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Research Methods and Skills

Module

Dr. Mussaret Anwar Sheikh

[email protected]

Shaista Bibi

[email protected]



Table of content

A. Introduction.......................................................................................................................1

B. Aim.....................................................................................................................................2

C. Module Objectives.............................................................................................................2

Theme One !erce"tion o# research ty"es...............................................................................$

%ession I Introduction o# &esearch..........................................................................................$

1. %ession 'earnin( Outcomes...............................................................................................$

2. )ey Conce"ts and Content................................................................................................$

2.1 )ey Conce"t &esearch...............................................................................................$

$. Teachin( A""roaches........................................................................................................*

+. 'earnin( Activities..............................................................................................................*

,. %ummary and transition....................................................................................................-

*. Assessment........................................................................................................................-

Theme To !lannin( and /esi(nin( a &esearch %tudy...........................................................0

%ession II 'iterature revie hy and o.............................................................................0

1. %ession 'earnin( Outcomes...............................................................................................0

2. )ey Conce"ts and Content................................................................................................0

2.1 )ey Conce"t 'iterature &evie.................................................................................0

$. Teachin( A""roaches......................................................................................................1*

+. 'earnin( Activities............................................................................................................1*

,. %ummary and transition..................................................................................................13

*. Assessment......................................................................................................................13

%ession III Identi#yin( and 4ormulatin( a &esearch !roblem................................................1-

1. %ession 'earnin( Outcomes.............................................................................................1-



2. )ey Conce"ts and Content..............................................................................................1-

2.2 )ey Conce"t 5ariables.............................................................................................1-

$. Teachin( A""roaches......................................................................................................26

+. 'earnin( Activities............................................................................................................26


*. Assessment......................................................................................................................21

%ession I5 &esearch %tudy /esi(n.........................................................................................22

1. %ession 'earnin( Outcomes.............................................................................................22

2. )ey Conce"ts and Content..............................................................................................22

2.1 )ey Conce"t &esearch /esi(n.................................................................................22

$. Teachin( A""roaches......................................................................................................2,

+. 'earnin( Activities............................................................................................................2,

,. %ummary and transition..................................................................................................2*

*. Assessment......................................................................................................................2*

%ession 5 &esearch tools.......................................................................................................2-

1. %ession 'earnin( Outcomes.............................................................................................2-

2. )ey Conce"ts and Content..............................................................................................2-

2.1 )ey Conce"t 1 &esearch Tools #or /ata Collection.................................................2-

2.2 )ey Conce"t 2 The 7uestionnaire...........................................................................20

2.$ )ey Conce"t $ The Intervie...................................................................................20

2.+ )ey Conce"t + The Observation..............................................................................$6

2., )ey Conce"t , Observational Chec8list...................................................................$6

2.* )ey Conce"t * %cales...............................................................................................$1

2.3 )ey Conce"t 3 Tests.................................................................................................$1

$. Teachin( A""roaches......................................................................................................$$



+. 'earnin( Activities............................................................................................................$$

,. %ummary and transition..................................................................................................$$

*. Assessment......................................................................................................................$+

%ession 5I %electin( %am"les.................................................................................................$,

1. %ession 'earnin( Outcomes.............................................................................................$,

2. )ey Conce"ts and Content..............................................................................................$,

2.1 )ey Conce"t 1 !o"ulation.......................................................................................$,

2.2 )ey Conce"t 2 %am"le.............................................................................................$*

$. Teachin( A""roaches......................................................................................................$3

+. 'earnin( Activities............................................................................................................$3

,. %ummary and transition..................................................................................................$-

*. Assessment......................................................................................................................$0

%ession 5II ritin( a &esearch !ro"osal...............................................................................+6

1. %ession 'earnin( Outcomes.............................................................................................+6

2. )ey Conce"ts and Content..............................................................................................+6

2.1 )ey Conce"t &esearch !ro"osal..............................................................................+6

$. Teachin( A""roaches......................................................................................................++

+. 'earnin( Activities............................................................................................................+,

,. %ummary and transition..................................................................................................+,

*. Assessment......................................................................................................................+,

Theme Three Conductin( a &esearch %tudy..........................................................................+-

%ession 5III &esearch 9thics...................................................................................................+-

1. %ession 'earnin( Outcomes.............................................................................................+-

2. )ey Conce"ts and Content..............................................................................................+-



2.1 )ey Conce"t 9thics Concernin( &esearch !artici"ants in the !rocedure o# /ata

Collection:4ieldor8........................................................................................................+-

$. Teachin( A""roaches......................................................................................................+0

+. 'earnin( Activities............................................................................................................,6

,. %ummary and transition..................................................................................................,6

*. Assessment......................................................................................................................,6

%ession I; !rocessin( and Analy



2.1 )ey Conce"t 7ualitative /ata Analysis...................................................................,0

$. Teachin( A""roaches......................................................................................................*2

+. 'earnin( Activities............................................................................................................*2

,. %ummary and transition..................................................................................................*$

*. Assessment......................................................................................................................*$

Theme 4our &esearch ritin(...............................................................................................*+

%ession ;I Academic &esearch ritin(..................................................................................*+

1. %ession 'earnin( Outcomes.............................................................................................*+

2. )ey Conce"ts and Content..............................................................................................*+

2.1.1 )ey Conce"t 1 !la(iarism......................................................................................*+

2.1.$ )ey Conce"t 2 9thics o# &esearch..........................................................................**

2.1.+ )ey Conce"t $ Intellectual !ro"erty &i(hts...........................................................**

$. Teachin( A""roaches......................................................................................................32

+. 'earnin( Activities............................................................................................................32


*. Assessment......................................................................................................................3$

Theme 4ive %u"ervisin( Academic &esearch.........................................................................3+

%ession ;II Academic %u"ervision..........................................................................................3+

1. %ession 'earnin( Outcomes.............................................................................................3+

2. )ey Conce"ts and Content..............................................................................................3+

2.1 )ey Conce"t 1 The &ole o# the %u"ervisor..............................................................3+

2.2 )ey Conce"t 2 The &ole o# the %u"ervisees............................................................33

2.$ )ey Conce"t $ The 5iva:Thesis /e#ense.................................................................3-

2., )ey Conce"t + !ublication.......................................................................................30

$. Teachin( A""roaches......................................................................................................-2



+. 'earnin( Activities............................................................................................................-2

,. %ummary and transition..................................................................................................-2

*. Assessment......................................................................................................................-2

/. Materials..........................................................................................................................-+

9. &e#erences and Biblio(ra"hy.........................................................................................126



A. Introduction

&esearch in our universities has become an indis"ensable com"onent o# eli(ibility #or

a de(ree. The education "ro(rammes in the universities in social sciences and natural

sciences may vary but "ractically in all such "ro(rams there is a re=uirement o# research.

In the orld o# academia there are some ne terms used ith 8noled(e such as

8noled(e economy 8noled(e arts etc. &esearch also comes under 8noled(e.

There#ore masterin( 8noled(e o# research methods or basics o# research is not only a

necessity but also very essential and use#ul #or universities.

The &esearch Methods and %8ills Module is ritten "rimarily #or you to teach your

(raduate students. At this level they ill "robably #or the #irst time encounter #ormal

trainin( in conductin( research.

In this module you are #irst introduced to the concept of research alon( ith

de#initions o# the reasons for conducting research here it is conducted ho it is done

and by hom. It is #olloed by an im"ortant =uestion why research and #inally it addresses

the attributes of quality research. 4urthermore you ill have an overvie o# the 8inds o#

research under the qualitative and quantitative paradigm. Additionally the research

"rocess has to adhere to some ethicsthat you have to 8ee" in mind.

ou cannot underta8e research until you have read and revieed literature. A

thorou(h readin( o# related literature hel"s you select a research

problem. Based on the literature you #ormulate your research

question/problem #or buildin( your lo(ical #rameor8. ere you are

also brie#ed as to ho to access resources and use them #or your

research ith "ro"er citations and references.

The research outcomes have to be measured #or hich you need reliable and valid

tools#or collectin( data #rom your sampleselected #rom the population. A#ter your data

collection you are ready #or its analysisusin( either descriptive or inferential statisticsith

or ithout the statistical "ac8a(e o# SPSS. In the course o# data collection you ill need to

rite various letters #or hich e (ive you e"osure to #orms o# academic writing. !uttin(

everythin( to(ether is the #inal activity o# research here you learn to "re"are the research

re"ort:manuscri"t. The #inale session o# the module is ho to "er#orm your role as a

supervisor.

1



B. Aim

The "rimary aim o# this module is to introduce the #aculty "artici"ants to the

conce"t o# research and 8ey elements involved in the research "rocess.

C. Module Objectives

!artici"ants ill demonstrate 8noled(e o#

the conce"t o# research

the reasons #or conductin( research here it is conducted ho it is done

and by hom.

hy research

the attributes o# =uality research.

=ualitative and =uantitative research.

ethics o# research

2


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T!"! #$! P!%C!PT$ #' %!S!A%C T(P!S

Session I: Introduction of Research (1.5 hours

1. Session !earnin" Outcomes

A#ter the com"letion o# this session the "artici"ants ill be able to

e"lain the meanin(s o# research and its #unctions

com"are ty"es o# research #rom di##erent vie "oints

em"loy the a""ro"riate research ty"e to their res"ective disci"line

#. $e% &once'ts and &ontent

2.1 Key Concept: Research

&esearch has di##erent meanin(s to di##erent "eo"le. I# you understand the conce"t

o# research at an early sta(e it ould be easy #or you to deal ith more conce"ts in the

research "rocess. The #olloin( de#initions ill hel" you in understandin( the research

conce"t.

Accordin( to O#ord 9n(lish /ictionary D2662E research is de#ined as Fthe systematic

study o# materials and sources in order to establish #acts and reach ne conclusions.G

McMillan and %chumacher D1003E de#ine research as Fa systematic "rocess o#

collectin( and analysin( in#ormation DdataE #or some "ur"ose.G

)erlin(er D10-*E de#ines scienti#ic research as F%ystematic controlled em"irical and

critical investi(ation o# natural "henomena (uided by theory and hy"otheses about the

"resumed relations amon( such "henomena.G

2.1.1 h% do research)

e conduct research because e ant to e"lore ideas

and #ind solutions that ma8e sense. In doin( so a "erson thin8s

constantly assesses reassesses and ma8es decisions about the

best "ossible means o# obtainin( in#ormation that is trustorthy.

e may li8e to call this "rocess a "ersonHs thin8in( (ame or

3



hole brain activity and the "sycholo(ists call it ri(ht and le#t brain attributes DCherry et.al.

100$E.

2.1.2 here does research occur)

&esearch is conducted in many settin(s educational institutes laboratories

classrooms libraries the city streets #orei(n cultures etc. %ome research is o# short

duration. Other research is s"read over a lon( "eriod o# time. &esearch is usually done at

universities at (raduate or under(raduate levels as a re=uired course. It can be done in

various #ormats hich #all under the cate(ories o# =ualitative and =uantitative research the

details o# hich ill #ollo later in the module. &esearch is done by researchers ho are

"ro#essors #rom education natural sciences or social sciences e"erts and students o#

(raduate or under(raduate "ro(rammes #rom related and multi"le disci"lines.

2.1.3 hat do researchers use)

The in#ormation (athered throu(h research recommendations "rovides an insi(ht to

the researchers #or #uture course o# action to be ta8en #or better im"lementation and

a""lication. %ome businesses industry and /e"artments o# 9ducation s"end vast amounts

o# money #or research activity #or im"rovement and advancement in their "ro(rams.

2.2 Research Types

hen carryin( out research our "ur"oses are di##erent. There#ore research ty"es

ill vary accordin( to our "ur"oses. The major research ty"es ill #all under a""lication

objectives in=uiry mode and sometimes e may use mied method research.

2.2.1 A''lication (*ure and a''lied research

A""lied research is handsJon hich means that the researcher is actually or8in(

ith the to"ic:subjects hile conductin( the research. >enerally a""lied research #ocuses

on "ractical "roblems such as climate chan(e in order to come u" ith solutions to better

or im"rove an eistin( condition.

Basic research is o#ten considered researchin( #or the sa8e o# increasin( 8noled(e

as o""osed to a""lied here the research truly is intended to solve a "roblem. Basic

&esearch is o#ten called "ure research and is considered the #oundation #or a""lied

research.

4



2.2.2 Objectives (+escri'tive, &o-relational, /'lorator% and /'lanator%

Descriptive researchis also called statistical research. The main (oal o# this ty"e o#

research is to describe the data and characteristics about hat is bein( studied. The idea

behind this ty"e o# research is to study #re=uencies avera(es and other statistical

calculations. Althou(h this research is hi(hly accurate it does not (ather the causes behind

a situation.

Correlation research measures the relationshi" beteen to or more variables or

(ives an indication o# ho one variable may "redict another.

Exploratory research is a ty"e o# research conducted because a "roblem has not

been clearly de#ined. 9"loratory research hel"s determine the best research desi(n data

collection methods and selection o# subjects. >iven that it is #undamental in nature

e"loratory research o#ten concludes that a "erceived "roblem does not actually eist.

Explanatory research e"lores hy and attem"ts to e"lain as the "ur"oses o#

e"lanatory research. It builds on e"loratory and descri"tive research and #urther identi#ies

the reasons #or somethin( that occurs. It loo8s #or causes and reasons.

#.#.0 Inuir% mode (ualitative and uantitative

The in=uiry mode o# research can be cate(ori



behaviours and "erce"tions. It includes interviein( methods such as tele"hone interce"t

and doorJtoJdoor intervies as ell as sel#Jcom"letion methods such as mail outs and

online surveys. 7uantitative research

Means the data is analy



that the #acilitator as8s "artici"ants to "lan #or buyin( a car the #acilitator ould

(ive directions and set the limits #or this "lannin(. 4or eam"le

ou have , lacs to buy a car

ou can buy only one carL and have to s"end all the money but can not over

s"end.

ou may buy a ne or an old car.

?o as8 the "artici"ants to thin8 o# their "ersonal and social contet "ersonal and

#amily needs li8in(s :choices limitations etc. and as8 them to rationally "lan the "rocess.

>ive them ten minutes to "lan.

?o as8 them ho they "lanned it. As some o# the "artici"ants share ho they

"lanned it throu(h this discussion establish that the "lannin( involves a com"lete research

"rocess. One has to see the "roblem and needs. One has to do literature revie by

(atherin( in#ormation #rom relatives #riends or #amily ho have already bou(ht car. The

"rocess also involves research methodolo(y. 4or instance some "artici"ants ill directly (o

to the mar8et and surveyL some ould contact a dealer in carsL and some ould (o #or the

nes"a"er advertisements.

As8 them in the same ay ho they ould analy



5. Summar% and 2ransition

In this introductory session o# the module you have learned about the di##erent

de#initions o# research hy research is done here it is conducted and hat researchers

use. At the end o# the section you have ac=uired basic 8noled(e about research methods

and s8ills based on your educational bac8(round and "ro#essional e"eriences. ou can

easily di##erentiate amon( "ers"ectives on and a""roaches #or classi#yin( di##erent research

ty"es. The classi#ication ill hel" you understand di##erent conce"ts related to research

described in later sessions.

4. Assessment

"atch the research types with the descriptions.

8

A""lied

research

to describe the data and characteristics

about hat is bein( studied

Basic

researchloo8in( at the "ast events

/escri"tive

researchto (ain insi(hts concernin( attitudes belie#s

Correlational

research

"redicts and e"lains data in the #orm o#

statistical analysis

9"loratory

research

hel"s determine the best research desi(n

and data collection method

is "ure research

earch

o#ten concludes that a "erceived "roblem

does not actually eist

istorical

research

7ualitative

research

7uantitative

research

researchin( #or the sa8e o# 8noled(e as

o""osed to a""lied



T!"! T)# P*A$$&$+ A$, ,!S&+$&$+ A %!S!A%C

ST-,(

Session II: !iterature Revie: h% and 6o (1.5 hours



identi#y and #ormulate a research "roblem usin( literature revie as sources

o# in#ormation

construct research hy"otheses on the basis o# 8noled(e o# the research

area throu(h literature revie

access resources and use the "ro"er citations and re#erences

construct reliable research tools #or data collection on the basis o# ho other

researchers in the #ield or8ed

#. $e% &once't and &ontent

2.1 Key Concept: #iterat$re Revie"

'iterature revie is an im"ortant "art o# any research. It "rovides an under"innin(

#or the research by enli(htenin( the researcher about the "rocess.

#.1.1 !iterature revie as sources of information and its 'rocedure

Any research no matter at hat scale re=uires readin( about hat other "eo"le

have done in the area o# your interest ho they have done it and hat are the (a"s in the

research in that area. Any ne "roduction o# 8noled(e is necessarily based on "revious

and eistin( 8noled(e. ou need in#ormation to su""ort or re#ute your ar(uments and

rite about your #indin(s. ou need to "rovide evidence that you are aare o# the current

trends and issues in your area o# interest and are co(nisant o# the current state o#

8noled(e on the subject.

Ideally this readin( should #orm the basis #or choosin( your research methodolo(y.

oever this is usually not "ossible in "ractice. A#ter some "reliminary readin( the

research to"ic is #inali



and analysis. %ome readin( is naturally re=uired at the sta(e o# inter"retation o# the

=ualitative or =uantitative data to embed your research in its milieu. Moreover every ne

article:boo8 you read ill have a cumulative e##ect on the eistin( body o# 8noled(e in

your mind "ushin( to you reinter"ret or rethin8 some o# your "revious assum"tions or

ideas. But there is a limit to the chan(es you can ma8e in your literature revie. The best

ay is to "re"are a #irst dra#t and then "olish it at the sta(e o# data inter"retation hen you

ill be readin( your literature revie a(ain to "resent your analysis in a coherent manner

ith crossJre#erences related to your literature revie.

2.1.2 h% revie literature)

%ome reasons #or includin( a literature revie in your research "a"er:thesis are

1. The basic reason #or literature revie is to contetuali



2.1.3 Sources of literature revie

One im"ortant =uestion that ne researchers alays as8 is Fhere do e #ind the

material #or doin( a literature revieG The #olloin( are the "rimary and secondary

sources #or #indin( the material that you need to read

Articles in Nournals

Boo8s

Internet

&esearch &e"orts

>overnment /ocuments

Abstracts

&evies

Kn"ublished Theses

9lectronic &esearch In#ormation Center:%ocial %ciences Citation

Inde:/issertation Abstracts Inde

Most o# this material is no available on the Internet. 'ibraries in established hi(her

education institutions are another rich resource #or locatin( the re=uired materials.

2.1.4 Mana"in" the literature

The biblio(ra"hy at the end o# a recent article or boo8 can "rovide you ith an

ade=uate readin( list o# most o# the relevant material related to that to"ic. Once the

relevant literature has been located and #ound throu(h the sources su((ested the net

ste" is to mana(e it. This re=uires e##icient and selective readin(. Once you try locatin( the

relevant literature you ill discover that it is available in vast =uantities. ?o the "rimary

tas8 is to "ic8 out the material that is actually related and relevant to your research area.

This re=uires you to be a "ro#icient reader ho can (et the (ist o# thin(s =uic8ly as you ill

have to (o throu(h a lot o# readin(.

In an article "ublished in a journal the #irst thin( to do is loo8 at the abstract or

summary o# the article. This ill (ive you an idea hether it is relevant #or you. In the case

o# a boo8 you should loo8 at the list o# contents the blurb the summaries usually (iven at

11



the end o# the cha"ters and the introduction. This ill tell you =uic8ly i# any "art is "ertinent

#or you.

The net ste" is to #ollo a clear system o# 8ee"in( trac8 o# your readin( re#erences.

ou need to create a mana(ement system that ill incor"orate your sources ith all

relevant details includin( a note about here you #ound that article or boo8. This means

that you "ut don that the article:boo8 as on the shel# o# your su"ervisor or in the library

o# the Institute o# Business Administration. This ill save a lot o# hassle and #utile #in(erJ

bitin( at the end hen you des"erately need a "a(e number #or a =uote and cannot

remember here you had #ound the material. The convenient traditional ay as to rite

don the com"lete biblio(ra"hical re#erence Dbased on the style you ill #olloE on a *+

inch Inde Card. These cards are much better than "a"ers as they are hardier ill not #ly

aay under the #an can be stored al"habetically in shoe boes and can be s"read li8e dec8

o# cards ith res"ect to the notes that are ritten. Today a number o# com"uter "ro(rams

li8e 9ndnote !rocite or &e#erence Mana(er are available to 8ee" trac8 o# your re#erences.

These "ro(rams can automatically #ormat re#erences in any number o# styles once the basic

details have been entered.

It is also use#ul to annotate your re#erences. ou can rite brie# notes on the Inde

Cards. This ill "rovide you ith a methodical and or(ani



normali:e the emotional and intellectual hardships many research

students can go through when trying to ;uggle family obligations

and study.

The anecdote is quite short and written in a warm and

personal style that ma9es it very easy to relate to. &t is not

however a research study bac9ed up by any data/rigour and

therefore does not allow one to assess the eay 2666E. This ill

authenticate your stance. Citin( o"inions only can ea8en the revie. Moreover be care#ul

13



to be recent and u" to date in citin(. ith the Internet revolution the "ace o# 8noled(e

(eneration and meanin( ma8in( has multi"lied mani#old and access to the Internet is also

ithin reach. Be judicious in the selection o# relevant literature and avoid the tem"tation to

include every sin(le source that you have accessed.

One valid su((estion #or ritin( a (ood literature revie is to read a #e ellJ

ritten literature revies. This ill (ive you an idea about ho to (o about it. At the end I

ould li8e to say a(ain hat as said earlierL let the literature revie be an on(oin( "rocess

that overla"s other sta(es o# your research. It ill then su""ort your ar(uments and

contribute to your analysis and inter"retation o# the data.

In social sciences literature revie is usually a se"arate cha"ter. %ometimes it is

built into the introduction and cha"ters related to methodolo(y and analysis. oever in

sciences the literature revie is usually "art o# the introduction. The role o# literature

remains the same both in sciences and social sciences.

A note o# caution Be valiant and (et #eedbac8 #rom your "eers and su"ervisor. Be

"re"ared to redra#t and revise.

2.3 &amp!e of #iterat$re Revie"

I# you are doin( action research a (ood ay to be(in your literature revie ould be

to de#ine hat it is.

Action Research

Action research can be de#ined as the "rocess o# studyin( a

real school or classroom situation to understand and im"rove the

=uality o# actions or instruction. It is a systematic and orderly ay

#or teachers to observe their "ractice or to e"lore a "roblem and a

"ossible course o# action. Action research is also a ty"e o# in=uirythat is "reJ"lanned or(ani



inte(rative a""roach com"ared to the more revolutionary one o# )emmis and McTa((art.

This a""roach is more a""ro"riate #or our indi(enous locale.

'ieberman D10-*E has de#ined collaborative action research as a tool #or sta##

develo"ment and an o""ortunity #or teachers and university researchers to or8 to(ether to

investi(ate and solve school and classroom challen(es. This research "ractice is encoura(ed

in the de"artments o# education in the universities in !a8istan.

4innan D1002E states that interventions can succeed i# they are desi(ned to hel"

members o# the school community DcultureE ma8e the chan(es they have identi#ied as

im"ortant. As most o# their school teachers are trained in research academics #rom i(her

9ducation Institutions collaborate ith them to "lan success#ul interventions #or #acilitatin(

teachin( and learnin(. This is not our scenario. e have eternally "re"ared curriculaI

im"osed on us. All that e can do is may be (ra#t an innovation onto an on(oin( system

hich normally inhibits innovation and chan(e DCohen and Manion 266$ ". 226E to

#acilitate learnin( across the curriculum. This is a "rocess that can be initiated and "racticed

by classroom "ractitioners individually and collectively.

McCarthy and &iner D100*E ar(ue that the obvious stren(th o# action research is that

it creates an environment here assum"tions are o"ened #or =uestionin(. They reiterate Oja

and !ine D10-0 as cited in ebb 1006E by statin( that teachers "artici"atin( in action

research become more critical and re#lective about their on "ractice and attend more

care#ully to their methods their "erce"tions and their a""roach to teachin( "rocess. The

research o# 7adir D100*E is a "roo# o# this.

It is a "artici"atory "rocess in hich teachers are Pcreatin( ne data and ne

inter"retations as they stru((led to understand each otherH DNohnston 1006 1-6E. Teachers

involved in collaborative action research Pusually #eel em"oered both "ro#essionally and

"ersonally and there is a decrease in their #eelin( o# #rustration and isolation. These

outcomes are ty"ically attributed to the collaborative nature o# teacher researchH Denson

2661 -21E. 4irestone and !ennell D100$E also reiterate that collaboration becomes an

intrinsically rein#orcin( activity that builds commitment to teachin(. It is there#ore a

"re#erred mode o# research at school and tertiary level #or classroom "ractitioners.

0. 2eachin" A''roaches

The session on literature revie ill be delivered throu(h

15



'ectures based on !oer!oint "resentations DThe #acilitator should use all

the headin(s in 2. 7ey Concepts and Contento# this session and should rite

the main "oints under each headin( by usin( bullets.E

andouts are to be used. !rovide Brief Sample Annotation (iven in 2. 7ey

Concepts and Contentto the "artici"ants as a handout.

Sample of *iterature %eview (iven in 2. 7ey Concepts and Contentcan also

be "rovided as a handout that "artici"ants can carry as a #uture re#erence. Or

sho this sam"le on the !oer!oint and (enerate a discussion based on it.

>rou" or8 o# the !artici"ants

3. !earnin" Activities

'.1 (b)ective of the Activity

To (ive the "artici"ants a "ractical e"erience o# ho to do a literature revie.

'.2 Activity

A#ter the #acilitator has delivered the lecture i# "ossible ta8e the "artici"ants to the

libraryL i# not "ossible arran(e #or almost $6 boo8s. Ma8e ,J* sets o# these boo8sL each set

o# boo8s should be related to one (eneral theme. Kse ,J* themes such as hi(her education

in !a8istan (ender issues "rimary education and teachin( o# 9n(lish etc.. >ive these sets

to di##erent (rou"s. As8 each "artici"ant to develo" a research to"ic #or himsel#:hersel# and

then do a brie# literature revie usin( the set o# boo8s "rovided to his or her (rou".

I# they are usin( a library they can use journals and Internet as ell. As8 them to

consult , to 3 sources to rite their literature revie. Content o# the session ill serve as

the resource.

16




In the literature revie session o# the module you have learned hat a literature

revie is and hy revie o# literature is necessary #or any research. ou have also been

introduced to various sources #or conductin( literature revie. It is also discussed ho

literature revie can be mana(ed ell. To #acilitate learnin( a brie# sam"le o# annotation

and a sam"le literature revie are also "rovided.

4. Assessment

Assessment ould be done throu(h the outcome o# the activity o# ritin( literature

revie as "rovided in >?. *earning Activities>.

17



Session III: Identif%in" and 8ormulatin" a Research *roblem

(1.5 hours



identi#y and #ormulate a research "roblem usin( literature revie as sources

o# in#ormation

identi#y research variables

construct research hy"otheses

rite a statement o# the research "roblem

#ormulate research =uestions


2.1 *efine a Research %rob!em

This is a #act that research starts #rom some "roblem. The research journey starts

#rom the identi#ication o# the "roblem. To or8 on that s"eci#ic "roblem only the

identi#ication is not su##icient. It is necessary #or the researcher to de#ine that "roblem in

more "ractical terms. 'iterature revie hel"s the researcher in de#inin( the research

"roblem so that it can be measured in its true sense.

2.2 Key Concept: +ariab!es

A variable is a characteristic that ta8es on di##erent values or conditions #or di##erent

individuals. 5ariables are o# di##erent ty"es

,ependent variables are the variables that e measure to determine i# the

inde"endent variable has an e##ect such as science achievement. The dependent variable is

what is affected by the independent variable.

&ndependent variables o#ten sim"ly are classi#yin( variables classi#yin( the

individuals o# the research study. 4or eam"le i# e are loo8in( at the studentHs

achievements in science usin( some ne teachin( methods then the teachin( method

ould be an inde"endent variable and the achievement o# the student is an inde"endent

variable.

18



Controlled variablesare inde"endent variables. They are controlled variables only i#

their e##ects are determined i.e. controlled. In the eam"le o# science achievement the

learnin( style o# the students is an or(anismic variable as it ould "robably a""ear as an

intervenin( variable. 4or eam"le a treatment o# "ro(ram or cause.

!



?o select a research to"ic and try to rite the research "roblem.


The session on identi#yin( and #ormulatin( a research "roblem ill be delivered

throu(h

'ectures based on !oer!oint "resentations

!artici"atory activities

/iscussion

!ractical e"erience throu(h eercises


To introduce the to"ic and deliver the contents the #acilitator should use all

the headin(s in 2. 7ey Concepts and Contento# this session and should rite

the main "oints under each headin( by usin( bullets. Mainly it ould be lecture

based. oever as8in( =uestions sharin( eam"les and (ivin( comments can

hel" en(a(e "artici"ants.

hile the "artici"ants are introduced to hat a research "roblem is hat

variables are ho a (ood hy"othesis can be constructed and ho a research

"roblem is stated the #acilitator should (ive the "artici"ants to to three

eam"les o# each to"ic at di##erent sta(es in researchL and should as8 the

"artici"ants to a""ly this 8noled(e to "ractical instances.

The content o# the session ill serve as resources.


In this session o# the module you have learned hat a research "roblem is hat is

the de#inition o# a variable hat are di##erent ty"es o# variables and ho the research

"roblem is stated hat is a hy"othesis and hat are the characteristics o# a (ood

hy"othesis.

20



4. Assessment

Assessment ould be activity based. !re"are a handout o# the #olloin( to use it #or

assessment

Activity 4

&dentify the independent and dependant variables in the following situation8

A university teacher is interested in determinin( the best ay to teach introductory

technolo(y course and ensure that her students have learned the material.

Activity 2

'ormulate hypotheses for the following two situations8

%ituation 1

hat e##ects does viein( violence on television have on boys

%ituation 2

A sanitation de"artment is nearby and the smell is comin( #rom the same direction.

The sanitation de"artment does a series o# ste"s to "rocess the sea(e and asteater.

ypothesis8 I# __________________________then___________________________.

21



Session I9: Research Stud% +esi"ns (1.5 hours



de#ine di##erent research desi(ns and their #unctions

ado"t a""ro"riate a""roach #or selectin( a study desi(n

di##erentiate amon( di##erent study desi(ns accordin( to the characteristics


2.1 Key Concept: Research *esign

e cannot conce"tuali



#.#.# 2he lon"itudinal stud% desi"n

The lon(itudinal research desi(n em"loys the #olloin( characteristics

'on(itudinal research desi(n is to trac8 "artici"ants over an etended

amount o# time D, years 16 years 1, years etcE.

%ame "eo"le are studied at more than one time to record the develo"ments

in (roth etc.

!eo"le hesitate to become the sam"le o# these studies due to the lon(

duration.

2.2.3 &ross sectional stud% desi"n

The cross sectional research desi(n em"loys the #olloin( characteristics

Involves studyin( many "eo"le at one "oint in time.

Involves less time "eriod and cost as com"ared to the lon(itudinal method.

/escribes the linear relationshi" D"ositive or ne(ativeE beteen the variables.

#.#.3 7ased on the reference 'eriod

The historical study desi(n is a commonly used desi(n under the cate(ory o#

re#erence "eriod

#.#.5 6istorical stud% desi"n

4olloin( are its main #eatures

istorical research also 8non as Fistorio(ra"hyG is related to the

inter"retation o# the events hich can be in the #orm o# issues or the

movements that have occurred in the "ast and #actual analysis.

It is lon(er than other ty"es o# research because the researcher has to search

#or the documents and has to do a dee" analysis o# these documents.

A#ter the identi#ication o# issue data is collected throu(h

o primary sourceshich can be the ori(inal documents or the "eo"le ho

have themselves e"erienced that "articular event.

23



o secondary sourceshich can be the secondJhand documents or the "eo"le

ho did not e"erience themselves but they 8no about that event.

Material is studied in#ormation is synthesi



2.2.10 &ase stud%

The study o# an individual or an institution in a uni=ue settin( or situation in

an intense and detailed manner #or lon( "eriod o# time.

%everal techni=ues can be used ithin a case study i.e. Intervies

Observations or 9"eriments

/ata collected throu(h case studies lead to the #ormation o# the theories.

The results may be a##ected by researcherHs on "erce"tions and the results

cannot be (enerali



The objective o# this activity is o enable the "artici"ants to identi#y the research

study desi(n used in research articles. In this activity the #acilitator ill brin( some research

articles accordin( to the #ield o# s"eciali



2. 9##ectiveness o# co(nitive behaviour thera"y #or the treatment o# a((ression

in adolescents this is an eam"le o# ______________________.

ustification/Argument for your answer

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

$. The s"eech "roblem o# a hearin( im"aired child in school this is an eam"le

o# ________________________________.

ustification/Argument for your answer

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

27



Session 9: Research 2ools (# hours



understand the characteristics o# the valid and reliable research tools

de#ine the "rocedure #or the construction o# di##erent research tools

construct reliable research tools #or data collection


2.1 Key Concept 1: Research Too!s for *ata Co!!ection

Tools o# research are basically used #or data collection. These tools vary #rom one

research ty"e to another. 7ualitative and =uantitative researchers use di##erent tools o#

measurement accordin( to the "ur"oses. Be#ore "roceedin( #urther let us loo8 at the term

FdataG and understand its a""lication in research.

/ata include

4acts and "rinci"les used in #indin( the ansers.

Characteristics o# "eo"le i.e. a(es and income etc.

%cores in tests and anecdotal records o# the students.

Ansers to =uestions hether in =uestionnaires or in intervies etc.

Measures o# scales and statements o# the belie#s and o"inions.

'as and descri"tions o# the social setJu" in hich the research is bein(

conducted etc.

The #olloin( are the most commonly used tools #or the collection o# data

7uestionnaires

Intervies

Observations

Tests Dachievement a"titude "ersonality vocational and "ersonality etc.E

28



%cales Dnominal ordinal interval ratio li8ert etc.E

2.2 Key Concept 2:The $estionnaire

7uestionnaires are the most commonly used tool #or the collection o# data hich

involve the #olloin( details

7uestionnaire a ritten document based on di##erent o"en and closeJended

=uestions ith di##erent "ur"oses si



o +roup &nterviews8 meetin( beteen one researcher and more than one

res"ondent.

o 'ocus +roup8 collection o# in#ormation on nonJsensitive issues by arran(in(

a discussion o# e"erts.

Can be conducted #ace to #ace or throu(h tele"honic or other electronic

sources i.e. eJmail etc.

?ote"ad ta"e recorder video recorder are the e=ui"ment used to record

and save the data.

2.4 Key Concept ': The observation

Observation is the recordin( o# the behaviour o# the sam"le.

&elies on hat the researcher has itnessed rather than on hat "eo"le say

or thin8 about issues.

Observation can be o# to ty"es

o !artici"ant Observation hen you as a researcher become "art o# some

social setJu" and "eo"le 8no that they are bein( observed.

o ?onJ"artici"ant or %ystematic Observation hen you do not inter#ere in

the social setJu" or do not disturb the natural settin(s o# the sam"le to be

observed.

Behaviour is recorded throu(h observational chec8list.

2.5 Key Concept 0: (bservationa! Check!ist

There are a lot o# techni=ues hich can be used #or observin( the behavior o# the

sam"le i.e. #ield notes ta"e and video recordin( and the observation chec8lists.

Observational chec8list is "re"ared by the researcher. Observation chec8list is based on

rating scales and the codin( systems. /i##erent #orms o# ratin( scales are "resent in

observation chec8lists and you must 8no the "ro"er codin( system. There can be di##erent

techni=ues #or "re"arin( the observation chec8list accordin( to the re=uirement o# the to"ic

and the "erce"tion o# the observer. But most observational chec8list can be based on

#olloin( cate(ories

30



Duration Recoring! len(th o# time involved in occurrence o# some

behaviour.

"re#uency Recoing!number o# occurrence o# behaviour.

$nterval Recoring!observation o# one subject durin( a #ied "eriod o# time.

Continuous Recoring!each and every ha""enin( is recorded.

2.6 Key Concept : &ca!es

Measurement scales are used to collect the di##erent #orms o# data and =uanti#y the

res"onse o# the res"ondents to measure the variables. The ty"e o# measurement scale ill

de"end u"on the ty"e o# data i.e. nominal ordinal interval and ratio. %cales can also be "art

o# a =uestionnaire.

D%ee *earning "aterial for Session #or /etailsE

2.7 Key Concept : Tests

Test is a measurement tool hich is used to measure the "er#ormance o# an

individual in some s"eci#ic areas o# interest. There are to main ty"es o# tests

$orm %eferencedor Standardi:ed Tests and Criterion %eferenced Tests.

In norm referenced tests the norms are used relatively to measure the

"er#ormance o# some individuals. ?orms are basically the standard ith hich

the "er#ormance is com"ared. 4olloin( are the most commonly used ty"es o#

norm re#erenced tests

o Achievement Tests8 to measure the "er#ormance o# an individual in

di##erent subjects hich they have learned and inter"retin( this

"er#ormance in the #orm o# (rades to com"are ith the "er#ormance andlearnin( o# others.

o Aptitude Tests8 to measure the "otential o# some individual in learnin(

about hat s:he can learn not about hat s:he has already learned.

o &ntelligence Tests8 to measure the mental abilities i.e. to analy



o Personality Tests8 to measure the ty"e or the characteristics o# the

"ersonality and to measure the human behaviours their s8ills and their

needs etc.

o ocational/Career Tests8 to measure the ability and suitability o# some

"erson in ado"tin( some "ro#ession and career.

o Sensory "otor Tests8to measure an individualHs sensory ca"abilities and

motor abilities and to measure the sensory coordination.

Criterion %eferenced Tests

o hen the "er#ormance o# an individual is inter"reted on the basis o# some

criterion hich is absolute but not the relative one is re#erred to as

criterion re#erenced test.

o Criterion is basically some s"eci#ic subject or s8ill.

o Main "ur"ose o# this test is to measure some s"eci#ic objectives hich are

"reJde#ined o"erationally and behaviourally.

o Content validity o# these tests are re=uired.

o There is no restriction about the number o# individuals #allin( in "ass mar8s

criterion.

o The cut o## or the "assin( mar8s criteria is set by either the subject teacher

or by the researcher.

2.3 Constr$cting the Too!s

4olloin( are some common rules hich are #olloed in construction o# all the

tools

%election o# to"ic

Identi#ication o# the variables to be measured

Considerin( the audience

/eterminin( the objectives

Constructin( the items more than the re=uired

32



%electin( o# the most a""ro"riate items

/evelo"ment o# )eys DI# necessaryE

Assi(nin( Codes DI# necessaryE

!ilot testin( o# the tools

/eterminin( the 5alidity and the &eliability o# the tests

o %eliability8 Consistency o# the results o# the test

o alidity8 /oes the test measure hat it is actually su""osed to measure


The content o# the session can be delivered throu(h #olloin( a""roaches

'ectures on the characteristics o# each tool and ho to desi(n these tools

throu(h !oer!oint "resentations based on im"ortant "oints

>rou" or8 o# the "artici"ants in "er#ormin( activities


The #acilitator is re=uired to "er#orm any one or to o# the three activities in ,4.

*earning "aterial of Session by involvin( the "artici"ants a#ter the content is delivered.

The objective is to enable the students to or8 on already desi(ned tools and (et a better

understandin( o# the construction o# these tools.


Collection o# data is the most im"ortant "art o# all the studies hether =ualitative or=uantitative. /ata cannot be collected ithout a measurement tool. I# you are usin( any

standardi



data. ou can include di##erent scales into your =uestionnaires and intervies as ell. %o i#

you are able to desi(n a (ood research tool you ill collect authentic data based on it.

34



4. Assessment

The #acilitator ill as8 the "artici"ants to do the #olloin( activities in the li(ht o# the

learned materials

'ist the ty"es o# measurement tools.

Com"are the use o# measurement scales.

/i##erentiate beteen the norm re#erenced and criterion re#erenced tests.

Consult the recommended readin(s and #ind out ho to determine the

validity and the reliability o# the tools.

35



Example of Population:

All the private schools of Rawalpindi

All the seventh grade students of Islamabad

All the primary school teachersAll the slum areas of the city

Session 9I: Selectin" Sam'les (1 hour



de#ine the "o"ulation and sam"le

di##erentiate beteen the "robability and non "robability sam"lin(

a""ly "rocedures involved in di##erent sam"lin( techni=ues


2.1 Key Concept 1: %op$!ation

!o"ulation is a lar(e (rou" o# "eo"le hich you s"eci#y to conduct the research and

to anser the research =uestion. !o"ulation is the area here the results o# the study are

(enerali



Example of Sample:

Fifty students of fifth grade

Sixty primary school teachersHundred students studying in private school

2.2 Key Concept 2: &amp!e

%am"le is a smaller (rou" hich is selected #rom the "o"ulation to be observed and

included in the research. &esults are dran #rom the sam"le and (enerali



2.5.1 *robabilit% sam'lin"

In "robability sam"lin( every individual in the "o"ulation has a nonJrou" or8 based on activities a#ter the lecture


A#ter the com"letion o# lecture the #acilitator ill arran(e some research articles or

ta8e the "artici"ants to the library. Then the (rou"s o# +J, members ill be #ormulated. 2

articles ill be (iven to each (rou". The (rou" members ill be as8ed to do the #olloin(

Identi#y the "o"ulation and sam"le o# the researches in article

38



_________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

I# you conduct a research and select a sam"le hat ill you use in the

#olloin( situations

o I# you use the sim"le random sam"lin( hat ill be the "rocedure

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

o I# you use the systematic sam"lin( hat ill be the "rocedure

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

o I# you use the cluster sam"lin( hat ill be the "rocedure

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

o I# you use the strati#ied sam"lin( hat ill be the "rocedure

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

&esources D%ee *earning "aterial for Session or /etailsE


&esults o# a research are (enerali



4. Assessment

Based on the or8 done in lecture and the activities the assessment ill be done

throu(h the #olloin( activity.

The #acilitator ill as8 the "artici"ants to anser the #olloin( =uestions8

/i##erentiate beteen the "o"ulation and sam"le.

Brie#ly discuss the need #or sam"lin(.

rite don the "rocedure #or selectin( the a""ro"riate sam"le.

I# you conduct a research hich sam"lin( ty"e you ill use "robability or

non "robability hy ill you select this ty"e discuss

40



Session 9II: ritin" a Research *ro'osal (1.5 hours



understand hat the im"ortant com"onents o# a research "ro"osal are

rite a research "ro"osal


2.1 Key Concept: Research %roposa!

ritin( a research "ro"osal is a di##erent e"erience than any other ty"es o# ritin(.

It involves more clarity o# mind as ell as a more systematic a""roach toards the ritin(

"rocess itsel#. A research "ro"osal is an outline a s8etch or a blue"rint o# a buildin( that

you ant to build. In #act you can divide your hole research or8 into three sta(es

%ta(e i J Thin8in( About the &esearch

%ta(e ii J !re"arin( the &esearch !ro"osal

%ta(e iii J Conductin( the &esearch

This cha"ter mainly deals ith the #irst to sta(es. It addresses the issues o# thin8in(

systematically identi#yin( a research "roblem de#inin( the to"ic "re"arin( a title #ormin(

a hy"othesis and ma8in( research =uestions.

2.1.1 here to start from)

/o not abru"tly start ritin( your research "ro"osalL thin8 ell be#ore you rite.

Thorou(h and detailed thin8in( ould reduce the number o# attem"ts to revise the

"ro"osal. At the PThin8in( about it %ta(eH it can be hel"#ul i# you

are inclusive ith your thin8in(

rite don your ideas

are not overly in#luenced by othersJ itHs your research

try and set a realistic (oal

set a""ro"riate time lines

41



Once you start thin8in( your line o# thou(ht should be in the #olloin( se=uence

Idea Q

To"ic Q

!roblem statement Q

y"othesis Q

2.1.2 +efinin" the to'ic

A ellJde#ined research to"ic (ives #ocus sets boundaries and "rovides direction. It

1. /e#ines and identi#ies the #ocus o# the research.

2. /e#ines the nature o# the research endeavourJ hether the aim is to discover

e"lore e"lain describe or com"are.

3. /e#ines the areas o# interestJ hether the interest is hy hen here hat

or ho.

+. Indicates i# a relationshi" is #oreseen beteen conce"ts bein( e"loredJ hether

loo8in( #or im"acts decreases causes correlations etc.

2.1.3 Includin" a title on %our 'ro'osalTitle o# your research is the #irst introduction o# the reader to your or8 hich

im"lies it should clearly convey the intended messa(e. !re"arin( a (ood title means

havin( the most im"ortant ords a""ear toard the be(innin( o# your title

limitin( the use o# ambi(uous or con#usin( ords

loo8in( #or unnecessary ords hen you have too many ords and

includin( 8ey ords that ill hel" researchers in the #uture.

2.1.4 Selection of a research 'roblem

At the outset o# your research ma8e sure you have identi#ied a orthhile "roblem

hich has not been "reviously ansered. %ince research is alays about some "roblem:s

identi#ication and selection o# this "roblem is most crucial in desi(nin( a research "ro"osal.

Accordin( to Tuc8man D100+E FAlthou(h selectin( the research "roblem is one o# the most

di##icult ste"s in the research "rocess it is un#ortunately the one #or hich the least

42



(uidance can be (ivenG. oever Accordin( to Tuc8man D100+E a "roblem statement must

have the #olloin( characteristics

It should as8 about a relationshi" beteen to or more variables.

It should be clearly and unambi(uously stated.

It should be stated in =uestion #orm Dor alternatively in the #orm o# an

im"licit =uestion such as the "ur"ose o# this study as to determine

hetherE.

It should be testable by em"irical methodsL that is it should be "ossible to

collect data to anser the =uestionDsE as8ed.

It should not re"resent a moral or ethical "osition.

A"art #rom these (uidelines "rovided by Tuc8man D100+E it can also be use#ul i#

ensure that the "roblem that you have identi#ied is o# some theoretical or "ractical

si(ni#icance. It can also be hel"#ul i# #rom the ide ran(e o# "otential "roblems #or study at

the initial sta(e you narro the ran(e to "roblems that are relevant to your academic:

"ro#essional interest and current level o# research s8ills. 'ater on considerin( other #actors

such as available resources time etc. you can select a "roblem #or your research. Tuc8man

D100+E has "resented various models that can be hel"#ul in the selection o# a "roblemL #or

instance the #olloin( threeJdimensional model

43



2.1.5 Statement of the 'roblem: e/am'les

A "roblem can be stated in the #orm o# an e"licit or an im"licit =uestion. 4or

eam"le

The study eamined hether students tau(ht by direct method achieved hi(her

readin( scores than those tau(ht by the communicative a""roach. DIm"licit =uestionE

Or hat is the relationshi" beteen motivation and achievement D9"licit

=uestionE

2.1.6 hat is a h%'othesis)

Once you have identi#ied and stated a "roblem the net ste" is to create a

hy"othesis. !uttin( it in a sim"le ay a hy"othesis is a ise or educated (uess. It is an

assumed anser to the =uestion "osed in a research "roblem statement. oever it is only

an PassumedH anser or an e"ectation that is tested in the study later on. ou must bear in

mind that a hy"othesis di##ers #rom an observation hich re"resents outcomes actually

#ound.

44



2.1.7 6o to form a h%'othesis)

4ocusin( on your research "roblem you can create the hy"othesis. %im"ly try to (ive

a direct anser to the =uestion "osed in the "roblem statement. 4or eam"le

&esearch 71 hat is the relationshi" beteen motivation and achievement

y"othesis1a Motivation and achievement are "ositively related.

oever this is not the only "ossible (uess you can ma8e. ou may assume that

y"othesis 1b Motivation and achievement are ne(atively related.

Thus a hy"othesis shos some D"ositive or a ne(ativeE relationshi" beteen the

variables. As #ar as the =uestion o# structurin( a hy"othesis is concerned there can be

varieties o# ays #or instance

&esearch 72 /o students learn more #rom a directive or nondirective teacher

y"othesis 2 /irective teachers (ive more e##ective instruction than nonJdirective

teachers.

It is also im"ortant here to introduce you to the P?ull y"othesisH. It is a small little

creature ho says PI re"resent no relationshi" beteen the variables that you are studyin(H.

9am"le There is no relationshi" beteen motivation and achievement.

2.1.8 here do h%'otheses come from)

>iven a "roblem statementJ Are A and B related A researcher can construct three

"ossible hy"otheses

1. es as A increases so does B.

2. es as A increases B decreases.

$. ?o A and B are unrelated.

The number o# "ossible hy"otheses may "ossibly increase as the number o# variables

increases.


This session ill be delivered throu(h

'ectures based on !oer!oint "resentations hich ill be desi(ned on the

8ey "oints o# the content

Activity based tas8s

45




To introduce ho to rite research "ro"osal the #acilitator needs to ma8e a

!oer!oint "resentation #rom the contents es"ecially usin( the "oints that are

(iven in the #orm o# bullets under various headin(s in the contents.

The #acilitator ill ta8e the "artici"ants throu(h

o Idea Q

o To"ic Q

o !roblem statement Q

o y"othesis

At every sta(e o# delivery as8 "artici"ants to "ractically do it that is as8 each

"artici"ant to choose an idea then to develo" a to"ic out o# it and #inally rite

the "roblem statement and #inally ma8e the hy"othesis.

&esources The content ill serve as resource.

5. Summar% and 2ransitionIn this session o# the module you have learnt the im"ortant com"onents o# a

research "ro"osal "roblem statement research =uestion and hy"othesis.

4. Assessment

.1 56ercise 1: &e!f Test Items

4. )hich of the following statements is phrased as a research problem

The purpose of this study is to determine

a. hether the "romotion "olicy should be chan(ed.

b. the truth o# the "ro"osition that American education has encoura(ed a social class

system in the Knited %tates.

c. ho students can overcome test aniety.

d. hether there is a di##erence in the mean (ain scores in readin( achievement

beteen com"arable students tau(ht ord attac8 s8ills and those tau(ht com"rehension

s8ills.

46



2. The statement of the research problem provides

a. the educational contet o# the study.

b. the #rameor8 #or re"ortin( the results.

c. the im"ortance o# the study.

d. All o# the above are correct.

=. Duantitative problem formulation requires

a. the use o# deductive lo(ic #or the "roblem.

b. selection o# a construct variables and o"erational de#initions.

c. selection o# a "o"ulation and:or sam"le.


?. Duantitative research questions may be phrased to indicate

a. a descri"tive study o# current status o# a (rou".

b. a relationshi" study "redictin( the in#luence o# one variable on another variable.

c. a com"arative study beteen to or more data sets.


E. A statement of the e



c. A hy"othesis can be stated o"erationally.

d. A hy"othesis is lo(ically "recise.

.2 56ercise 2: App!ication %rob!ems

Answer the questions for each research problem.

4. The following are e



T!"! T%!! C#$,-CT&$+ A %!S!A%C ST-,(

Session 9III: Research thics (1 hour



understand the ethics involved in conductin( research

reco(ni



2.3 Informed Consent

The second research ethic is to (et in#ormation #rom the "eo"le ho are (oin( to be

your "artici"ants. ou cannot or8 ith them unless you have their consent. ou (et their

consent by in#ormin( them about hat you are (oin( to do. ou (ive this in#ormation

throu(h an in#ormed consent #orm hich is on the o##icial letter "ad and carries the

#olloin(

the "ur"ose o# the research

ho you are

hat you are doin(

ho lon( ill the "artici"ants be involved

an o##er to ithdra #rom the e"eriment at any time #or any reason

"otential bene#its to the individual as ell as to society

"otential harm or ris8s #or discom#ort to the individual

an assurance that the results ill be 8e"t in strict con#idence

ho to (et a co"y o# the results

ho can you be reached should anyone have =uestions

a "lace #or the "artici"ants to si(n to con#irm their illin(ness

In#ormed consent #orm is to in#orm and not to #orce "eo"le into "artici"atin(.

2.4 8aintaining Confidentia!ity

The third very im"ortant research ethic is the "artici"ants ri(ht o# "rivacy throu(h

our assurance o# con#identiality. The "artici"ants need the assurance that their in#ormation

ill not be made available to anyone ho is not directly connected ith the research. The

in#ormation "rovided by the "artici"ants should in no ay reveal their identity. This means

they ill remain anonymous throu(h out the study.


The research ethics ill be tau(ht by the #olloin( method

'ecture ith a !oer!oint "resentation.

50



>rou" discussion on the three research ethics related to the "artici"ants


The #acilitator ill introduce the theme by brainstormin( the term ethics and

ho it is bein( used in daily li#e.

4rom the res"onses "ic8in( out the terms that relate to research ethics.

/iscuss the im"ortance o# ethics in conductin( research.

Ma8e a conce"t ma" o# the three research ethics related to "artici"ant

in#ormation in#ormed consent and con#identiality

/iscuss the in#ormed consent #ormat.

%hare &esources

Online &esource &esearch Methods )noled(e Base Online. AvailableR

htt"::.socialresearchmethods.net:8b:contents."h"


In this session e have discussed the im"ortance o# research ethics in all contet o#

research. &esearch cannot be conducted unless e ensure collaboration and coo"eration o#

di##erent "artici"ants disci"lines and institutions. The three major ethics "rinci"les related

to "artici"ants in#ormation in#ormed consent and con#identiality ere addressed

s"eci#ically.

4. Assessment

Answer the following questions8

1. o do you observe ethics in your day to day interaction ith your collea(ues

2. ou ant to (et in#ormation on the students o# your class throu(h a survey o#

their "arentsH bac8(round and socio economic status. o ill you (et this

in#ormation hat research ethics related to the "artici"ants ill you address

and ho ill you deal ith it

51



Session I> *rocessin" and Anal%?in" +ata (# hours



understand the conce"ts o# descri"tive and in#erential statistics

di##erentiate beteen the =ualitative and =uantitative research

a""ly sim"le "rocedures o# descri"tive statistics to a data set


2.1 Key Concept 1: *ata Ana!ysis

A#ter the data is collected #rom the "artici"ants o# the research there is the need to

or(ani



Duantitative Dualitative

Measures the 7uantity

/eals ith the numbers

Can be conducted in short time

s"an

More Objectivity

Can be restricted to limited

variables

%am"le is selected randomly

&esearcher has control over the

variables

&esults are in#erred throu(h

hy"othesis testin(

Measures the 7uality

/eals ith the tet codin( and(eneratin( the meanin( #rom the

tet

9tended over lon( "eriod o# time

More %ubjectivity

Involves many variables

!ur"osive sam"lin(

&esearcher does not have control

over variables

&esults are based on

inter"retation o# the researcher

2./ Key Concept /: &tatistica! Ana!ysis

The "rocess o# com"ilation and inter"retation o# =uantitative data is called statistical

analysis. There are many "rocedures involved in statistical analysis but the most commonly

used "rocedures are

/escri"tive %tatistics

In#erential %tatistics

2.4 Key Concept ': *escriptive &tatistics

/escri"tive statistics involve such "rocedures that are used to describe the data

meanin(#ully and summari



2.5 Key Concept 0: Categorica! *ata

Cate(orical data involves cate(ories or (rou"s.

These can be made ithout the #ear o# their order to be disturbed i.e. se

a(e marital status.

It covers the #olloin( to"ics

o 4re=uency /istribution

o >ra"hs

2.6 Key Concept : re9$ency *istrib$tion

It is used to hi(hli(ht the number or #re=uency o# the occurrence o# variables. 'oo8

at the #olloin( eam"le o# #re=uency distribution

54

!



'requency ,istribution of the mar9s of the Fthgrade students in Science

Classes 'requency 1f5

,1J,0 IIII +

*6J*- IIII ,*0J33 IIII +

3-J-* IIII +

-3J0, II 2

0*J16+ I 1

Total 23

2.7 Key Concept : raphs

A "ercenta(e is the absolute #i(ure re=uired to inter"ret the data. >ra"hs are used

hen a lar(e number o# data is "resented. 4olloin( are the im"ortant ty"es o# (ra"hs i.e.

"ie charts bar charts and line (ra"h etc

2.7.1 *ie charts

!ie chart is a circular sha"e "resentin( di##erent "ercenta(es. It is also 8non as the

sector (ra"h.

!



!



2.9 Key Concept ;: Inferentia! &tatistics

The in#erential statistics in#er or conclude somethin( throu(h the behaviour o# the

sam"le hich can be (enerali




4.1 Activity (b)ective

To enable the "artici"ants to a""ly the 8noled(e about data analysis

'.2 Activity

A#ter the hole content is delivered throu(h the lecture the #acilitator ill arran(e a

#e research articles. Then the (rou"s o# the "artici"ants ill be #ormed. Articles ill be

(iven to the "artici"ants and they ill be as8ed to identi#y the #olloin( #rom research

articles

The null hy"othesis

The research hy"othesis

hich ty"e o# data analysis is used

hat is the total number o# sam"le

i(hli(ht the conclusion o# the study about the acce"tance or rejection o#

hy"othesis.

%hare the #indin(s ith other (rou"s


&esults o# the research let the researcher 8no hether the hy"othesis o# the study

is acce"ted or not and hich variable is a##ectin( the other. I# the data is used just to

describe the res"onses o# the sam"le it comes under the descri"tive statisticsL i# it is #urther

used to dra conclusions about the "o"ulation it comes under in#erential statistics. Both

the descri"tive and the in#erential statistics o##er alternatives to the researcher to analyse

the results and to dra conclusions. These #urther hel" the researcher to certainly conclude

that to hich etent the results are si(ni#icant. The session and the learnin( material ill

hel" you #urther clari#y your conce"ts in a "ractical ay.

58



4. Assessment

The #acilitator ill as8 the "artici"ants to

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