Www.ps-survival.com-A Planning Guide for Small Scale Livestock Projects 1984

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MlCROFlCtiEREFERENCEA project of Volunteers in AsiaA Planning Guide for Small Scale Livestock Projectsby Gordon Hatcher

Published by:Heifer Project InternationalP.O. Box 808Little Rock, Arkansas 72203USA

Available from:same as above

Reproduced by permission.Reproduction of this microfiche document in anyform is subject to the same restrictions as thoseof the original document.


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By Gordon Hatcher, DVMHEIFER PROJECT INTERNATIONALsax 80s T +tl- Dfi..L ~hw.r.-m~ 733fi, LlLLlL I\VL,R) n(ubx.w I IYV 3


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Livestock rejectsBYGordon Hatcher, DVM

In collaboration withJerry Aaker, MSWJames DeVri.es,.PhD

A publication of Heifer Project InternationalHEIFER PROJECT INTERNATIONAL, INC.P.O. Box 808Little Rock, Arkansas 72203U.S.A.August, 1984


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The Purpose Of This GuideOur purpose is to assist groups or individualswho have little or very limited experience withanimals, but who wish to undertake a livestockproject. The term livestock" is used here toinclude many of the animal species commonlyused by the small-holder, and therefore dealsalso with poultry, fish, and bees. The authorrecognizes that there are other importantdomestic animals which could have been covered,but it is not possible to include all thespecies which are related to agriculture.However, the general principles for a goodanimal project remain the same and the basicsoutlined in this guide can be applied to thespecies which are not specifically mentioned.It is our aim, first, to help you analyze thefeasibility of the project YOU areconsidering. If such a study encourages you toproceed, we hope YOU will use this guide toassist you in step-by-step planning andpreparation for the project.This handbook is intended for the p%rson who isworking with the small-holder, the landless ornearly landless rural family, or with women'sor youth groups. Those who may find theinformation useful include:

Field workers --community/ruraldevelopmentMissionariesVolunteers with private voluntaryorganizationsExtension workersVillage leadersAgricultural promotersi


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Obviously, adequate infownation on animalhusbandry would fill several volumes. Thisguide does not attempt to give suchinstruction, but it does list some books tostudy before YOU invest time, effort,enthusiasm or money in a livestock project.It is not our purpose to deal with social aims,per se, or the sociological and philosophicalaspects of development. We are hoping that theinexperienced person will find here practicalinformation for preliminary studies, and alsofor later planning of successful animalprojects.You will note that the book stresses tropicalconditions. This is because the area betweenthe Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn includesmost of the less-developed countries, generallyspeaking. Of course conditions vary widelywithin these latitudes-- from deserts to humidjungles; from below sea level to the highAndes. Approximately 60% of the world'scattle; 50% of the sheep; 90% of the goats; 95%of the buffalo are located in this zone.This guide assumes that you already have athorough knowledge of and sensitivity to yourcommunity's needs; and that you are a person ora group with influence and/or leadershipability to whom will be listened. Thesequalifications are prerequisites fOi- makingeffective use of this material.

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ForewordThis guide is based upon years of fieldexperience in animal agriculture, communitydevelopment, and extension programs with therural poor in Africa, Asia, Latin America andthe Caribbean. Each of us has lived overseasfor extended periods and has been involved inlivestock projects and training programs. Wehave studied animal improvement programs(successful and unsuccessful) in many parts ofthe world.Each of us has been a Program Director forHeifer Project International, a voluntaryagency which has pioneered the development ofanimal agriculture with small farmers in manycountries. (See the last chapter.) Inaddition, we have worked for and with variouschurch-related as well as other voluntaryorganizations, agencies of the U.S. Government,international and indigenous organizations,educational institutions and ministries ofagriculture in numerous countries.It is our hope that some of the things we havelearned the hard way" will help you to avoidmistakes and disappointments. It is notnecessary to "reinvent the wheel"--you canbuild your project on a foundation of theexperience (good and bad) of groups which havealready done what you are planning to do.This guide does not present new information,but is rather an attempt to gather usefulmaterial in one place to make it easilyaccessible.

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The authors wish to express appreciation toEllen Hatcher, Frankie Reynolds and CamilleCress for their valuable assistance in thepreparation of this Guide, and to SharonWooten, Barbara Carter and Bill Puppione fortheir sketches.Looking at the development of animal projectsdesigned to help the small farmer in many partsof the world, we gratefully acknowledge aprofound indebtedness to Dr. Thurl Metzger, whoserved Heifer Project International from itsinception in 1944 as both Executive Directorand Program Director. This debt is shared bythousands who have benefitted from his pioneerwork and the deep personal commitment which hasmotivated his efforts over the years.If you have questions or comments, pleaseaddress them to: Program Department, HeiferProject International, P.O. Box 808, LittleRock, Arkansas, 72203, USA.

Gordon Hatcher, DV?lin collaboration with: Jerry Aaker, MSWJames DeVries, PhD

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CONTENTS

The Case for Animal Agriculture m....*...*.e.. 1Preliminary Considerations In PlanningA Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..m.....*.....m. 2Genetic Improvement In Livestock......o...... 9Looking At Various Species..........,........ 17Project Monitoring ..*b...t*..s..C~~~B=*,=~~~. 52Farmer Education .*.........a..*.............* 59What Is Heifer Project?...................... 68Bibliography/Resource List.....-.....-...- 72Appendix: Heifer Project InternationalProject Rating Form . . ..*..........*.*....*e 77


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 1

The Case For Animal AgricultureAnimal proteins, as found. in milk, eggs andmeat, are needed to balance the plant proteinsin the human diet. It is very difficult foryoung children in the developing countries togrow properly without anima 1 protein. Breastfeeding provides the best source of protein, .ofcourse, but after weaning millions of infantsdo not receive an adequate supply of protein.This deficiency may result in permanent braindamage. BY balancing a diet which iscustomarily composed of starchy foods, cerealsand lentils, animal protein can greatly improvethe chances for normal development in childrenand good health in adults.In some parts of the world people depend upontheir animals for their very surviva 1 becauseof the scarcity of land which is suitable forcrop production. Ruminants are uniquely suitedto converting the forage on such land intohuman food.In Southeast Asia one pair of oxen or waterbuffalo, cultivating the rice paddies, can feed100 people. Animal transport of crops is of tenvital because of nearly impassable roads inmany parts of the world. These are only twoexamples of the importance of animal power.An ima 1 manure for fuel, as well as forfertilizer, is just one of many valuableby-products of livestock raising. Wool, skins,hair, bone-meal and blood-meal have numeroususes and provide a livelihood for many people.


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Preliminary ConsiderationsIn Planning A ProjectThe following is a do-it-yourself appraisal ofthe possibilities for a good livestockproject. Ask yourse 1 f (selves) the followingquest ions and rate your proposed undertakingaccordingly:A. Whose idea is this proposed livestockproject?

1. Did the idea come from the peoplethemselves?2. Did it come from you?3. How many people in the community arereally serious about the project?4. Are you the advisor? If you are not amember of the community, do you have acounterpart within the community?

B. why do these people want an animal project?1. Is it to increase food production?2. Is it to improve diet and nutrition?3. Is it intended to make money?4. Is it to secure ownership of the land?5. Is it to utilize idle land?A yes answer to any of the above 5quest ions would be a valid reason toconsider a livestock project.

c. Have you and/or knowledgeable personscarefully studied the proposed project to seewhether it is feasible and practical? (Afeasible project is one in which the livestockbeing considered can reasonably be expected to


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produce results in the proposed setting; apractical project is one in which the people tobe benefitted can handle the production taskswhich are involved.)1.2.3.

4.

5,

6.

Have the findings of your study beenfavorable?What problem areas has your studyrevealed?Is there opposition to the proposedproject with the community?. . . . . from the neighbors?Is there a spirit of cooperationwithin the community?. . . . . within your group?Will the entire community eventuallybenefit from this project?. . . . . or only a few families?Have you considered that acquisitionof animals by a few people might causeresentment in the community?. . . . . how would you resolve such aproblem?

D. Assuming that there is strong support fromthe community, and cooperation within yourgroup 5 ask yourself (selves) as impart ially aspossible the following questions:

1. Are the people who hope to participatein the project thinking realisticallyabout the costs in money, time, hardwork and resources needed for aSuCCeYLU*cf,,l animal project?2. Are they able and willing to take timefrom their regular activities toparticipate in the project over a longperiod --after the first enthusiasm hasdisappeared?3, Are they sufficiently motivated andmentally prepared to carry throughwith the project in spite of possiblebad luck or other discouragements?


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4. Are they aware of how long it willtake to get a crop?E. If the answers to the abovepositive, questions arecant inue your consideration of thesespecific points:

1.2.

3.

4.

5.

What kind(s) of animals are beingproposed for the project?Have the people had experience withthese species?. . . . . if so, were the results positive?. . . . . what problems did they have?. . . . . did they solve their problems?Are there neighbors who are raisingthis kind of animal?. . . . . if so, what has been theirexperience?What animals do you already have inyour community?. . . . . are they healthy and reproducingwell?..**. are their owners taking goodcare of them?. . . . . do the animals have enough toeat now?Is the proposed project compatiblewith the planning of your countrysMinistry of Agriculture?

F. Climatic conditions?1. Is the climate in your area favorable

for raising this kind of animal?. . . . . will it survive in the extremesof heat or cold of your climate?. ... altitude?. . . . . heavy rains?2. Are there times during the year whenthere will be shortages of feed and/orwater?3, Have you seriously considered what you


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could do for the animals in case ofdrought or flooding, or otherconditions which would affect theirfeed and water supply?G. Management:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Will there be a constant supply offeed?This includes whatever feed you wouldneed to purchase--is there a.dependable source?. ..m. have you calculated the probablecosts of feed?Will the animals be stable-fed?Tethered? Caged?. ...* who will be responsible forfeeding them?Remember this is a daily task.Is there an animal expert in yourgroup, or easily available forconsultation? You will need thedependable assistance of someone whois knoledgeable about the care of theanimals.Do the participants or the group ownthe land to be used for the project?. . . . . if not, what security does theproject have?Record-keeping is vital. IS theresomeone in your group who has a talentfor this?Is your project in an isolated area?What protection will you have againstthieves?Have you ccnsidered how your projectmight affect the environment? Thatis, your environment and yourneighbors'.. . . . . water rights, drainage problems,flies odors, noises, dust, animalsrunning loose --any of these could be anuisance, or possibly a disaster.


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H. Technical assistance: (This is anecessity!)1. Is an agricultural extension serviceavailable?

. . . . . is it reliable?. . . . . is it free?2. Is there a veterinarian near theproject site who is willing and ableto come when called?3. Is there a diagnosticservice? laboratory4. In the absence of the aboveassistance, what expertbe able to get?

help will you

I. Economic planning:1.

2.

3.4.

For a project to succeed, the project-holders themselves must investsomething in it.. . . . . does the group have any money toput into the undertaking?. . . . . if there is no money, can theycontribute land? building materials?feed? what resources can they furnish?What financial benefits are expectedfrom the project?. . . . . how long will it be beforeproceeds from the project will pay thecosts of getting it started?a.... when do you @estimate (conserva-tively) that there will begin to be aprofit from the project?. . . . . how important is the above dateto the continuation of the effort?. . . . . what plans do you have if yourcosts exceed suchinflation? income, as duringHas a realistic, detailed budget beenworked out by or for your group?Have realistic start-up andcosts been calculated? production


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5. Will the project require financialassistance from the outside?. . . . . are you expecting a grant?l ...* can you qualify for a loan? Ifso, how and when will you be able torepay the loan?6. Where are the markets for your product?. . . . . will transporting animals orproduce to market be difficult?costly?7 1 Is your project going to be able tocompete in the market against otherswho are selling the same product?. . . . . are competitors located nearerthe market than you are?

Make your plans for 3-5 years inadvance, because it requires timefor animals to reproduce. Especiallyin the c.ase of cattle, results wontshow for several years.Also, multi-year planning and fundingare usually more attractive to donoragencies than one-time-only projects.

J. Planning ahead:1. What do you envision that the resultsof this project would be 5 years fromnow?2. Have you made an estimated time-tablefor the various steps in the project,as you work toward your expectedaccomplishments a year from now?. . . . . three years from now?. . . . . five years from now?. . . . . when will the pastures be ready?. . . . . when will fences and shelters beconstructed?


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P!Xi.EC? B~NMIJG GUIDE 8

3. When will the intended recipients ofthe animals be trained to care . forthem? (This should be done before theanimals arrive.)..I.. who will conduct the trsilingcourses?4. Are you establishing a prospectivemarket now?5. How do you envision that YOtii projectwill, in the long run, benefit alarger group of people who need thistype of help?. . . . . will members of ypl?f groupeventually become expert enough thatthey can assist other groups to getstarted with livestock projects?

ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT...In all your planning, look aheadto the effects your project may haveon your environment and on the lifeof your neighbors.Few activities are so isolatedthat they do not at some point affectthe efforts of other people. Willyour plans help to improve the situa-t ion for your neighbors and for futuregenerations? -- or will your activitiescreate new problems?For example, diverting a streamfor irrigation may dry up a neighborswell. Cutting trees may cause soil

erosion when heavy rains come. Live-s tack which are not well-managed cando serious damage to neighboring pro-PertY; and too many animals grazingon a pasture can destroy it perman-


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enetic Improvement In LivestockLocal vs Imported AnimalsIt is a popular belief in many countries wherelivestock improvement is being promoted, thattheir local breeds are not good enough to beconsidered in such a program. People generallyassume that the imported breeds are superiorand will increase production rates rapidly whenthey are introduced into a livestock project.Based upon this assumption, countless imported(exotic) animals have been introduced intotropical areas, with varying degrees ofsuccessI Experience has made the peopleinvolved in such efforts wiser and morecautious. It is important to face the factthat few of these imported animals are actuallyable to reach their genetic potential due toinadequate feed, difficulty in adapting totropical climates, lack of resistance totropical diseases and parasites, and poormanagement.It is a commonly held belief that the exoticbreeds will produce more, grow larger, and thusbe more profitable. Actually, the importedanimals require more daily attention, betterquality feed, and skilled managment--thus theycost more to maintain. In reality, the nativeanimals have proven to greatly improve theirproduct ivi ty when they receive the sameat tent ion, managment , and good nutrition thatare required by the exotic breeds.


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 10Of course there may be an advantage toimporting animals from time to time to increasemilk yield, body size, or to avoidin-breeding. Generally, these objectives canbe accomplished by importing males only or byusing artificial insemination. The reason forusing imported males to cross with theindigenous females is that important traitsneeded for herd improvement (such as high milkproduction) are carried in the male genes.

i

The native breeds (or types) have desirablecharacteristics which are not alwaysrecognized. For example , they are likely to bewell-adapted to tropical heat and humidity , andto be resistant to the diseases and parasiteswhich are debilitating to imported animals.Also, some local breeds are by nature prolificand return early to estrus (heat cycle).It is important to note that progressivecross-breeding of the local females with theimported males will mean that the advantageoustraits of the na t ive animals will disappearwithin a few generations. Seriousconsideration should be given to maintainingthe local breeds (or types) as a separateentity in order to preserve their valuablecharacteristics. (In the Dominican Republiccriollo - native - cattle which show no trace


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PRCXJECT LANNXNGGUIDE 11of exotic breeding are being selected for agene pool in order to preserve their goodtraits).Do not be misled into thinking that importedgenes are the key to the success of an animalimprovement project . Genetic improvement meansnothing if the animals are receiving inadequaterations or are n0t properly and regularlyvaccinated and treated for parasites. Gene t icimprovement does not requi.re the introductionof a foreign breed. Good results are achievedby selecting the best females to breed with thebest males.Thds, this is where an animal project shouldstart: improve the local stock with betterfeed, better disease and parasite control,better breeding management (culling undesirableanimals, castrating excess males, closelyobserving heat cycles,. etc.), combined withcareful day-to-day attention to the animalsneeds.

Importing AnimalsIf you are thinking that it will be necessaryto import animals from the U.S. or some othercountry: have you tried to locate the animalsyou need in your own country or area? HeiferProject International and other organizationshave been shipping quality animals intotropical areas for many years. First,investigate the possibility that some off springof these animals might be available, Of coursecommercial interests have been and still areshipping good livestock world-wide inincreasing numbers.


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PROJECT PUNNING GUIDE 12After a few generations, the offspring of theanimals which were imported in the past developsome degree of tolerance to tropical conditions(lacking in newly-arrived livestock), so thereis a big advantage in securing acclimatizedanimals, if possible.If you see no alternative to importation,consider the following points:

1. Import ing animals is a long,complicated process which must beplanned and arranged for months inadvance of expected arrival.2. Whoever is responsible for theimporting should : secure a writtencopy of health requirements from theveterinary section of the Ministry ofAgriculture. Insist that therequirements be adhered to, or have awritten waiver if exceptions have beengranted.Secure an import permit, with a6-month time limit, if possible.Arrange for use of the officialgovernment quarantine.Arrange for handling and transportingof animals from aircraft toquarantine, and following thequarantine, to the project site.3. Health requirements and the originalcopy of the import permit should besent to the exporting awwpromptly. Permits are dateddifferently by each country, so allowsufficient time for preparations bythe exporter, for vaccination andtesting ofanimals. Export permitsissued by the U.S. have a limit of 30days ; this may vary from country tocountry. It would be a good idea todiscuss your plans with animal healthauthori ties in your country and get


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 13their advice regarding your plans toimport.

Commercial importers/exporters who are in thebusiness of shipping animals usually know therequirements and can do the necessary paperwork for you. This service will cost, ofcourse, but it will save considerable effortand perhaps some money. Remember : under thebest of circumstances and pre-planning thingscan go wrong, so be prepared with a cant ingencyplan!Warning : if you decide to import, requestyoung animals and dont order any animals inlate pregnancy. To the degree that you cancontrol the schedule, try to have the shipmentearrive in the best time of the year foradaptation of the animals. For example, try toavoid shipping during winter from cold weatherto the humid, hot climate of the tropics. Itis not the intent of these warnings to destroyyour enthusiasm for an animal project--only topresent a realistic picture of problems youwould be likely to encounter in importing newbreeding stock.Government agencies sometimes demand additionalrequirements following arrival. They have theright to hold your shipment in quarantineindefinitely while they make additional testsor observations of the animals, They willprobably charge for the care of the animals inquarantine, and you may b.e charged a fee toget them released. You may be assessed animport duty and/or handling fee. Animal healthauthorities have the right to destroy youranimals if they become sick during quarantine,or even after that if they decide that thelivestock may be carrying a disease which couldthreaten national agriculture.

,


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 14You cannot depend upon an off-loading rampcoming with the plane, so plan in advance howyou will handle this problem if you have toproduce a ramp in a hurry. Remember: theanimals may have been in the aircraft and/or onthe road for many hours. They are hungry,thirsty, frightened and irritable. They mustbe removed from the plane immediately as it isprobably like an oven inside the aircraft.Be certain that your truck is at the airportwell before the expected arrival of the plane.(It may come early). The truck must have highsides and a tarpaulin to cover the top in caseof rain. For goats the sides of the truck mustbe at least 5 feet high, plus a tarpaulin-keep them from jumping out of the truck. Haveone person in charge of the unloading and ofmaking all the necessary preparations. Severa 1husky handlers will be needed to carry thesmall animals to the truck or to get the largeones up the ramp. Hopefully you can findsomeone with experience in handling livestock.You may be obliged to provide feed while theanimals are in quarantine for 30 days (ormore). This means a person will be needed tobuy or cut the feed and deliver it. Determinein advance who Will care fnra...-- and feed theanimals during quarantine. You may or may notbe allowed to visit the animals during thisperiod. If you receive from quarantine feweranimals than went in, you are entitled to findout from the veterinarians report the reasonfor the shortage. Beyond that, there isn tmuch you can do except to hope for the best.You can avoid maiy difficulties by importingfrozen semen Health requirements apply tosemen as well as to animals. Some airlines donot transport the liquid nitrogen tanks inwhich the frozen semen is stored, believing


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 15them to be unsafe. However, the internationaltransportation of semen is quite common today.

Artificial InseminationThere are several advantages to using AI inanimal projects:

1.2.

3.4.5.

6.7.

Genetic improvement can be rapid.A wide selection of proven sires, orsires with good production records, isavailable, so that there are manyexcellent sires from which to choose.AI saves the cost of feeding andcaring for a male.Cross-breeding is simplified.Semen from outstanding sires isavailable to the small farmer atreasonable prices.There is less chance of disease beingtransmitted from one animal to another.The offspring of top quality sireswill be more valuable.

Some problems with AI are ..1. Failure of the owner to detect theanimals heat (estrus) at the propertime.2. Lack of a hoiding facility where theanimals can remain quietly before andafter being inseminated.3, The logistics of getting semen torem0 te places and maintaining thethermos properly charged to preservethe semen.4. Lack of a reliable source ;of liquidnitrogen.


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 165. Lack of a skilled inseminator.6. The animals state of health.7. Insufficient volume of animals tojustify the expense.8. Not all females respond to AI; a male

might be needed eventually, in spiteof the best efforts.

bryo TransferEmbryo transfer is a highly technical procedurerequiring much more equipment and skill than AI.High technology makes it expensive. Embryotransfer makes it possible to greatly increasethe number of offspring of high quality cattlebY implanting their developing embryos intoordinary cows. Thus, most of the 9 monthsrequired for the embryos to become calves canbe assumed by receptor cows. The major use forET is to increase the reproduction rate ofvaluable cows; that is, 50 embryonic calves in12 months.AI is commonly used to multiply the geneticbenefits from a superior bull, while ET can beused to introduce a different breed. ET hasits place in cattle improvement, but in mostdeveloping countries with small--holderprojects, its time has not yet come.


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ooking At Various SpeciesEach species of livestock has advantages anddisadvantages for the small farmer with limitedresources. This section touches uponmanagement asp--pts which must be considered forvarious species, Some of the informationapplies to all species and will not necessarilybe repeated for each one.WHY RUMINANTS?..,...WHY NOT?Animals which ruminate (r-e-chew their cud)include cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, camels,llamas and many other domestic and wildanimals. There are some basic considerationswhich are common notmilk, b t to all.c~~~~~ar~~or meat'only toor traction), u . I .It has been erroneously stated that ruminantscompete with man for the limited resources ofthe land. This is true to some extent in theso-called "developed" countries where grain isoften fed to livestock. However, ruminantsactually utilize plants and agriculturalby-products that humans cannot use directly.Through the animals' digestive process humansbecome the beneficiary of the plants--enjoyingmilk, meat, cheese, fibre, fertilizer, hides,and animal- power.Consider this: nearly one-third of the land onearth cannot be used for crop production, butwhen ruminants utilize it for grazing andbrowsing, people benefit.Since in most cultures ruminants do not consumehuman food (grains), they are placed in direct


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 1Q

contrast to swine and poultry which receiveonly limited sustenance from plants. These twogroups must have some grains, plant and animalby-products to be productive. (See sections onswine and poultry. >CATTLE ohm...... WHY NOT SHEEP AND GOATS TOO?Are you sure that. cattle are more appropriatefor your area than sheep or goats? Orbuffalo? In reality, there are benefits inpasturing cattle, sheep and goats together.They are not in competition but complement eachother because each species has its own plantpreferences. Actually, such an arrangement canimprove the pasture. In the past, cattlemenhave held unfounded prejudices against havingsheep grazing with cattle, and these oldattitudes die slowly.

Cattle can be found throughout much of thewor Id, where they have adapted to climaticextremes. Over the centuries certain typeshave evolved, and extensive work to improvetheir performance has resulted in somewe 1 -known breeds and recognized nativestrains. The na t ive cattle usually have theadvantage of being more resistant to disease,but they seldom produce more than just enoughmilk for their calves.In many developing countries cattle areconsidered mu1 i-purpose animals. In Africathey ;!re valued for their milk, traction,manure and value as stored wealth. The milkproduction of the Boran, an East Africa breed,is low, 63 the farmer keeps large number ofthem in order to have enough milk. Keeping


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 19cows for milk is the primary reason manyfarmers raise cattle, so the animals which theysell for meat are likely to be the surplusbulls or steers or the milk cows which are tooold to breed.However, the advantages of the meat-type animalcan be combined with the advantages of themilk-type breeds: that is, crossing beefanimals, such as Brahman or Zebu (Cebu) withEuropean dairy breeds, such as Brown Swiss orHolstein. Their offspring are generallyhardier than the purebreds, and the beefanimal's resistance to heat and ticks isretained while milk production is increased.Cattle can live and reproduce on grasslands andnative pastures, but your aim is to get goodproduction from them, not just to main?Xithem. The greatest limiting factor in raisinglivestock in developing countries is poorquality feed and/or inadequate feed.Temperate climates present fewer problems forcattle than do the humid tropics. Prevalentand troublesome conditions affecting all cattlein the tropics are the high temperatures andhumidity, and parasites. (See section onparasites. > In addition to these problems,many serious cattle diseases are more common inthe tropics than in temperate zones: foot andmouth disease, rinderpest, tick fever,hemorrhagic septicemia, and East Coast fever,among others. Of course, imported animals aremore susceptible to all these problems anddiseases.Dairy CattleMany attempts have been and are being made tointroduce and acclimiatize exotic (foreign)breeds such as Holstein Friesian, Brown Swiss,


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 20and Jersey into the humid tropics. There havebeen some successes and many failures.Dramatic improvements in body size and milkproduct ion have been made by crossbreedingna t ive cows with Holstein, Brown Swiss orJersey bulls. This has been done on a largescale in india where milk production hascommonly increased from 2 liters to 8 litersper cow per day in the first generat ion. Thenext crosses did not greatly increaseproduct ion as long as the animals were fedgrass only. With the addition of a dairysupplement, however, the second and thirdgenerations were able to produce as much as 12liters.For good milk product ion YOU will need toprovide, in addition to the pasture, a dietarysupplement which is a mixture of ground grainsand agricultural by-products. You can preparethis balanced formula yourself, followinginstructions from your extension. service orsome reliable source-book. However, YOU willhave to determine whether the additional costof this supplement will be paid for by theincrease in milk product ion. If costs are highi-n your area, the supplementary feeding mightnot be profitable in the long run. It is welldocumented that cattle under good managementcan be very productive on an improved pasture ;that is, legumes planted with grasses.Analyze your plans and situation carefully: doYOU realize how long it takes for a dairycattle project to provide milk? Do you plan onmilk only for home consumption? Will there bea surplus? If so, how will it be used. Arethere adequate roads and transport to deliverthe milk promptly before it spoils? Have youconsidered goats or buffalo instead of cows?


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PROJECT PI.,ANNING GUIDE 21

t Lactose ToleranceImportant as milk is in the humandiet, it must be noted that manyadults in parts of Asia and Africahave an allergic reaction to milkbecause their bodies lack an enzymecalled lactase, which is needed todigest the sugar (lactose) in milk.i This enzyme permits infants andyoung children to digest milk withoutdifficulty, but the lactase levelgradually dimishes in young adults sothat they lose their tolerance formilk, unless they cant inue to drinkit. Apparently adults who have notstopped drinking milk during the yearssince their childhood still have theenzyme in their systems.

Beef CattleBeef animals are usually pastured andgrass-fed. In some areas they must be tetheredbecause the high cost of fencing makes necessary for the small-holder to manage hiianimals in this way. Generally, raising beefcattle is not as time-consuming, intensive, orexacting as dairying.The reasons for keeping beef cattle vary fromarea to area. In some Latin American countriesit is necessary for the owner to show that heis using the land in order to be able toestablish his title to it. Raising cattle is agood solution to the problem, and in this casethe quantity is likely to be more importantthan the quality of the animals. This is alsotrue in some African countries where herd sizedetermines the owners prestige.


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 22Because of their large size and their value,cattle are generally sold at market 9 being toovaluable for home consumption. (Mutton, goator chicken are more likely to be consumed bythe family.) In some countries where there areno roads, cattle offer the advantage of beingable to walk to market. Where air strips areavailable, the animals are sometimesslaughtered and the meat flown to a market townin a small plane.In both beef and dairy farming the strongestmales are often selected for use as tractionanimals to cultivate fields or haul praduce.

asturesIf you are going to depend upon pastures,recognize their limitations. There is atemptation to over-estimate the value ofnatural grasslands. Although they are abundantat times, native grasses often have a lownutritional value. Lush green grasses and wildplants have a high water content; SO,eventhough the pasture may look adequate, thecattle actually have to eat large quantitiesjust to maintain their body weightwould expect, the native cattle do beLf:r Onthis type of pasture than do the high-bredimported animals. ) Consider carefully whetherit would be profitable to improve the naturalgrasslands.Consult with local experts about the realisticcarrying capacity of the pasture land you areconsidering ; find out about improving thepastures by seeding better varieties of grassesand legumes. Does the land need fertilizers?Be sure to have the soil checked for problemsor deficiencies, such as excessive salts oralkalinity.


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DiseasesYOU should become acquainted with an animalhealth expert where you are planning yourlivestock project. Profit from his experienceand avoid repeating mistakes which have alreadybeen made by others in your area.Do you know what the prevalent diseases are forthe animals you are considering? Are thesebeing controlled satisfactorily at the presenttime in your area? Are your neighborssuccessful with their animal health programs?How costly would an animal health plan be forthe number of livestock you are considering?Your project should include a preventativehealth plan, including the vaccinations andtests to be done and when.

ParasitesOne of the most limiting factors to asuccessful livestock project isparasites --internal and external. They af feetall classes of animals--including fish andbees-- to some degree, whether the effects arenoticeable or not. Animals can and do develops ome resistance to many parasites; however,neither ruminants or other spec ie s can remainin healthy condition if they are infested withparasites to any extent.This information is generally applicable toother classes of livestock: The externalparasites i lice, mites, ticks, flies), inaddition to transmitting disease, sap thestrength of animals. Generally these pests canbe controlled by regular and systematic dippingand spraying of the animals with various


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PROJECT PUNNING GUIDE 24preparations manufactured for this purpose.(Some breeds of cattle are more tick-resistantthan others.)

The internal parasites (round worms, tapeworms, flukes, several types of bloodparasites) can severely affect the health ofthe animals and if not controlled, caneventually kill. There are products availablefor controlling most of these parasites, but itis impossible to eradicate them completely.Do you know whether there is a reliable sup PlYof such preparations in your area? Will it bepossible for the people to pay for them? Thesefactors must be considered from the startbecause failure to maintain a parasite controlschedule can result in serious loss of milkproduct ion, loss of body weight, and lead tcdisease. We have seen the results of shortagesof veterinary supplies in some Africancountries where foreign exchange makes purchaseimpossible. This is beyond the control of thelivestock owners, of course.Be very cautious in the selection ofparasiticides to be sure that the product hasbeen recommended for use on that particularspecies, and that the instructions are clearand well understood. Do not guess or takechances--the safety of the people using theproduct must always be considered. Some of thepreparations can be deadly if misused.

BuffaloIf your objective is to produce milk and /ormeat, where conditions are not favorable forday cattle, dont overlook the water buffalo(Bubalus bubalis), if it is available in yourarea. It should not be confused with the North


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PROJECT PMNNING GUIDE 25

American bison, commonly called a buffalo, norwith the African Cape buffalo. The origin ofthis docile domesticated animal is thought tobe India. Its history goes back over 5000years, and it has spread throughout Asia and tothe Mid-East , adjusting well to colder climatessuch as are found in China and SouthernEurope. The buffalo is the main source of milkin Egypt and India and a major source inseveral Asian countries.The species isnt well-known in manyless-developed countries, and until recentlyits importance has not bee widely appreciated 6Buffalo are being introduced into Brazil andcountries around the Caribbean Basin.There are two general types: the swamp buffaloand the river buffalo. Both are used fortransport and for cultivation, and in addition,the river type is used for milk production. Acommon misconception is that the buffalo has abad disposition and is hard to handle ; buteveryone who has actually had experience withthem knows they are very manageable. In Asiancountries it is usually the young children whoare in charge of caring for the buffalo, whichare treated almost like members of the family.Tne young animal is easily trained to work.


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 26Buffalo lack the sweat glands which help. tokeep other tropical cattle (such as the Zebu)comfortable, and they are therefore verysensitive to heat. They must have shade duringthe hottest part of the day as well ascooling-off periods during the day. They en joywallowing in a mud hole or a stream, but theseare not necessary if other ways of keeping themcool are used regularly.The flavor and quality of buffalo meat comparesfavorably to that of cattle, and is in greatdemand in Singapore and Hong Kong.Some advantages of using buffalo are:1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

They are able to utilize low qualityroughage and aquatic plants, feedswhich cattle cannot digest.Buffalo are raised on the feed alongthe canals and roadsides.They do not require pasture orsupplementary feeds.They are ideally suited, andpreferred, for working in wet andmuddy terrain, such as rice paddies.They tend to be more disease-resistantthan cattle and have a highertolerance to ticks.The butter fat content of buffalo milkis 6-8%, as compared with 3-5% forcows. It is widely used for makingcheese and other dairy products.

Some disadvantages of using buffalo are:1. They are slow and have to rest duringthe day. In hot weather frequentcooling by means of shade, showerbath,stream or wallow is a necessity.2. Very little has been done toward breedimprovement.


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3. Infertility has been reported as aproblem; however, this may be due tothe failure of the handlers to detectthe signs of estrus. Buffalo tend tobe shy breeders.4. In extremely cold conditions they needspecial attention.

Small Ruminants - Sheep and GoatsThese two species are often raised togetherbecause they are very compatible, each speciehaving a preference in the plants it eats. Wewill consider first the characteristics theyhave in common.Both sheep and goats are found in many parts ofthe world where they are valued for theirmeat. Their small size makes it practical fora family to consume the meat in a short timewithout need for refrigeration. Their smallsize also makes them easy for women andchildren to manage.These small ruminants do well eating plants notliked by cattle, but they must be carefullywatched while they are foraging to prevent themfrom eating the neighbors' gardens or valuableplants. They must also be carefully guardedfrom attack by dogs or other predators(two-legged or four-legged).Sheep and goats have been accused ofover-grazing and thus causing soil erosionwhich has turned vast areas into deserts.Environmentalists and some internationallivestock development organizations have beenslow to realize that the animals are not theculprits, but that man's mismanagement of themhas caused the damage. In recent years,fortunately, there has been a clearer


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understanding of causes and effects, and. agrowing realization of the great potent ialsheep and goats have for contributing to humanwelfare. Of course, wherever soil is exposed,with evidence of erosion, grazing by allanimals should be prohibited.Because sheep and goats have a short gestationperiod of five months, a flock or herd- canbuilt up quite rapidly, as compared toiarger ruminants.

ANIMAL WELFARENever forget that you have anobligation to the animals whose 1 vesdepend upon your continuing care.Animals, like people, suffer whenthey are deprived of food, water,shelter or attention when they aresick or injured.Well-cared-for animals are usuallyable to repay their owners well withtheir productivity. Other people willbe observing the way you handle theanimals entrusted to you -- they willuse your methods as a model.Naturally, our concern forbettering human living conditions isthe basis for this manual, but humanwelfare and animal welfare areinseparable.

There are differences to be noted between

bethe

thetwo species: sheep are more easily fenced inor out because they are not jumpers like goats,and they are not harmful to trees as goatsare. Goats love to eat the bark of trees.Actually, the personality traits of the twoare quite different: goats are more


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 29intelligent, curious and lively than thegenerally apathetic sheep. Of course the greatadvantage of sheep-raising is the renewablewool crop. The great advantage of goat-raisingis their high milk production. (Milking sheepare prized in some places, but are not commonand they can be milked for only a short period.)GoatsThis multi-purpose ruminant is considered themost important domestic animal in the tropics.Over 90% of the world goat population is foundin the less-developed countries. Their primaryvalue is usually meat (in some places it ispreferred to mutton); however, there are areaswhere the goat's milk is considered itsgreatest value. In the Philippines, forexample, there is a national plan to developdairy goats as the chief source of milk.Called the "poor man's cow," the goat providesnourishment to millions of peasant families andurban dwellers who would otherwise go withoutmilk. Unfortunately, the goat's potentialproduction has not been realized, due mainly topoor management and lack of proper feed.With the dissemination of practical informationabout the goat, the unfair public image as adestructive animal is gradually beingcorrected; however, there remain some areaswhere goat-raising is prohibited. On thepositive side: the goat is perhaps adapted toliving with a wider range of environmentalconditions than other domestic ruminants. Ofall the diverse locations where they cansurvive, they see rr; to perform best in dryareas. An outstanding example of this is onthe deserts of northern Mexico. (Cheese fromthese goats is in demand throughout the area.)Even so, goats are a very important part of thesmall-holders' resources in the humid tropics.


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 30In Indonesia there are over 7 million meat--typegoats.There is no greater justification for raisinggoats than the improvement which their milkmakes in the nutrition of the children of poorfamilies. Goat milk has made a dramaticdifference in the health of children in thevillages of rural Honduras. Enthusiasm forgoat projects there has spread from town totown by word-of-mouth advertising as parentstell how formerly sickly children are nowstrong because of milk from the family's goat.And in a country where hundreds of thousands offamilies' income is $200 a year, having anoccasional goat to sell for $25 raises thestandard of living substantially,When you are considering a milk project,compare the native or unimproved cow, producing3-4 liters per day (an optimistic estimate insome areas) to the 1/2-l liter production ofthe unimproved goat.* Improved and purebredgoats will provide l-4 liters daily, dependingupon managment. As a rule, withthere can' several goatsbe milk the year around, while asingle cow will be dry at least two months ayear.When milk production is not the object, notethat in the tropics (unlike the temperatezones) goats will breed the year around. Threekiddings in two years is quite common, with thefirst at 12-15 months. Kidding intervals of280-300 days can be expected with meat-typegoats in the tropics, and twins are common.

* Based on observations of milk goats inIndia and Central America. In parts ofAfrica l/4 - l/2 liters per day is morecommon.


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Theoretically, a doe (female) should produce2,l to 3.3 kids per year; and half of thisincrease, the male kids, should be castrated atan early age, fattened and used for meat.The females are kept to increase the herd, butthe potential for increase is seldom realizeddue to high death losses in young kids.This is aln:ost always due to poor management.Pneumonia and internal parasites are the mostcommon causes of death in kids. Both of thesecan be minimized by: providing a shelter fromwinds and rain; a raised, slatted floor whichhelps to keep the kids dry and prevents theirstanding in their own manure and thus becomingre-infested with parasites.It is generally assumed that there isn't muchto raising goats, but experience has shown thatthere are certain management practices whichare necessary for a successful project. Youshould start with a practical hands-on trainingprogram for all who will work with the farmersas well as for the farmers themselves. Lack ofadequate advance training invites failure, andthere are already too many failed projects.Even after the goat's milk has made thedifference between a healthy child and a weakone, the owner often feels that he hassocial status until he has acquired a cow. no


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE

SheepTwo genera 1 types of sheep are to beconsidered : wool sheep and hair (wool-less)sheep. Both are used for meat. Like goats,sheep are to be found in a wide variety ofgeographical areas and have served humans sinceearly history. They are found from the highestmountains to the humid, sea-level tropics.Considerable adaptation by the different breedsfound in each zone has made this possible.Sheep are kept for their meat, wool, skins andmanure, and are sometimes used as a savingsaccount which can be easily converted intocash when needed.The absence of wool makes it possible for thehair sheep to withstand tropical conditions.As the coarse hair is of little value, this isstrictly a meat-type animal. In Indonesia asmall, prolific hair sheep has evolved aftermany generat ions into a hardy, fairlyparasite-resistant animal. These animalsnumber over 3 million--96% of all the sheep inSoutheast Asia. In this predominantly Muslimcountry sheep are the most important source ofmeat protein.There are many recognized breeds of hair sheep,almost all of which are found in the tropics.They will generally breed the year around, andare more prolific than the wool breeds. Somehair sheep lamb twice a year and multiplebirths are common. In the Caribbean regionthere are several breeds or types of hairsheep, among which the Barbados Black Belly isthe most colorful. These breeds originated inthe Caribbean, resulting from crosses ofEuropean and African breeds.


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. PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 33The wool-type sheep, commonly found in thetemperate tropics of Latin America,' wasintroduced by the Spanish conquistadores. Theyare generally greatly in-bred, small, and withfleece which has degenerated to a poorquality. However, improved breeds have beenimported to assist the local economy of theAndean regions, which is heavily based uponsheep. Wool from both sheep and Alpaca makespossible the cottage industries of the area andthe homespun materials are often the family'sprimary source of income. Collectively, thesale of these woolen products accounts for aconsiderable part of the countries' exportmarket. Much of the Andean region is too highand too cold for crop production or cattle.If you plan a wool sheep project, YOU shouldbear in mind some special precautions:

1. Shearing the wool at the right time issomething to consider and is a technique to belearned. Some groups have a strong traditionagainst a complete shearing, believing that theshorn sheep will die of pneumonia. In fact,this is a possibility if the shearing is donein very cold, rainy weather.Some people are content to pluck what woolthey need at the moment, but as a matter ofgood practice an over-all shearing and dippingfor external parasites is necessary. It isdifficult for the dip to penetrate thick wool.2. Cleanliness is very important becausedirty wool attracts flies as a place to laytheir eggs. Prior to lambing a shearing aroundthe ewe's hind parts (called tagging) will makeboth the birth and the clean-up after the birtheasier.Be especially careful to clean the wool ifan animal has had diarrhea. In hot weather flyeggs hatch into maggots within a few hours.The maggots burrow into the skin at first,


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 34concealed by the wool, but soon there is anobnoxious odor of decaying flesh. The sheepmust be sheared immediately and treated with aspray or ointment, after thorough washing.3. Sheep get a parasite in the nasalsinus called a bo t , which causes nasaldischarge, sneezing and coughing. This needsprompt treatment. They also cough often fromthe affects of dust. This is not serious--butyou have to be able to recognize thedifference. (Goats can exhibit these samesymptoms. ) This would require spending sometime with an experienced sheep-raiser.Sheep are very different from cattle--not justsmaller--and, as has been mentioned, they arequite unlike goats in some ways. They do offerthe small-holder a valuable resource at areasonable cost.SwineSwine are raised in most of the deve lopingcountries, but not always for the samereasons. In many countries they roam freely,scavenging in the villages, receiving little orno feed. Actually, such a pig is the familysbank account--to be sold when cash isneeded. The initial investment to start afamily project is not great, and even peoplewho have little space can undertake this.It is common in Asia for a family to keep a pigor two for fattening. These are confined tosmall rustic pens and fed table scraps inaddition to prepared feed. The owner s smallprofit of ten makes possible some homeimprovement or educational opportunity for thechildren, In Cameroon wage earners often putpart of each paycheck into buying feed forpigs 9 as a means of forced saving. This meansthe cash will not be available for relatives


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PRClJEcp PLANNING GUIDE 35who would like to borrow it. The owner mayactually put more feed into his pigs than hewill get back in the form of cash, but he willhave money which would otherwise have gottenaway from him.On the other hand, cooperatives and/orcommercial hoI3 farms must operate on abusiness-like basis. Medium-sized commercialenterprises with up to 50 breeding sows requirea substantial investment in housing, and mustfeed a balanced ration. Large-scale hog farmsare common in some Southeast Asian countries,such as the Philippines, Singapore, andThailand. The meat is extremely popular inChina, which raises over 35% of the world'stotal pork production. (In Muslim countries,howe.ler, eating pork is a religious taboo.)I,f you are thinking about a pig project: isyour aim to help individuals with backyardprojects?...Or are YOU thinking of acoc,perative with perhaps 10 to 15 sows?Whichever you have in mind? a reliable saurceof scientifically balanced rations isessential. Even a backyard project cannotraise pigs entirely on table scraps. Thedigestive system of the swine is entire bydifferent from the ruminants'. The pig cannotget enough of its required nourishment fromgrazing or foraging, so it must have a moreconcentrated feed to be productive.


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Consider the advantages of raising pigs:1. Tley are efficient in converting feedto meat. On good quality feed they are

four times as efficient as cattle, andexceed sheep and goats*, Carcassdressed-weight can yield 70-75% oflive weight, compared to 50-60% forcattle and 45~50% for sheep and goats.2. Pigs are prolific. Litter sizes of8-12 are comm;.n, and if the pigletsare weaned at one month, a goodmanager can get 5 litters from a sowin 2 years. (Two litters per year ismore common. )Of course this kind of product iondepends upon a good ration.3. As swine are fast-growing, the farmercan raise a piglet and receive areturn on his investment in 6-7months. Under good management apiglet will reach market weight of 90kilos (200 lbs,) in this period oftime.4. Unlike ruminants, pigs do not requiremuch space, but they do need room forexert ise. Four to five square meters(16 sq. ft.) is often recommended peradult animal, but unfortunately theyare sometimes enclosed in an areascarcely large enough for turningaround, and this is a cruel way totreat any animal.Dont forget an additional pen isneeded in which to rear the pigletsafter weaning .

----------------

* Broiler chickens have the highest feedconversion rate: 2-3 lbs. of feed to 1lb. of meat.


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PRWECT PLANNING GUIDE 37

Considerpigs :1.

2.

3.

the possible disadvantages of raising

In a backyard project aitipuasrL of pigCIC\c%-lmanure can be a problem, and flies andodors will result from poormanagement. (If there is a gardenplot nearby, the manure will be anasset, of course. 1Even with good management, however,there always seems to be some fly andodor problem.Pigs are subject to parasites anddiseases, as are all other animals,and a systematic vaccination programis essential. If pigs are raised inpens that can be easily cleaned,serious problems can usually beavoided.Hog (and poultry) projects are of tencriticized because these animalscompete directly with humans for theavailable supply of grain. That is,man can utilize these foods directly.However, agricultural by-products suchas rice bran, wheat bran, citrus Pulp 3blood meal and brewery wastes, whichhave no other use, can form animportant part of hog rations. Theydo eat green feed, so pasturing andfeeding a variety of tubers are goodways to reduce feed costs.

Caution: Before undertaking a Pig project,study the market carefully. In some places themarketing of pork products is controlled bythose who do the butchering and processing. InEastern Bolivia, for example, the butcherscontrol the price paid for living hogs, payingthe same price for scavenger pigs as for goodquality 6-month old pigs. Under such a system


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the individual hog-raiser can not make aprofit. A project near cusco, Peru,successfully gets around this problem byprocessing all its own pork into hams, bacon,sausage and fresh meat.

Small-holder Poultry RaisingPoultry, in various forms, is raised throughoutthe world. Preference for a particular speciesis influenced by climate, available feed, orcustom. Before deciding on a poultry project,consider community preferences and review thesection on "Preliminary Considerations" as itapplies to poultry.Poultry is almost universally an integral partof subsistence farming and of the life of thelandless peasant or villager. Most of theirfarmyards have chickens or ducks or turkeystogether --sometimes geese, guinea fowl orpigeons too. Generally such birds find theirown food, receiving a small amount of grain inthe evening to coax them into their house, orto fatten them for a special occasion. Thesmqil-holder has little actual investment inthe birds, but even so, if disease or predatorsstrike the flock, his loss will be felt. Inthe case of an outbreak of disease, this losswill be multiplied by the number of families inthe neighborhood, and the result can bedisastrous.ChickensKeep in mind that chickens, especially, areaffected by many diseases. There are many


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PRQJEcp PLANNING GUIDE 39countries where the chicken population isdecimated by disease nearly every year. Fewsuch outbreaks are investigated by the animalhealth officials due to lack of concern forsmall flocks.Probably most of these occurrences ofrapidly-spreading disease are fowl cholera orNewcastle disease, and these can be checkedwith diligence and community cooperation. Forexample, several villages in Honduras organizedand coordinated a campaign to vaccinate all ofthe chickens every 3 months to ZtrolNewcastle disease. The cost to farmers was afew cents for each bird. High school studentsdid the vaccinating, with the proceedsbenefitting their school projects.TurkeysAre generally raised for market as a feastbird, due to their size and the cost of raisingthem. The occasional turkey farm caters to the"foreign" community and the wealthy.Commercial farms have a large investment ineach bird if it is raised and fattened to sellat 6 months--and to the costs one has to addlo-20% for losses. In addition to requiring alarger initial investment than chickens, turkeyfarming demands skillful management becauseturkeys are delicate. Their temperament isdifferent from the chicken's--it is difficultto prevent a turkey from being destroyed by itsown stupidity.DucksIn large areas of Asia ducks are the preferredbird for meat and eggs. They generally sufferfewer diseases than chickens or turkeys. Ducksare "herded" through rice paddies where they


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feed on insects, slugs and seeds whilefertilizing tile rice. They are efficientforagers, finding up to 100% of their feed,although they do not graze as efficiently asgeese.Ducks are valuable in controlling certainpests, such as grasshoppers, and they eat thesnail which carries liver flukes which, inturn, cause extensive damage to cattle, sheepand goats. Certain water plants which tend toover-grow streams and ponds can be controlledby ducks. Commercial fishponds and ducks are agood combination as the ducks eat mosquitolarvae and fertilize the water plants needed bythe fish.One of the most popular and prolific egg-layersis the Khaki Campbell duck. Reportedly it canproduce 360 eggs a year, although 300 is moretypical. Their eggs are larger than henselxs s with a flavor which is similar butstronger. These ducks are not good at settingand hatching their eggs, so it would be a goodidea to keep some Muscovy ducks for thispurpose.Before planning a duck project, survey yourpotential market. In some communities therewill be little interest in duck meat because itis dark, even though it is flavorful. In someplaces duck eggs are prized for their largesize while in other areas they sell for lessthan hens eggs.GeeseAre largely grass-eaters and thus are easy tofeed. They are a bit more precocious thanother fowl and can start eating grass (alongwith their starter rations) at 4 weeks, and canbe put out into the fields as weeders at 6


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 41weeks. Weeder geese are useful to keep certaincrops free of weeds---for example, onions,cotton, strawberries. They are selective inwhat they eat and will not eat the crops ifplaced in the field and then taken out again atthe proper time. Another interesting anduseful aspect of geese is that they arewatch-dogs; that is, they are very noisy andaggressive when strangers appear on theirterritory.Weeder geese are a meat-type bird. Comparedwith chickens and ducks they are poor layers,with 50 eggs a year, at most. Goslings may bepurchased from commercial breeders. Comparedto chicks and ducklings they are moreexpensive, but they live much longer. (If noteaten:)QuailThe coturnix, or Japanese quail, has appeal forits egg-producing ability and its small size.Up to 10 quail hens can be housed in the spaceof one chicken, or 25 in a cage 2 X 2 X 1(0.6 m X 0.6 m X 0.3 ml. With good nutritionthey will come into full production at 50 days,as compared to 6 months for a hen. Annual eggproduction of 250 is common. In some placescommercial farms are finding it profitable toraise quail for egg production, even though theeggs are small and fragile. Average %%weights per dozen: 5.5 ounces for quail; 24for chicken; 31 for Khaki Campbell ducks.The quails productive life is one year, ascompared to l-2 years for a chicken, 2-3 for aKhaki Campbell duck, and up to 8 years for somegeese. Quail are subject to the same diseasesas chickens, and requ ire the samescientifically balanced rations to get goodproduction. They have the advantage of being


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PROYECT PLANNING GUIDE 42

inexpensive to keep; a quail hen will consume23 lbs. of balanced ration annually, comparedto 97 lbs. for a white Leghorn chicken.

lid access

spaces forventilation

Guinea FowlAre popular in some areas, as they are moredisease-resistant than chickens and can, to alarge extent, forage for their feed. Al thoughthey dont lay as many eggs as commerciallayers, their egg production is better than theaverage backyard chicken. Their meat is verydark in color which is not appealing to somepeople. They are very noisy when aroused--somepeople think they are better than watch-dogs.PigeonsAre a favorite with some people, al though notas popular as most other poultry. They dontrequire much space and reproduce rapidly. Themeat of squabs (young pigeons) is very tender.


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All baby fowl--chicks, turkey poults,goslings, or ducklings --need specialcare : that is, a warm place which isprotected from drafts and from preda-tors. They must have a chick-starterration for their first several weeks.

Commercial Poultry RaisingCommercial poultry raising is, of course, anentirely different type of enterprise. Nearcities where there is a market for eggs andpoultry meat, there are often large farms withbirds numbering into the hundreds and thousands.In a commercial operation:

1.

2.3.

4.

5.

There must be a sure market for theproduct, at the proper time, andreliable transport to get it to themarket .Poultry are confined, and a sizeableinvestment in housing is necessary.Hybrid* egg or meat-bird chicks mustbe purchased from a dependablesupplier.Feed must be purchased from a reliablesource of scientifically balancedrations. Wi thou t such feed the birdscannot develop or lay properly.There must be a dependable source ofelectricity.

* Hybrids are high performance birds whichare used on commercial farms; however, donot try to use them for reproductionbecause their chicks will be poorproducers.


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6. Technical assistance must beavailable, inc lud ing vaccines anddiagnostic laboratory service.7. There must be a dependable source ofvacc ines and c;e:i ic ines.8. A source of .;::>-;mercial credit may benecessary.9. Secure storage facilities for largequantities of feed are necessary.

An outbreak of disease spreads rapidly amongbirds in close confinement, so dailyobservation and prompt action bY aknowledgeable manager are essential. Becareful of interruptions in the feed or watersupply, or substitutions in the regular ration;these can cause a drop in egg production or Putthe birds into a moult o delaying marketing.There is very little room for error in themanagement of a commercial poultry enterprise.

RabbitsOf all the small-holder animal projects,rabbit-raising should be one of the mostrewarding . Rabbits can be raised in urban aswell as rural areas. They are quiet and causelittle odor. They are easily cared for byanyone in the family, and can be fed tablescraps and home-grown root and leafy plants.Their cages can be home-made and require verylittle space. The does (females) areprolific. They reach sexual maturity in 6months, and a good doe should produce 4 littersper year with 7-10 per litter in her productivelifetime of 2-3 years. An exceptionally gooddoe can produce 175 lbs. of meat in a year.Rabbit manure is verv beneficial to crons.


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PRCMECTPLANNING GUIDE 45You would suppose that these qualities andadvantages would make rabbit-raising an idealproject to increase the familys income as wellas its protein supply; but generally speaking,rabbit projects have been very disappointing.Under ideal conditions, in the hands of peoplewho work hard and manage well, a successfulproject is possible. However, compared to thenumber of rabbit projects started, there arevery few successes to point to.

Here are some of the difficulties encounteredin projects which fail, not necessarily in theorder of their importance:1. Bunnies are attractive, cute, and makegood pets, and that is the end of manyprojects.2. The quality and amount of home-grownfeed is likely to be inadequate. Theowner of ten underestimates the needs,

which then means the doe does not haveenough milk for the babies. Balancedrabbit rations will eliminatenutritional problems, but they areexpensive and may not be available.3. Faulty cage design and constructioncontribute to disease problems, aswell as injuries and death when cagedoors come open, or when dogs can


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reach the rabbits feet through holesin the cage floors.4. Not everyone likes rabbit meat or iswilling to try it. It is moreexpensive than chicken in the market.In some areas the sale of wild rabbitmeat affects the market.5. Rabbits are sensitive to green feedswhich are not fresh and/or have mouldon them (which is not apparent to theeye). The toxins in this feed quicklykill the rabbits.6. Mosquitos carry myxomatosis, a diseasewhich devastates rabbits and makesraising them impossible in certainareas. Rabbits are subject toparasitic and bacterial diseases, andthese conditions can spread rapidlyfrom cage to cage. Constantwatchfulness is important.7. While rabbit fur can be attractive, itis not durable when compared withother furs, so the prices paid forpelts are not a great inducement toraise rabbits. Furs produced in hotclimates are generally of poorquality, and a market is often notavailable.

Note that therr are three main types ofrabbits: meat, ~01, and fur, with many breedsof each type- The meat tY Pes are bred forlarge body size and fast weight gains. Angorarabbits are raised for their wool, which isplucked or sheared and made into a yarn. Thefur types come in attractive colors andtextures and pelts, when tanned, are used forgarments and novelties.


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Fish FarmingRaising fish as a source of food may be an ideawhich is new to you; however, it has been apractice for over 3000 years in Asia, supplyingimportant protein for millions of people. Notonly are fish If armed (raised art if icially) ,but shellfish, shrimp and other species are. mcultivated in ponds, lakes, tanks, and cageswhich are suspended in the water. The termaquaculture is used to refer to raising thevarious aquatic species.Before getting too involved in such a project,review the Preliminary Considerations,especially those regarding cooperative efforts,marketing, competition and security. Contactgovernment agent ies or local fish farmers forthe technical information YOU will need.Environmental aspects of constructing afishpond are very important, especially if itinvolves diverting water from a stream. suchan undertaking could have an adverse affect onneighbors as well as people who live a long waydown-stream.Some species of fish require salt water, otherstidal or brackish water, while still others arefresh water fish. The type of fish to beraised will depend upon the water available.For instance, trout must have fresh, cool,flowing water, while tilapia do well in warmwater ponds. Small lakes may be stocked orplanted with fingerlings (baby fish), butwhere there are no natural ponds, artificialones can be made near a stream or reliablesource of water.Digging a pond or making a dam requires a greatdeal of physical work, difficult for anindividual to undertake; however, a group


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 48working in cooperat ion can make it possible.Machine excavation is very expensive, but maybe necessary in some cases. Will your group beable to work together over the necessary periodof time? The fish must be fed--who will growthe feed? Fish farmers can produce most of thefeed necessary because fish eat greens andagricultural by-products, with a diet similarto that of swine and poultry. When the fishare eating-size, poachers may come to thepond --who will guard it?The location of the pond is import ant, becausethe pond will leak if the soil is too porous.The water quality must be checked because toomuch salt or mineral content or toxic substancewill make fish culture impossible.Fish farming c.an be conducted on a large,medium, or small scale. Large-scaleaquaculture is a sophisticated business,somewhat like poultry-raising--that is, largenumbers, large investment and diseases whichspread rapidly. Good management is essential.A small-scale fish project offers theopportunity for a family or group to producefood for year-round home consumption and forsale. The fish can be taken as needed, or thewhole pond can be harvested at one time.Excess production can be preserved by smokingor salting. Harvesting can be done with netsor by draining the pond. The emptied pond sitecan be planted to a crop to take advantage ofthe richly fertilized soil, and then it can berefilled and restocked. Draining the pond hasanother advantage: drying out the soil at thebottom destroys many of the disease organismswhich attack fish.Duck-raising and fish-farming are complementaryprojects. Duck manure fertilizes plant growthin the pond to benefit the fish, and the ducks


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PROJECT PLANSIING GUIDE 49

keep the grass on the banks trimmed. (Be sureto keep the ducks confined in the morning untilthey have laid their eggs; otherwise, some eggsmay be laid in the water. )It would be misleading to suggest that acertain yield per hectare per year can beexpected. So much depends upon the soid,water, temperatures, climate, and thefish-farmers expertise. However, it is safeto say that up to 18 tons of fish per hectare==T- year are possible; one2-,. half of that wouldbe more common. Large commercial operators getmuch higher yields, When balanced rations arefed, feed conver s ion rates of 5:l arerealistic; that is 5 lbs. of feed will produce1 lb. of fish. Conversion rates using bananaor maniac leaves vary from 25 and 18 to 1.

Beekeeping is a project which doesnt requiremuch space and can be practiced even by peoplewho have no land. Honey is always in demand asa sweet treat, and the sale of it can add tofamily income. Many people are afraid of being- stung by bees, but there are ways to work withthem safely.Bees are essential to the pollenization ofpasture plants, field crops and fruit trees, aswell as wild flowers and garden flowers. Anarea where there are varieties of floweringplants assures a cant inuous source ofnourishment for the bees. They do well nearalfalfa fields or citrus trees, but must haveother sources when those plants are notblooming.Some farmers will actually pay to have beehives located in their fields; but whether or


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not this is the case, there are benefits from asuccessful bee project because there is almostalways a market for the honey and the wax. Inseveral developing countries there is an exportmarket .Bees make their homes in logs or tree trunks,and many people leave them there and gather asmuch of the honey as they can. However, muchof it will be lost using this practice. Youshould plan to use modern hives in order toprotect the bees and to harvest as much honeyas possible. There are severa 1 variations ofdesign for hives which can be considered byt.alking to producers or studying manuals.

Like any other project, beekeeping must firstbe studied and planned with care. Bees, too,are subject to diseases, parasites andpredators. Ants especially en joy raiding abee-hive, so you will have to watch for them.Agricultural sprays may be lethal to bees, sothey must be used with care.It may be impossible to initiate bee projectsnear fields where continuous spraying ofpesticides and insecticides occurs.


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 51BIO-GAS

New techniques for collecting methane gasfrom manure and rotting plant materials make abio-gas system worth considering. In anyanimal project where a large amount of manureis collected, and where gas could competefavorably with wood as a fuel, consider abio-gas collector.For example, a medium-sized hog project inthe Philippines, a ~-COW dairy in India, aSO-goat dairy in India have functioningbio-gas systems. An additional source istoilet waste from the home.There are variations in design of suchunits, of course. The "modified Chinese"bio-gas unit is a bee-hive shaped receptacle,about 6 feet in diameter, below ground-level,constructed of bricks. It has no metal tanksor moving parts. The gas collects in the topof this chamber, from which it is piped intothe house for cooking, for heating water, forsterilizing milking equipment, etc. Gasgenerated in the chamber can't escape exceptthrough the outlet pipe, so that the system isodorless. The gas can also provide lights forthe house and operate an engine for pumpingwater.Remember that only methane gas is removedfrom the manure. The organic solids in theform of a "slurry" are eventually dischargedfrom the chamber and go back on the land asfertilizer. Study installation costs first,of course. Where neighbors have stablesnearby, a single bio-gas unit could serve morethan one family, thus reducing costs to theindividual.Though much experimentation has been donewith bio-gas digesters in developing areas,these systems are not widely found in thehomes of the poor yet, probably because ofrelatively high installation costs.


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ori

It isn't as easy to count cows as you mightthink.Simple record keeping is one of the keys to asound livestock project. Without regularrecording of information you may lose track ofwhat has been invested in the project and itwill be impossible to know if the animals areproviding the owners with a reasonable returnfor their efforts. Obviously this return canbe calculated in several ways. Aside fromincome, we should a lso look at the nutritionaland other benefits which come from livestockprojects. Record keeping must be a part ofyour planning from the start.Information on the acquisition of animals,breeding, reproduction, and current inventoryshould be recorded and kept up-to-date in asimple but adequate fashion. If thisinformation is not recorded at the time ofoccurrence, it is very difficult to reconstructthe numbers and dates later.When a simple record is kept concerning normalproject costs such as feeds, medicines andlabor, it will be fairly easy to determine ifthe project is making or losing money.Records should be kept on the following:

Herd or Flock Inventory: Overall growthor decrease in herd numbers from death, birth,sales, and other additions or subtractions;


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE

should be recorded for the animals in eachcategory such as boars, sows, piglets, etc.Jdeally you should also record weights atbirth, weaning, and slaughter.Breeding Records: Records on eachbreeding animal should-include such informationas heat cycles, date bred, sire, number born,sexes of offspring, number weaned, etc.Income and Expenses: This should includecosts for starting up a project as well asoperating expenses such as feed, health care,

equipment, etc. Obviously, the record ofincome from the sale of milk, meat, wool, orother products is important in relation to whatthe investment has been.Most practical manuals on livestock productioninclude a section on record keeping togetherwith sample forms. Several of these manualsare listed in the section on referencematerials in this guide.HP1 has also developed some easy-to-use formsfor keeping track of herd or flock inventory onan annual basis. A "Production Summary Sheet"for each species is available from HP1 and canbe a helpful evaluation tool. With suchrecords, herd growth rate, female growth rate,death and sales rates, etc. can easily becalculated.Perhaps one of the most practical tools forhelping the small producer improve managementthrough record keeping, are the ManagementCalendars and Herd Management Wheels forcattle, swine and sheep which have beendeveloped by the Family Farm Development-Network and others. The Wheel reminds you ofwhat needs to be done on a particular day withreference to raising and managing the herd, and


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the Calendar provides a place to file receiptseach month and a record of income, expenses andother herd or flock activities.HERO MANAGEMENT WHEEL

II CMEUSOWFWHW-----IO CEFEErWR R SUE-FimoYFalEiuEu4Lo8

6 FAUUWlffi MlE -

EvaluationApproaching EvaluationThere are a number of basic questions whichalways arise when a project is being consideredfor financing or when a project is beingevaluated. Besides questions concerning theparticulars relating to the practicality ofproduction for each species dealt with in thisguide, there are questions relating to thehuman factor: How are the people organized? ;Who is in charge?; Are the people trained andready to handle the livestock?; What do theyfeel are their needs?; Their problems?; What dothey want to achieve?; Are they making a realcommitment to the project?.


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PROJECT PLANNING GUIDE 5s

All of the planning questions listed at thebeginning of this guide can be used to reviewthe project when you get to the evaluationphase especially those referring to the goalsof the project.

Terms Used In Planning And EvaluationThe literature on planning and evaluation does *not provide any absolute definitions of terms.However, for effective communication it isimportant that people who work together inprojects all have approximately the same ideaas to the meaning of the terms they use.The following definitions of terms might behelpful:

TERMS DEFINITIONSNeeds Clearly described, this is a

lack of something desired bythe community and should bedefined by the peopleinvolved in a givensituation.Purpose

Policy

Goals

The organization or projectexists to fulfill thedefined need. This is abroad statement of why theproject or organizationexists.Gives the basis for the waywe operate.End results statements ofwhat will be accomplished.


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Plans

PROJECT PLANNILNG GUIDE 56JObjectives Specific accomplishmentswhich are needed to fulfillthe goals.

Actions that will be carriedout in order to fulfill theobjectives.

Goals:Hei-t: ait: some further ideas on now to define agoal. A goal:

-- Should be clear, measurableobservable, and attainable (thus y::should be able to evaluate it).-- Should include what is to be done andwhat change is expected to result.-- Should include an estimated timeperiod this will take.-- Should be stimulating and motivating.

An example of a goal in a project might be thefollowing:

-- To decrease malnutrition and thusimprove the health of the children of100 families participating in thedairy goat project in communities X,Y, and Z over a two year period.-- To increase milk production by theintroduction of genetically improvedgoats in these communities from anaverage of one bottle a day ti, twobottles a day per goat in a two-yearperiod.

As we can see from these examples, in order tobe measurable it would be necessary to havesome idea of the level of milk production aswell as the degree of malnutrition in thechildren prior to the introduction of the


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Several examples of objectives related to theabove goals are:-- To assist in the formation of a

mothers club in each of the threecommunities, to inc lude all the womenof the 100 participating families inthe proj

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