory advocated by Fritz Heider and Theodore Newcomb
in 1946 states that when tensions arise between or inside people,they attempt to reduce these tensions through self-persuasion or
trying to persuade others. Balance theory proposes that there are
three ways in which a person can feel balance. First the source
and receiver can both dislike as well as like each other, so they
experience comfort and balance. Second, the source and receiver
can have a positive attitude toward an object or idea and display
positive feelings toward one another, therefore experiencing
comfort and balance. Third, the source and the receiver can
disagree about an idea or object and also dislike each other,
therefore experiencing comfort because they know that theydisagree about the values of certain objects or ideas.
Example:
Mary likes to do things in a planned, orderly manner and Joe
does not like orderliness in everything. Yet Mary likes Adam,
and values their relationship therefore this system is now in
imbalance. If Mary would change her attitude about orderliness
in everything, this system would be in balance.
Cognitive Dissonance TheoryThis theory propagated by Leon Festinger in 1962 says that
human beings often have conflicting beliefs with actions they
take, or other beliefs they have. This dissonance creates a tension
and tension reduction is automatically sought by changing our
evaluations by some degree. Cognitive Dissonance is when you
have two good choices and you make your decision then you find
yourself unsure or in doubt about the choice you made. The
theory of Cognitive Dissonance implies that when there is tension
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we change a belief or an action. Many times selective exposure is
used which prevents dissonance. This theory also implies that we
experience more dissonance when the issue is more important,
when we put off a decision and the decision is permanent.
Example:
When marketers want to persuade their audience to buy a product
they must convince them that this is a good action and if their
beliefs do not match this action, they must persuade them to
change their beliefs. For instance if a health drink is introduced in
the market, and some consumers feel that it is really not essential
that they switch over to the new product from their usual cereal,
the advertisers will have to focus on the fact the health drink
contains health benefits such as cholesterol fighting, fat reducing
ingredients that their usual cereal lacks.
Information Manipulation Theory (IMT)
Theorist Steve A. McCornackpropounded this theory in 1992.
This states that a speaker purposefully and covertly violates one
of the conversational maxims of quantity, quality, relation and
manner with the intention of deceiving his/her listener.
Example:
X has an important school project due Wednesday. His professor
does not accept late papers. Monday night he went to the soccermatch and didn't start on the paper. Tuesday night he browsed the
net for information related to the project and managed to almost
finish the project. Wednesday morning, X overslept and arrived
only after class was over. He goes to see his professor
immediately after. How will he answer his professor on why he
wasn't in class to turn in his paper?
Quantity: "I am sorry professor. I overslept."
Quality: "Our power got cut and my alarm didn't go off."
Relation: "I've had a really bad week. I had a fight with my
roommate, I forgot to pay the electricity bill, the electricity wasturned off and my boss has threatened to fire me if Im late
again."
Manner: "I badly need to score well in this project. My paper was
already finished, I just overslept".
The Inoculation Theory (1961) by William McGuire states that
inoculation is used to describe the attribution of greater resistance
to individuals or the process of supplying information to
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receivers before the communication process takes place in the
hope that the information would make the receiver more resistant.
This theory stresses on the importance of the nature of the
presentation of the message. One method involves passive
reading in which receivers read the defensive material. Another
method is to read the material and underline the passages relatingto the arguments presented in the defense. Next, experimenters
supply an outline where the defensive material is to be written
out. The last method is to write out the arguments without any
help.
Example:
McGuires basic method included constructing a persuasive
message attacking a cultural truism such as, An apple a day,
keeps the doctor away. This message would contain statements
like eatingtoo many apples can cause digestive problems.
Prior to this message, material would be introduced that should
strengthen the belief in the truism.
Rank's Model of Persuasion, 1976 (Theorist: Hugh Rank)
states that persuaders use two major strategies to achieve their
goals. These strategies are nicely set into two main schemas
known as (1) intensify, and (2) downplay. The persuader will do
this in one of four methods.
1) Intensify their own strong points.
2) Intensify the weak points of the opposition.3) Downplay their own weak points.
4) Downplay the strong points of the opposition.
Example:
While arguing about their favorite movies, Damien continues to
insist to Joey that the Terminator movies were much better than
the Matrix movies. Rank's Model contends that Damien will use
one of four main strategies to argue his point to Joey. He will
either:
1) Stress the great performances that were given by Terminator
lead actor Arnold Schwarzeneger, while pointing out the acclaim
that he received for the movies, OR
2) Stress what he believed was poor acting by Matrix lead actor
Keanu Reeves, OR
3) Downplay the weak points of the Terminator movies, OR
4) Downplay the terrific performance by the Matrix actors.
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Interpersonal Communication is an interactional process
between two people, either face-to-face or through mediated
forms. It is, in other words, a dialogue or conversation that is
personal, direct and intimate. A lot depends on the relationshipbetween the two individuals, their equality of status, the socio-
cultural environment in which the exchange takes place etc.
When a mechanical device mediates in an interpersonal
exchange, it is termed interpersonal mediated
communication. Feedback is instantaneous and easy to
measure. The following important aspects are stressed on:
Relational (Qualitative)Communication in which the roles of sender and receiver are
shared
by two people simultaneously in order to create meaning.Situational (Contextual)Communication that occurs between two people in a specific
context.
QuantitativeDyadic interactions, including impersonal communication.
Functional (Strategic)Communication for the purpose of achieving interpersonal goals.
Group Communication is an interactional process that occurs
among
three or more people interacting in an attempt to achievecommonly recognized goals either face-to-face or through
mediated forms. The larger the group, the less intimate and
personal is the possibility of exchange. Feedback is the key word
here. Feedback is not instantaneous and is difficult to measure.
Groupthinkis an important aspect in group communication.
This occurs when a homogenous highly cohesive group is so
concerned with maintaining unanimity that they fail to evaluate
all their alternatives. Groupthink members see themselves as part
of an in-group working against an outgroup opposed to their
goals. Groups engaged in groupthink tend to make faulty
decisions when compared to the decisions that could have been
reached using a fair, open, and rational decision-making process.
Group thinking groups tend to:
1- fail to adequately determine their objectives and alternatives,
2- fail to adequately assess the risks associated with the group's
decision,
3- fail to cycle through discarded alternatives to reexamine their
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worth after a majority of the group discarded the alternative,
4- not seek expert advice,
5- select and use only information that supports their position and
conclusions, and does not make contingency plans in case their
decision and resulting actions fail.
Group leaders can prevent groupthink by:
1- encouraging members to raise objections and concerns;
2- refraining from stating their preferences at the onset of the
group's activities;
3- allowing the group to be independently evaluated by a separate
group with a different leader;
4- splitting the group into sub-groups, each with different
chairpersons, to separately generate alternatives, then bringing
the sub-groups together to hammer out differences;
5- allowing group members to get feedback on the group'sdecisions from their own constituents;
6- seeking input from experts outside the group;
7- assigning one or more members to play the role of the devil's
advocate;
8- requiring the group to develop multiple scenarios of events
upon which they are acting, and contingencies for each scenario;
and
9- calling a meeting after a decision consensus is reached in
which all group members are expected to critically review the
decision before final approval is given.
Mass Communication
Mass Communication represents the creation and sending of a
homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience through
the media. Mass communication studies the uses and effects of
the media by many as opposed to the study of human interaction
as in other communication contexts.
Group communication has now been extended by the tools of
mass communication: the press, radio, television, video and
cinema. A lot of discussion has been generated on thepower of the mass media (termed by Daniel Learner as
mobility multipliers and by Schrammas magic
multipliers). A mass media, according to Schramm, is
essentially a working group organized around some device for
circulating the same message, at about the same time to large
numbers of people. Mass media are founded on the idea of mass
production and mass distribution.
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Functions of The Mass Media
The following are the basic functions performed by the mass
media:
1- Information: Surveillance of the environment relates to news
about the happenings in society. The mass media carry out this
function by keeping us informed about the latest events in and
around the world.
2- Entertainment: Mass media help us relax with family and
friends and pass time. They also fulfill our psychological and
social needs.
3- Symbolic Function: Mass media provide a shared symbolic
environment. George Gerbner sees television as the central
symbol of American culture.
4- Development: The mass media in developing countries of
Asia, Africa and Latin America perform the function offacilitators of development communication focusing on
the socio-economic needs of the backward sections of society.
5- Advertising: This is a commercial function that helps keep the
economic status of a country healthy. At the same time it would
be suicidal to let this function dominate over the other functions
of the mass media.
Effects
The word effects connotes different meanings for
different people. For e.g. a sociologist talks about social
effects. A psychologist has psychological effects in
mind while employing the term; an anthropologist - cultural
effects, the advertiser- the market effects and so on.
Bernard Berelsonarrived at the conclusion that some kinds
of communication on some kinds of issues, brought to the
attention of some kinds of people under some kind of conditions
have some kinds of effects.
Theories Of Media Effects
The Medium Not the Message
Marshall McLuhansaid The medium is the message. No
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matter what the contents of the programmes, he argued that the
audiences will watch televisionit commands their attention as
no other medium has. Mass Communications are neither good
nor bad, but rather mystical devices that possess powers to
change the way humans lead their lives.
Reinforcement
McLuhans theory did not find total support. Joseph
Klapper and other theorists believed in the reinforcement
function of mass media. Only after reinforcing existing values
and attitudes can programmes of the media be popular with the
majority of social groups interested in perpetuating their own
traditions and status.
Narcosis
Lazarsfeld and Merton held that the mass media could not be
relied upon to work for changes, even minor ones, in the social
structure. They perceived in mass communication a
narcotising dysfunction that distracts and prevents
audiences from facing real problems. Exposure to a flood of
information serve to narcotize rather than energize the average
audience.. This theory is now outdated as the media today have a
galvanizing effect in bringing about many revolutionary changes
example, bringing about an end to the Vietnam War, bringing
about Nixons exit through Watergate exposure etc.
Catharsis
Seymour Feshbach, the main exponent of this theory, argued
that the media may have a cathartic effect on the
audiences and purges them of anti-social or unfulfilled desires
and frustrations. A study was conducted on a group of college
students. They were subject to savage insults and criticisms by
experimenters. A portion of the group was shown an aggressive
film of a brutal boxing match, another portion was shown a dull
control film. It was found that those students who had
seen the aggressive film felt less hostile to their experimenters
than those who had seen the control film.
But in a parallel study conducted by Berkovitz, it was found that
the aggressive film was responsible for the aggressive response
of the students. Other experiments have shown that children are
likely to imitate violence in films.
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\
Manipulation
The manipulation theory by Ernst Van Haag is an extreme view
that states that mass communications are demeaning,
depersonalizing instruments of manipulation. But it is to be noted
that social and economic circumstances and not mass media
alone foster such hedonism.
Windows On The World
Edward Shils and David M. White are of the view that mass
media constitute windows on the world dealing in new
and popular culture that bring more of the good to more
people than ever before in history. But White talks about the
gate-keeper aspect of the editor who sees to it that only
those events which he believes to be true should reach the
audience.
Corruptive
Frederick Wertham also holds an extreme view that the content
of the media is corruptive and inculcates materialism and anti-
social behaviour towards others.
Receiver Factors
Several factors determine media influence. The role played by
primary, secondary and reference groups and by public opinion
leaders are important. Receiver factors are related intimately to
every aspect of the personality of the audience and must not be
considered in isolation. The main receiver factors are attitudes,
beliefs, opinions, interests, motivation and the manner of
processing, retaining and rejecting of information.
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CHAPTER 4:
Communication skills
Chapter 4 and 5 focus on the communication skills needed forpresenting news through the media with special reference to
reporting and editing for press journalism.
CHAPTER 5:
Journalistic WritingGood journalism has always been associated with competent
writing and competent writing has always required an easy
command of correct language and style. The style of a writer is
an involuntary and intimate expression of his personality. The
writer should match the mood of the audience. Style must be
most unobtrusive.
There are many ground rules for good writing. For example, good
writing follows the ABCD principle: Accuracy, Brevity,
Conciseness and Directness. A careful writer must remember thedistinction between denotation (direct meaning) and connotation
(suggested meaning). The use of active voice should be avoided
as it leads to brevity. The use of prepositions leads to the danger
of circumlocution. The principle of innate selection and control
of words most appropriate to the context must be followed.
Today's StyleNewspaper style in recent years has moved increasingly in the
direction of uncluttered writing. Simple, direct sentences are
desired. Complex and compound sentences may provide the best
vehicle for thought under certain circumstances, but also increase
the probability of ambiguity. The desire for economy in words
has produced tight, swiftly paced writing that has proved to be a
boon to newspaper reading. Loose writing is inefficient writing
that leads to wasting of words.
Tight writing is characterized by the absence of 'breaks' (commas
etc.) in the flow of simple sentences. But tightening that leads to
omitting should not be overdone.
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Today's journalistic style has the following characteristics:
Compact, usually short sentences, every word selected and placed
for maximum effect.
Short, terse paragraphs, each complete in itself and capable of
being removed without destroying the sense of the story.Conciseness, directness and simplicity through elimination of
unnecessary words and phrases
Factualness without editorial opinions and dogmatic expressions
'Strong' verbs and nouns preferred over hackneyed words and
expressions
Observance of grammatical and word usage rules.
Conciseness
The objective of effective journalistic writing should be to avoid
cumbersomeness without becoming repetitive. Relaxing the rulethat all of the 5 W's and H (Who, Why, What, Where, When and
How) must be included in the first paragraph of the news story
leads to uncluttered writing.
Superfluous Words
The articles the, a and an can be eliminated, as
Weak: The Harvard students who heard the lecture...
Better: Harvard students who heard the lectur...
The sentences may be shortened and made more forceful by
making the verbs more direct, as:
Weak: The group arrived at a decision.
Better: The group decided.
Weak: They did away with the old building.
Better: They razed the old building.
In theirArt of Editing (MacMillan, 1972) Floyd Baskette and
Jack Sissors list 48 'pet' circumlocutions that can be reduced to
save 100 words. Some of them are listed below:
A good part (much)
A little less than (almost)
Accidentally stumbled (stumbled)
Disclosed for the first time (disclosed)
Jewish Rabbi (Rabbi)
Due to the fact that (because)
Easter Sunday (Easter)
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Entered a bid of (bid)
Grand total (total)
In the immediate vicinity (near) etc.
It is not necessary to include the state with the names of large
cities, or to mention the state with the name of the city in thesame state as the place where the newspaper is published.
Weak: She lives in Los Angeles, California
Better: She lives in Los Angeles.
But:
Vague: He lives in Catskill.
Clear: He lives in Catskill, Pennsylvania
Don't waste words in giving dates, as:Weak: The meeting will be held at 12 o' clock noon.
Better: The meeting will be held at noon.
Superfluous Phrases
Weak: The meeting was held for the purpose of voting for the
Chairman.
Better: The meeting was held to vote for the Chairman.
Weak: The colour of the dress was redBetter: The dress was red.
Weak: A baby with brown eyes.
Better: A brown-eyed baby
Superfluous Clauses:
Weak: All women who are interested should come.
Better: All interested women should come.
Weak: John Donne, who is the President of the Engineer's club,
will be there.
Better: John Donne, President of the Engineer's club will be
there.
Redundancy:
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The following is a short list of redundant words commonly used:
1- assemble together
2- carbon copy
3- each and every
4- necessary requirement
5- first and foremost6- other alternative
7- totally necessary
8- small in size
9- postpone until later
10- rules and regulations etc
Simplicity:
This is obtained by avoiding 'elegant' words:
1- Aboutis better than with reference to2- agreementis better than concordance
3- burned is better than destroyed by fire
4- i fis better than in the event of
5- meeting is better than rendezvousand so on.
Active and Passive Voice:
The active voice is usually more emphatic than passive voice.
However, sometimes the later is preferred to the former:
e.g: Henry Stroke has been appointed chairman of the Republicancampaign committee.
In other cases, the active voice is preferable:
e.g.: Weak: The accident was witnessed by ten people
Better: Ten people witnessed the accident.
Figures Of Speech:
The following are examples of age-old figures of speech that
should be avoided as they are likely to be misused and mark their
user as callow.1- alike as peas in a pod
2- nipped in the bud
3- hail of bullets
4- watery grave
5- white as a sheet and so on
Journalese:
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Newspapers have exhausted the effectiveness of a number of
words through indiscriminate repetition. Such words as follows
should be avoided:
1- hot seat
2- brutally murdered
3- man hunt4- crime wave
5- infuriated mob
6- war clouds
7- whirlwind tour
8- quiz
9- grilled by the police
10- news leaked out and so on
Gobbledygook:
Pretentious phrasing or gobbledygook scares the reader away
from the story, for e.g.
National Association for Advancement of Gay People's Rights
attorneys told the Supreme Court today that overt public
resistance is insufficient cause to nullify federal court
desegregation orders.
Readability Formulas
Shortly after World War II, the two major press associations and
several magazines and newspapers experimented with readability
formulas that stressed brevity. The Associated Press reduced its
average lead sentence length from 27 to 23 words. The United
Press simplified its writing style to be suitable for readers with
11.7 years of education, whereas formerly it was writing for
readers who had gone to school 16.7 years.
Leads/Intros
A lead is the first paragraph or introduction of a news story thatgives the summary of the news to follow. Different kinds of leads
can be used to make the news story readable and interesting.
Some of the different kinds of leads are:
1- The 5 W's and one H: As already mentioned earlier in the
chapter, the who, why, what, where, when and how of the news
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need not be mentioned all together. A judicious use of the
necessary W's and H makes this kind of lead interesting.
2- The Quotation Lead: In reporting speeches, public
statements, etc. it is always better to typify the feature in thereporter's own words rather than by a direct quotation, e.g. :
Weak: "A sharp decline in mortality rates, medical progress and
greater economic prosperity have enabled welfare agencies to
solve most of their problems except that of the emotionally
disturbed child", Horace V. Updike, Council of Social Welfare
director said yesterday.
Better: "The emotionally disturbed child is the 'No. 1 problem'
facing welfare agencies today, Horace V. Updike, Council Of
Welfare director, said yesterday."
3- The Question Lead: Ordinarily a reporter should answer, not
ask questions in his news stories. To do otherwise merely delays
telling the news, as in the case of a lead beginning, "What causes
emotional apathy?" followed by a summary of a new idea
advanced by some authority on the subject.
4- The Staccato Lead: When the time element is to be
emphasized, this lead is used. It consists of a series of phrases,
punctuated either by periods or dashes and usually is a form ofdescriptive lead. E.g.: Almost thirty years ago-back in 1973-in a
different era-in a different life, after years of happiness in her
simple home, the light went out of Mrs X's life -she became stone
blind. Torturous, long years passed and suddenly her prayers
were answered - Mrs X could see.
5- The Explosive Lead: Similar to the Staccato lead but
consisting of grammatically complete sentences, the explosive
lead is usually used for feature articles.
6- The Dialogue Lead: Minor court stories with strong human
interest can be handled effectively by this kind of lead. The lead
consists of the dialogue between two people and then followed by
a summary or play-by-play account of the event.
7- The Cartridge Lead: When war is declared or ends, when a
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famous personality dies or on similar important occasions, it is
customary to tell the gist of the news in the fewest possible
words. E.g. Mayor Charles Canterbury is dead. This style should
not be frequently used but reserved for special occasions.
8- The Punch Lead: Similar to the Cartridge lead but not so
abrupt or definite is the Punch lead.
9- The Descriptive Lead: A graphic description of a person,
place or object to give the tone or feeling necessary for proper
understanding and appreciation. The best descriptive leads are
written by eyewitnesses.
10- The Parody Lead: Popular songs, titles of best-sellers,newly coined phrases etc. may be used while still fresh, usually
in parodied form to brighten an occasional news story lead.
CHAPTER 6:
Changes in the Social and Economic
Scenario
In today's modern democratic society, it is a common belief thatthe freedom enjoyed by the media is an essential prerequisite.
Yet, at the same time, it is also believed that the media are
turning politics into a trivial entertainment for couch potatoes.
Yet the mass media was created for citizens of a democracy to
decide the important issues of the day amongst themselves
through public debate, including in print. In the late-eighteenth
centuries, this participative form of media freedom was put into
practice. The exercise of the fundamental right of the freedom of
expression was made possible by the widespread ownership of
cheap wooden printing presses.Despite its libertarian claims, media freedom was the monopoly
in the hands of a few rich men, who could produce only a limited
number of expensive copies of publication. However, the
industrialization of printing allowed printed material to become
cheap enough for almost everyone to purchase. When the new
electronic media were introduced, information production
spiraled and was made available free to their audiences. But now
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the news content was determined by the management hierarchical
business institutions or the State.
The role of the media now came under the magnifying glass, with
different functions being attributed to it by different people. For
some, the interests of the audience were best served by the mediabeing objective and truthful in its reporting. For others, the media
had to serve the future interests of the people by disseminating
revolutionary ideas. But there was one common thing - the
complete passivity of the audience. Although almost everyone
could receive the output of the media, most people weren't able to
use the media to express their own views.
Over the past few years, the introduction of new information
technologies has intensified the centralization of the media. The
spread of new technologies has also encouraged the growth of
community media such as radio stations, cable televisionchannels and e-mail, having mass distribution potentiality. For
example, in cyberspace, a single global network or a web is being
spun out of a network of contributors and bulletin boards. The
community media are used by all sections of society as a means
of free expression.
Karl Deutsch, in his "Social Mobilization and Political
Participation", developed the concept of social mobilization, the
process whereby people become uprooted from their traditions
and become available for new patterns of communication andbehavior. According to him, the process of modernization should
be accompanied by an increase of exposure to mass media. Shaun
Moores in his 'Media and Everyday Life in Modern Society' talks
about the position that television, radio or other electronic media
like telephones and computers have come to occupy in people's
day-to-day lives and social relationships. He discusses how these
communication and information technologies have helped
construct new arrangements of time, space and place in a culture
with globalizing tendencies, and the types of identity, experience
and interaction the electronic media make available to their
different audiences or users. Combining theory with empirical
research, he discusses topics such as the meanings of satellite
dishes, the formation of imagined communities and the
presentation of self in virtual realities.
Communication and Development: Socio-Economic Impacts
of Media on the Traditional Structures of Developing
Countries
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Scholars have made interesting efforts to fashion meaningful
theories about the role of mass mediated communication in the
national development process. Most studies indicate relationships
among factors like economics, religion, press freedom etc. Daniel
Learner's study entitled 'The Passing Of Traditional Society'
noted high correlation among four factors: urbanization, literacy,media participation and political participation. Deutsch pointed
out a correlation between mass communication of a country and
its national spirit and action.
One school of thought attributed to the Western media an
essential role in overcoming undemocratic and unjust social
structures, while another school looked upon it as the essential
agent of destruction of indigenous cultures and identities.
Similar discussions about the socio-economic impacts of
information technologies (ITs) on society, independent of thediscussion concerning the developing countries, have led to the
argument on one hand that advancing technicalization of our
societies puts different individuals on the same platform and
blends them together; while on the other hand the opponents of
this thought argue that ITs break up societies into single groups,
which brings about disintegration and waning of solidarity.
John T. McNelly of the University of Wisconsin has written of
the lack of well-developed theories of the role of mass
communication in national development., but postulates at least 4general positions or points in the same context:
1- The Null Position: This holds that mass communication has
little or nothing to do with national development. Those taking
this position place emphasis on literacy and education and not on
the mass media
2- Enthusiastic Position: This is usually a position held by
UNESCO and other development-oriented agencies and
individuals. Here the mass media has a decisive role not only in
development but also establishing peace and stability.
3- Cautious Position: The 2-step flow theory (seeChapter 2 -
Theories of Communication) proposed by Katz and Lazarsfeld
relates to this position. This position supports that mass
communication is not omnipotent and a number of social and
cultural factors (such as opinions of opinion leaders) serve to
mediate or even nullify the impact of the mass media.
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4- Pragmatic Position: Persons accepting this position realize that
there are no adequate theories to predict the impact of
information flow for all types of messages in different societies,
in all situations. McNelly advocates adopting the pragmatic
position where the researcher seeks empirical evidence on the
effects of mass communication in a culture or society.
Digital Information Revolution
While the mass media (the press, radio, TV) facilitate one-to-
many communication processes and the interpersonal media
(telex, telephone) enable one-to-one communication processes,
the Internet ( an interactive network) is a many-to-many process.
The question therefore is whether the experiences gained from
mass and telecommunications media can be applied to interactive
networks too.
Hiltz & Turoff (1993) have coined the term "superconnectivity"
to mean
"1. The phenomenon of almost perfect transmission of
communication and information throughout the human
habitations of the universe, via computers. 2. The
interconnections of all social and economic institutions as a result
of communication via computer networks."
Guglielmo Marconi's invention of wireless telegraphy led to the
emergence of radio broadcasts almost 100 years ago. Since that
time, there have been major advances in broadcasting including;
radio, television, cable networks, the Internet, and more recent
innovations.
Two new "medias" that have put broadcasting onto the 'next
generation' course are Interactive Television and Personalized
Broadcasting. Microsoft acquired WebTV Networks, Inc. in
1997, a company that serves thousands today with their
technology that integrates the television and the Internet. It
consists of a set-top box and a subscription service. The serviceallows consumers to get access to the World Wide Web, e-mail,
and other interactive experiences not normally available through
the traditional cable or satellite services. Another service is the
'UltimateTV', that consists of a set-top box and modified
computer keyboard along with the satellite TV service. The
television then becomes a VCR, an ISP, an e-mail program, and a
TV all in one service; the convergence of entertainment and
information in an interactive environment.
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The wireless/mobile broadcasting medium is also experiencing
explosive growth. This type of broadcasting works on the idea
that a consumer can access news and information through any
wireless device such as a cell phone and receive it in audio
instead of text. Several General Audio Download, Mobile AudioCommunications and Personalized Broadcast (PB) companies
have entered the market to whet the public's appetite for
information
This is just the tip of the iceberg. From the initial invention of the
radio to the new media technology of today, it is clear that
consumer demand for personalization is driving broadcasting and
media. Consumers want more choices and more control over the
information they receive.
The consumers of the new media can now go interactive with
their TV sets. Public television is uniquely positioned to take full
advantage of new digital technology to serve the needs of its
viewers of all ages and ethnic backgrounds. For the past several
years, public television has been an industry leader in bringing
digital TV's (DTV) many new possibilities to reality. The digital
transition signifies the biggest change in the TV medium since
the advent of television itself. DTV technology provides a host of
new opportunities for public television to provide interactive
education and training programs never before possible with
today's analog broadcasting standard.
The Internet is viewed as the 'information utopia', the fulfillment
of an ancient dream of a free information flow uninfluenced by
government. But the principle of freedom must be complemented
by social responsibility. Communication connects people with
one another, breaks down prejudices, increases people's
knowledge about one another, and supports peaceful coexistence.
In all of these cases,