French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 1

The French Revolution spelled the end of what were later called the ancien regimes of Europe: regimes that, although dabbing in Enlightenment ideas, essentially justified themselves by absolute rule with a centralized bureaucracy and a strong army, such as Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II of Russia, as well as French kings Louis XV and Louis XVI.   It introduced a brand new form of government in Europe, the government of republicanism, represented by the slogan "liberty and fraternity," a republicanism that the French, years earlier, had helped the American colonists achieve. The revolution was divided into several phases: the first phase, from 1789 to 1793, when the French revolutionaries were not ready to completely do away with the king, and France remained a monarchy.  From 1793 to 1795 French Revolution entered into its most violent phase, when the king, queen, and thousands of others were executed.  From 1795 to 1799 France was ruled by an ineffective one chamber parliament.  And from 1799 to 1815 a charismatic officer Napoleon Bonaparte took over and started to export the revolution abroad, only to be defeated by a coalition of foreign forces in 1814 and again, in 1815.  The French Revolution, although it eventually failed, was a political lesson learned by all in Europe.  It ushered Europe into the "century of revolution" when many European countries fought for the rights the French had fought for in the revolution, and when European governments were forced to make concessions and become more inclusive of the middle class and ultimately the working class.   It was through these revolutions that universal suffrage (one man one vote) and the welfare state were eventually established in Europe in late 19th and early 20th centuries.

England had experienced the Glorious Revolution in 1688 and by 1750 the Parliament was supreme over the monarchs.

The American colonies had revolted against England in 1776 and by 1783 had won their independence, and established a democratic republic.

The year 1789 witnessed two far-reaching events: the beginning of a new United States of America, under the U.S. Constitution, and the beginning of the French Revolution.

The French Revolution was very complex, violent, and radical. It attempted to create a new political order and a new social order.

France at this time was at the height of the absolute monarch. Probably the most powerful and richest of Europe. However, not all French people shared in the wealth and power. A lot of these people wanted change and more of a say (voice) in government.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 2 Why the French Revolution was important? It brought the people to the forefront of

politics, set the model for later revolutions, and changed the political map of Europe forever. It is yet another example of how democracy was won as concessions from the state after strenuous bargaining.

Taille—a direct land tax that was paid to the King of France. The First and Second Estates were exempt from this tax.

3 SOCIAL CLASSES OF FRENCH SOCIETY1) First Estate —made up of the clergy. It made up about 1% of the population in

France and controlled 10% of the land. The First Estate contained about 130,000 individuals. They had wealth, land, privileges and they levied a tax on the peasantry, called the tithe, which generally went to some remote bishop or monastery rather than the local parish priest.

a) Higher Clergy —made up of Bishop and Abbots who were usually aristocratic and shared the interests of the nobility.

b) Lower Clergy —made up of parish priests who were often poor and came from the class of commoners. There were many poor clergymen in this First Estate who were going to support the Revolution.

2) Second Estate —made up of the nobility. It made up about 2% of the population in France and controlled about 25% of the land. The Second Estate contained about 350,000 individuals. They held many of the positions in the government, military and law courts. The Second Estate had many privileges including tax exemptions.

o The great division among the Nobility was between the Noblesse d'epee, dating from the Middle Ages, and the Noblesse de Robe: later nobles whose titles came from their possession of public offices. 

3) Third Estate —made up of everyone else. It made up about 97% of the population in France and controlled 65% of the land. The Third Estate was divided by differences in occupation, education, and wealth.

a) The Bourgeoisie —made up 8% of the population, which was about 2.3 Million people, with control of about 20%-25% of the land. They often bought land and exploited the peasants on it. The Bourgeoisie had been growing throughout the century, to some extent encouraged by the monarchy. By 1788 it was very important and its members were well read, educated and rich (fivefold increase in trade 1713-1789). But this important group had no say in running the country. It was the “middle class” made up of merchants, bankers, industrialists, lawyers, doctors, writers, and holders of public offices.

b) The Peasants —made up about 75% of the population, with control of 40% of the land, and formed the vast majority of population in France. There was population growth in this period: perhaps 3,000,000 people added over the century. Peasants paid the most tax: aristocrats did not pay. Peasants alone paid the taille. They alone had to give labor service to the State. They also had to pay the tithe, in kind, to the clergy. As well as these taxes, peasants had to give services to their Landlords: this is sometimes called `feudal’ service. They also pay dues to their feudal (seigniorial) lord when they sold

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 3land that was in all other ways their own (relics of feudalism). Poverty was intense but varied by region. Peasants farmed the land, and regard it as their own, but it was not legally theirs. What they wanted was to own their own property. This was radical only at the start. Later it was to be a conservative desire.

c) The Urban Poor —contained artisians, factory workers, journeymen. The very poor were probably less involved in politics. Artisans had different interests than the bourgeoisie, but they played important roles at several points. They were the most politicized group of poor people, possibly due to high literacy. [Note: Literacy was comparatively high among all classes in northern France. This had the effect that everybody could imbibe the new ideas that came out in pamphlets.] Despite the class divisions and tensions outlined here, the Revolution actually began as an aristocratic revolt against the monarchy, but two main groups of poor people did affect the revolution decisively.

Both aristocrats and members of the middle class were drawn to the political ideas of the Enlightenment. The opposition of these elites to the existing order led them to drastic action against the monarchy.

The immediate cause of the French Revolution was the near collapse of the government’s finances. The French economy suffered a series of crises for 50 years, and the number of poor reached as high as one-third of the population. The poor lived in absolute squalor.

IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION1. The absolute power of the King of France.

The French government continued to spend lavishly on wars and court luxuries. Marie Antoinette was especially known for her extravagance.

2. The inequality of the French society.3. The tax burden was all on the Third Estate.

The basic problem was that in a rich country there was not enough income for the government to do its job. These taxes increased. It has been calculated that there was a 28% increase in some parts of country in Louis XVI's reign alone. But of course this affected the poor the worst. 

4. The bourgeoisie was well-educated and demanded political rights. The bourgeoisie had read the writings of the French philosophes like

Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.5. The influence of the British revolts.

Glorious Revolution in 1688 & American Revolution 1775-17816. Economics

France was deeply in debt due to the prior wars, most notably the Seven Years War and the American Revolution. Louis XVI’s government was extravagant and wasted money and was on the verge of bankruptcy.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 4

In desperate need of additional money Louis XVI looked for new taxes. He refused to tax the 1st and 2nd Estates, and decided instead to levy more taxes on the already overburdened 3rd Estate.

Louis XVI then did something that had not been done in 175 years (since 1614). He called for a meeting of the Estates General.

Estates General— it was the “French legislature.” It met at the calling of Louis XVI on May 5, 1789 at Versailles. When it met on May 5, 1789, the representatives of the Third Estate, equal in numbers to the other two, refused to vote according to the old method by which each estate cast one vote. They insisted on voting as individuals. Louis XVI rejected the plea to vote by individuals and stated that voting would take place by estates. As a result, the Third Estate was locked out of the Estates General meeting.

MAKE-UP OF THE ESTATES GENERAL1. First Estate —contained 300 members and had 1 vote.2. Second Estate —contained 300 members and had 1 vote.3. Third Estate —contained 600 members and had 1 vote.

National Assembly—the members of the Third Estate named themselves this and met with others who supported them at a nearby indoor tennis court. Here they took an oath of loyalty.

Tennis Court Oath—oath of loyalty taken by the National Assembly that they would not disband until they got a constitution for France.

Louis XVI attempted to re-asset his authority and assembled an army of 18,000 troops around Versailles.

Louis XVI acts stupidly and tries to undermine the National Assembly, does not do it effectively, and creates anxiety among its supporters.

Louis XVI abandoned the bourgeoisie, which monarchs had supported for a century and now supported the nobility.

Now to revolt against the nobility the Third Estate also had to revolt against the King.

Two mass uprisings of the masses saved the National Assembly (The Bastille & The Great Fear).

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 5The Bastille—fearful of the king (Louis XVI) using troops to break up the National Assembly, a Paris mob attacked the prison called the Bastille on July 14, 1789. The mob used the Bastille as a symbol of the French monarchy.

July 14, 1789—date in which the Bastille was attacked.

Militias take the name National Guard and are led by Lafayette. They take the Tricolor as flag (blue and red for Paris, white for the bourbon king).

The Great Fear (June-August 1789)--name given to panics among the peasants in France during the early phase of the French Revolution. Popular uprisings soon travelled the length and breadth of the nation; all throughout France, the people feared a counter-revolution by either the monarch or the aristocracy. This fear reached total panic at the end of June, and the peasantry all over the nation began to set fire to aristocratic houses, monasteries, and public records houses. This prompted a series of peasant revolts that allowed the revolution in Paris to succeed.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789)—It provided for freedom of speech, press, and religion, and also protected against arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen stands as one of the most significant documents to emerge from the Age of Liberal Revolutions. The newly-created National Assembly adopted this charter of basic liberties in August 26, 1789. In 1789, the revolutionaries in the Assembly sought to make France a constitutional monarchy, not a republic.

The monarch, King Louis XVI, however, refused to sign the Declaration (or the Act of August 4 abolishing feudalism in France). In October 5, 1789, Parisian crowds, mainly consisting of women demanding bread, marched twelve miles to Versailles to confront Louis XVI. The king promised the crowd grain supplies, and he gave his approval of the revolutionary legislation passed by the National Assembly. The crowd proceeded to remove the king from Versailles and took him to Paris, in effect shifting France's political capitol from aristocratic Versailles to revolutionary Paris.

Constitution of 1791—it created a limited monarchy, where the king kept some of the power, but it also created a unicameral legislature chosen by a certain group of tax paying males (had to be 25 and pay a certain amount of taxes). This Legislative Assembly would make the laws and was to consist of 745 representatives. This however, created members of the National Assembly who were not eligible to serve in the Legislative Assembly.

Everyone was not happy with the Constitution. Some thought it went too far and wanted the government back like it was. Others were also displeased with the Constitution because they thought it did not go far enough.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 6Flight to Varennes (June 20-23, 1791)—Louis XVI will panic in June of 1791. He and his family tried to sneak out of France in disguise. They were recognized in the city of Varennes, and were returned to Paris.

The unsuccessful attempt by LOUIS XVI to escape from France and join the exiled royalists. He had been prevented from leaving Paris in April 1791 and elaborate plans for an escape were made. On the night of 20 June the royal party, disguised and with forged passports, left Paris. They were recognized by a postmaster, pursued, and stopped at Varennes. The fugitives were returned and became virtual prisoners in the Tuileries.

On June 20, 1791, the King and his family set out for the border in a carriage. The King was disguised as a steward and his son was wearing a dress. At the border village of Varennes, he was recognized and eventually apprehended. Word of his attempted flight spread quickly. Crowds lined the street to jeer at him when he was returned to Paris. The King remarked, "There is no longer a King in France.”

Paris Commune—formed by radicals who organized a mob attack on the royal palace and Legislative Assembly. They captured the king and demanded the end of the monarchy.

Sans-culottes—made up of the middle class and the poor, merchants, and artisans who were the elite of their neighborhoods.

The sans-culottes were the common people of Paris, and were so named this because they didn't wear upper class breeches or culottes. They were the working people, the shop owners, the tradespeople, the artisans, and even the factory workers. They were among the prominent losers of the first, more subtle revolution. While the middle class and wealthy classes benefitted greatly from the revolution, the sans-culottes saw their livelihoods disappearing and inflation driving them to fight for survival. Of all the groups of France, the views of the sans-culottes is what drove the radical revolution from 1792 to 1794.

The desires of the sans-culottes were simple. They believed that survival was a right of all people, inequality of any kind was to be abolished, and the aristocracy and the monarchy were to be eliminated. Property was not to be completely eliminated, but to be shared in communal groups. These ideas were far more radical than what the Jacobins had in mind. However, more radical Jacobins sympathized with the sans-culotte and began to work with them. This radical group of Jacobins were called the Mountain, because they took the highest seats in the Assembly.

As the convention came more under the control of the Mountain and the sans-culottes, it turned its attention to doing away with the monarchy. In December of 1792, the Convention put Louis XVI on trial. The Girondists and more moderate Jacobins struggled to save his life, but the Convention narrowly voted to execute him. On January 31, 1793, he was beheaded.

The rulers of Austria and Prussia threatened to use force to restore Louis XVI to full power in France. Insulted by this threat, the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria in the spring of 1792. The French faired badly in the initial fighting.

Louis XVI was accused of helping the foreign powers. The radicals in the National Assembly had the King and his family imprisoned, and called for the election of a National Assembly.

National Convention (1792-1795)—this new legislative body wrote a democratic constitution and proclaimed the First French republic. One of the first orders of business for the Convention was what to do about the King. He was tried in December of 1792, and condemned to death for being an enemy to the people. Louis XVI was executed by the guillotine on January 31, 1793.

3 GROUPS OF THE NATIONAL CONVENTION

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 71. Mountain —radicals of the Jacobins that were led by Maximilien Robespierre,

Georges-Jacques Danton, and Jean-Paul Marat. They represented the urban areas and wanted to execute Louis XVI.

2. Girondists —moderates of the Jacobins that represented the rural areas and they wanted to keep Louis XVI alive.

3. Plain —the undecided of the National Convention

The Mountain and Plain will join together and make the revolution become more radical and violent. The execution of Louis XVI caused other nations (Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain and the Dutch Republic) to form a loose coalition to invade France.

As the Revolution stumbled under the weight of foreign war and civil war, the revolutionary leadership grew more radical. Up to June 1793, moderate reformers had dominated the National Convention. These were the Girondists, men who favored a decentralized government in which the various provinces or departments would determine their own affairs. The Girondists also opposed government interference in the economy.

Committee of Public Safety--The Committee of Public Safety assumed leadership, in April 1793. As a branch of the National Convention itself, the Committee of Public Safety had broad powers which included the organization of the nation’s defenses, all foreign policy, and the supervision of ministers. The Committee also ordered arrests and trials of counter-revolutionaries and imposed government authority across the nation. What is amazing is that only twelve men made up the CPS, although the CPS was ultimately led by Maximilien Robespierre.

In the summer of 1793, the French National Convention will pass a conscription law to raise French troops. The French army would change the nature of modern warfare and was an important step in creating modern nationalism. Previously, smallish armies fought wars between governments and ruling dynasties. The new French army was a people’s army fighting a people’s war on behalf of a people’s government. Warfare also became more destructive.

Conscription—compulsory enrollment or draft into the armed forces.

While fighting outside enemies, France had entered civil war. There would be conflict with riots against the draft, riots against food shortages, and conflict between the Jacobins and the Girondists.

By the summer of 1794 the French army had increased in number 1,169,000. It pushed the countries invading France back across the Rhine River and conquered the Austrian Netherlands.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 8

Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)—he was a Jacobin in the Estates General who was a skilled orator and speaker who will call for the execution of Louis XVI and he will lead the Committee of Public Safety.

One of the leaders of the French Revolution during its Reign of Terror was Robespierre. His humanity in his early years was in strange contrast to his cruelty and intolerance during the Revolution. Maximilien Robespierre was born on May 6, 1758, in Arras and studied law in Arras and in Paris. As a lawyer in his native city, he was noted for his ability and honesty. He resigned as a judge rather than pronounce a sentence of death and tried to abolish the death penalty. Robespierre was a great admirer of the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (see Rousseau, Jean-Jacques). At the approach of the Revolution he saw an opportunity to establish the ideal society that Rousseau envisioned. In 1789 Robespierre was a delegate to the Estates-General, the representative assembly that was then meeting for the first time in 175 years (see Estates-General). He quickly became the leader of that body and head of the powerful Jacobin Club. This was an extremist group that advocated exile or death for the nobility and royalty Paris mobs stormed the palace of the Tuileries in 1792 and dethroned King Louis XVI and his queen, Marie Antoinette. Robespierre helped organize the new revolutionary governing body, the Commune of Paris. With his skill as an orator, he demanded the execution of the king and queen. He declared that Louis XVI "must die that the country may live." He soon got his wish: the king was executed in January 1793 and the queen nearly ten months later. The following year the Committee of Public Safety took over the rule of the country to suppress royalist uprisings and to repel the Prussian-Austrian invaders on its borders. The bloody three-year rule of this body was known as the Reign of Terror. Robespierre, Georges Danton, and Jean Marat were the most powerful members (see Danton; Marat). Robespierre was not entirely to blame for the excesses of the Committee of Public Safety. He was not a man of action. He rarely attended its sessions and had almost no part in its routine work. His love of power and narrow self-righteousness, however, made him feared and hated by many of his associates. He sent to the guillotine Jacques-Rene Hebert, an atheist who had closed the churches and set up a grotesque worship of "the goddess Reason." Robespierre introduced the Reign of Virtue and the worship of "the Supreme Being." He had Danton guillotined for urging moderation and an end of the Reign of Terror. On July 27, 1794, Robespierre's enemies had him arrested. In the confusion that followed an attempted rescue, part of his jaw was shot away. The next day he and 19 of his followers were guillotined--a fulfillment of Danton's words, "Robespierre will follow me; I drag down Robespierre." With his fall the terror soon ended.

“Reign of Terror” (July 1793-1794)—Jacobins will gain control at the National Convention. They will set out to destroy all competition to the Revolution within France. As many as 17,000 people will be executed, as well as Marie Antoinette.

Period during the French Revolution. Instituted Sept. 5, 1793, and directed by the Committee of Public Safety, the Terror was intended to crush all opposition to the revolution. Thousands were guillotined or died in prisons. The period also saw the rise of Maxmilien. Robespierre as virtual dictator of France, enactment of the laws of Maximum (establishing price controls and forbidding hoarding), institution of universal conscription, and reorganization of the army. Toward the end of the Terror, even allies of Robespierre fell victim to the guillotine. Finally, popular reaction against the Terror resulted in the overthrow of Robespierre (July 27, 1794).

France had defeated its foreign foes by the end of 1794. Robespierre was obsessed with ridding France of its domestic enemies, however. Only then could the Republic of Virtue exist. Many deputies of the National Convention feared Robespierre, and they executed him.

Constitution of 1795—it was created by the National Convention reflecting the desire for stability. It established a legislative assembly of two chambers, the Council of 500 and the Council of Ancients (Elders). Only the electors chose the 750 legislators.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 9From a list presented by the Council of 500, the Council of Elders elected five directors to act as the executive committee, or Directory.

Electors—individuals qualified to vote in an election. In France, in 1795, there were only 30,000, due to a qualification requirement of owning a certain amount of property.

The Directory (1795-1799)—this was a time of great government corruption in France. It faced political enemies from both royalists and radicals. It could not solve the country’s economic problems and it was fighting the wars begun by the Committee of Public Safety. The Directory relied more and more on military might to stay in power. It was toppled in 1799 in a coup d’etat by Napoleon Bonaparte.

Group of five men who held the executive power in France according to the constitution of the year III (1795) of the French Revolution. They were chosen by the new legislature, by the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients; each year one director, chosen by lot, was to be replaced. The Directory was balanced by two representative assemblies elected indirectly by property holders. Governing a nearly bankrupt nation, the Directory had a stormy history. Politically, it walked a narrow course between Jacobins on the left and royalists on the right. During its history, the Directory instituted positive monetary reforms, which helped revive trade and agriculture, and provided the basis for Napoleon's restoration of order. But full recovery from the Revolution was not possible. The Directory not only faced a series of political crises, but was riddled with inefficiency and corruption. It suppressed the conspiracies of "Gracchus" Babeuf on the left and royalist uprisings on the right and later annulled some results in the elections of 1797 and 1798. Its increasingly repressive measures resulted in political isolation and bankruptcy. In the coup of 18 Fructidor (Sept. 4, 1797), the more conservative directors, Lazare Carnot and François de Barthélemy were ousted, and measures against the church and émigrés were revived. In addition, the Directory lost control of foreign policy to the generals in the field, especially Napoleon Bonaparte. Some of Napoleon's actions, such as negotiating the Treaty of Compo Formio and the Egyptian expedition, may have led to the formation of the Second Coalition against France. Discontent with the Directory rose to a high pitch with the military reverses of 1799 in which the republics from Holland to S Italy fell to the combined assault of Russian, Austrian, and British forces. Despite the fact that an invasion of France was prevented and these forces were defeated before Napoleon's return, the Abbé Sieyès, elected a director in May, 1799, secretly prepared the coup of 18 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), which put Bonaparte in power, replacing the Directory with the Consulate.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)—he was born in 1769 on the Mediterranean island of Corsica. He went to a military school in France on a royal scholarship where he excelled in the military arts especially the use of artillery. He graduated at the age of 17 with the rank of 2nd Lieutenant. For the next seven years Napoleon educated himself in philosophy and the world’s great military campaigns. The French Revolution and the European wars that followed it gave him the chance to use his knowledge. By the age of 25, Napoleon had obtained the rank of Brigadier General by the Committee of Public Safety. He won a series of victories as the French commander against armies in Italy. Napoleon’s combination fo intelligence, charm, wit, and decisiveness allowed him to win the support of his troops and other people. He returned to France in 1797 as a conquering hero. Napoleon’s attempt to strike at Britain by taking Egypt and threatening India failed. In 1799 he returned to Paris.

Emperor of the French (1804-14). One of the great conquerors of all time and a gifted administrator as well, Napoleon created a short-lived French empire that included virtually all of continental Europe. By his conquests, he helped to spread liberal reforms instituted in France and thereby affected the subsequent development of modern Europe. Napoleon was born in Corsica, became an artillery officer in the French Army (1785), and served with the republican army during the French Revolutionary Wars(q.v.). Napoleon was given command of the republican army in Italy (1796). He

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 10quickly reorganized the units under his command into an effective fighting force, and his Italian campaign (1796-97) was overwhelmingly successful. Napoleon's campaign in Egypt (1798-99) proved disastrous. At the same time, France's armies on the Continent suffered serious reverses, and the revolutionary government was on the verge of collapse. Napoleon returned to France and, with the aid of his brother, L. Bonaparte, and J. Sieyes, overthrew the Directory (Nov. 9, 1799). Napoleon was given dictatorial powers as head of the Consulate (q.v.). He consolidated his position and from 1800 to 1802 brought the French Revolutionary Wars to a successful conclusion. In following years he instituted reforms in education, law--notably the Code Napoleon(q.v.)--and government. He also restored relations with the church (1801), severed during the French Revolution. Napoleon seized on the opportunity presented (1804) by an assassination plot against him (by G. Cadoudal and others) and made himself emperor. He was crowned by the pope (Dec. 2) at Paris. With the empire thus established, Napoleon set about creating a nobility and a court. He ultimately named rulers to various states (notably Spain, Holland, Naples, and Sweden). But when he made himself king of Italy (1805), the British (already at war with him) and other powers organized against him and the Napoleonic Wars (q.v.) broke out. Napoleon enjoyed his greatest military successes during these wars (notably at the Battle of Austerlitz), and by about 1808 he had extended French control throughout the Continent. But his invasion of Russia proved disastrous. Napoleon marched into Russia (June, 1812) with some 600,000 troops and hardly managed to escape (Nov., 1812) with fewer than 30,000 troops. The defeat cost Napoleon his empire. One by one former allies joined the coalition of powers against him and by Mar., 1814, the Napoleonic Wars had come to a close. Napoleon abdicated (Apr. 11, 1814) and was exiled to the island of Elba. Napoleon's final defeat did not come until 1815, however. In that year he returned to France and triumphantly entered Paris (Mar. 20). Thus began his famous Hundred Days (q.v.) in which he attempted to reestablish his empire. Defeated utterly at Waterloo, Napoleon again abdicated (June 22, 1815) and lived out the rest of his life in exile on the island of St. Helena.

Josephine de Beauharnais (1763-1814)—wife of Napoleon with whom he married in 1796 at the age of 27. She will have powerful social connections.

As the wife of Napoleon Bonaparte, Josephine became empress of the French in 1804. A widow after her first husband was guillotined during the French Revolution; she reluctantly agreed to marry Bonaparte, at the time a little-known artillery officer. Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie was born on June 23, 1763, in Martinique, in the French West Indies. She went to France in 1779 after marrying a rich young army officer, Viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais. After he was killed, she was left to raise their two children. Her grace and charm attracted Bonaparte and in 1796, after he had been appointed commander of the Italian expedition, they married. When Napoleon was proclaimed emperor of the French at Notre Dame Cathedral, Josephine was crowned empress. The marriage was childless, and Napoleon wanted a son. In 1810 he arranged for the nullification of his marriage to Josephine on the grounds that a parish priest had not been present at the ceremony. Soon thereafter he married Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria. The French Senate awarded Josephine a large annuity, and she retired to the chateau at Malmaison, near Paris. Napoleon visited her there. Josephine's children by her first marriage were named Eugene and Hortense. Eugene proved an able and loyal general under Napoleon and was for a time viceroy of Italy. Hortense married Louis Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, and became the mother of Napoleon III. Josephine died at Malmaison on May 29, 1814.

Coup d’etat—a sudden overthrow of a government by people in authority in deliberate violation of the laws.

French term meaning "blow to the state," applied to the seizure by force of political power and the overthrow of the state.

Napoleon took part in the coup d’etat that overthrew the Directory. Even though in theory France was a republic, Napoleon held absolute power as the first consul of a new government called the consulate. He appointed members of the bureaucracy, controlled the army, conducted foreign affairs, and influenced the legislature.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 11Consulate—government established in France after the overthrow of the Directory in 1799, with Napoleon as first consul in control of the entire government.

Napoleon made peace with the Church to restore stability to France. Napoleon himself was an Enlightenment believer in reason.

Concordat of 1801—agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII that recognized Catholicism as the major religion of France, but it would allow the worship of other religions. The Pope gave up asking for the return of Church lands seized during the revolution. Archbishops and bishops were to be nominated (for appointment by the pope) by the French government. With this agreement Napoleon pleased both the Church and those who had seized its lands.

Emperor of the French—Napoleon Bonaparte will be crowned this by Pope Pius VII in 1804.

Pope Pius VII (1740-1823) (Barnaba Gregorio Chiaramonte)—Pope of the Catholic Church during the reign of Napoleon. He will agree to the Concordat of 1801 and crown Napoleon “Emperor of the French.”

Pope (1800-23), successor to Pius VI. He signed the Concordat of 1801 with Napoleon and took part in his coronation (1804). His later opposition to Napoleon led to French annexation of the Papal States (1809). Pius excommunicated Napoleon but became the emperor's virtual prisoner.

DOMESTIC POLICIES OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE1. Government—Napoleon provided France with a strong centralized government.

Napoleon created an army of officials--civil servants and bureaucrat--an army which reached into every village, town and city. The entire nation was linked together under rational administration. The result was that Napoleon concentrated power and this provided him with taxes and soldiers.

2. Education— The curriculum would be secular and schools would be managed under the direction of the state and not the Church. For Napoleon, education would serve a dual role. State funded education would provide him with capable officials necessary to administer his laws and trained officers to man his army. The young would also be indoctrinated to obedience and authority. 

Lycees—secondary schools designed to prepare citizens for patriotic government work.

3. Economics-- Napoleon's economic policies were designed to strengthen France and increase his popularity. To stimulate the economy and serve the interests of the bourgeoisie, Napoleon aided industry through tariffs and loans. He built or repaired roads, bridges and canals. He established the Bank of France. He kept careers open to men of talent and provided bread at low prices. He stimulated the employment of artisans and did not restore ancient feudal rights.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 124. Law—Napoleon instituted the Napoleonic Code which was the unified legal

system of France under his rule. It made French law clear and consistent. It incorporated the great principles of 1789: equality before the law, careers open to talent, freedom of religion, protection of private property, abolition of serfdom, and the secularization of the state. The Napoleonic Code, however, also had its less-liberal side. Workers were denied collective bargaining, trade unions were outlawed, and a system of labor passports was instituted. Women were declared to be inferior to men by law, and children had no rights at all.

Napoleon’s military conquests began soon after he reached power. First, however, he achieved a peace treaty (1802, Treaty of Amiens) with many nations warring with France after the execution of Louis XVI. However, in 1803, the war was renewed. From 1805 to 1807, Napoleon’s Grand Army defeated the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies.

Napoleon now could create a new world order. His Grand Empire had three parts: the French Empire, dependent states, and allied states.

Napoleon sought to spread some of the principles of the French Revolution, including equality before the law, religious toleration, and economic freedom, through his empire.

Napoleon attempted to destroy the feudal, hierarchical order in the French Empire and his dependent states. Nobility and clergy lost privileges, and equality of opportunity was declared, along with religious toleration and equality before the law. Napoleon’s spread of French revolutionary principles to these countries was an important factor in the development of liberal traditions in them.

3 PARTS OF NAPOLEON’S GRAND EMPIRE1. French Empire—inner core of Grand Empire, an enlarged France extending to

the Rhine River in the east and including the western half of Italy north of Rome.

2. Dependent States—kingdoms that Napoleon’s relatives ruled: Spain, Holland, Italy, Switzerland, Confederation of the Rhine, Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

3. Allied States—those countries Napoleon had defeated and forced to join him in war against Britain: Prussia, Austria, and Sweden.

By 1805 Napoleon will begin preparations to fight and invade England.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 13Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805)—Napoleon’s navy will be destroyed here off the southern coast of Spain by the British. It established British naval superiority and ended Napoleon’s dream of invading Britain.

Naval battle between Britain and France fought during the Napoleonic Wars, off Cape Trafalgar, Spain. It established British naval superiority for the rest of the century and ended Napoleon's plans to invade England. Twenty-seven British ships under Admiral Horatio Nelson defeated a fleet of 33 French and Spanish ships commanded by Pierre de Villeneuve. The French lost 20 ships, the British none. But Admiral Nelson was killed by a French sniper.

Since the Battle of Trafalgar will cripple France’s attempt to invade Britain, Napoleon will try to break England economically by using he Continental System.

Continental System—orders by Napoleon that no European countries under Napoleonic control were to trade with England. It also stated that no British imports to these countries could take place. Allied states resented being told they could not buy British goods. Due to new markets in Latin America and the Middle East, Britain’s exports reached a near-record high in 1810.

French economic plan (1806-12) adopted by Napoleon (in the Berlin Decree) to freeze trade with England during the Napoleonic Wars. Russia's refusal to conform to it led to Napoleon's invasion of Russia (1812). The plan also contributed to outbreak of the War of 1812.

Britain will respond with her own blockade which said that any ship headed to Europe had to stop in England first. This would lead to the War of 1812.

Britain’s navy will prove to be too powerful and the Continental System will fail.

Confederation of the Rhine—a loose organization of German states in which Napoleon named himself its “Protector.”

League of German states (1806-13) organized by Napoleon. He formed the league, after defeating the Austrians at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805), to counter the two major German powers, Austria and Prussia. The league ultimately included almost all the German states except Austria and Prussia. On joining, each of the states gave up its allegiance to the Holy Roman Empire. The major states that joined the league included Bavaria, Wurttenberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau. The league collapsed after Napoleon's defeat in Russia but nevertheless marked the end of the Holy Roman Empire and played a part in the later unification of modern Germany.

French rule of these countries did not set well with the inhabitants. They resented paying taxes to France, and having to serve in Napoleon’s army.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 14Nationalism—the cultural identity of people based on common language, religion, and national symbols. It is a yearning for national independence in a country under foreign domination.

Napoleon’s fall began with his invasion of Russia, which had refused to remain in the Continental System.

Alexander I (1777-1825)—Tsar of Russia who will withdraw Russian support for Napoleon’s Continental System and resume trade with the British.

Russian tsar (1801-25), successor to his father, Paul I. After defeats at Austerlitz and Friedland, he submitted to Napoleon's Continental System, under the Treaty of Tilsit (1807). But he later repulsed Napoleon's invasion of Russia (1812), marched into Paris (1814), and, by his defeat of Napoleon, became one of the most important rulers in Europe. In his early years, he instituted many liberal reforms. After 1814, however, he was influenced by the Pietism of Juliane Krudener. This led to his formation of the Holy Alliance and support for conservative and reactionary policies, especially those of Clemens von Metternich.

Grand Army—name given to the combined French armies (1805-1812) under Napoleon. It numbered over 600,000 troops.

Name given the combined French armies (1805-12) under Napoleon. Its great size, excellent training, and organization made Napoleon master of Europe. It was virtually destroyed (1812) during Napoleon's retreat from Russia.

Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia—on June 24, 1812, Napoleon’s Grand Army of over 600,000 men entered Russia.

“Defense in Depth”—this would be the Russian plan for defending their homeland against Napoleon’s invasion. The Russians will institute a scorched-earth policy.

Scorched-earth Policy—Russian strategy of not fighting, but philosophy to keep retreating eastward. They burned their villages, and even Moscow (Sept. 15-19, 1812), as they wanted to deny the French food and supplies.

Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia—after Napoleon reaches Moscow and finds it burning; he will then make what proves to be a fatal mistake. Napoleon will remain at Moscow (Sept.- Oct., 1812), waiting for the Russians to come to terms; his overtures were rejected. Napoleon ordered the retreat from Moscow (Oct. 19); Grand Army harassed by Russian forces throughout the retreat. The onset of the Russian winter hampered French retreat; cold weather, constant attacks by Russians, and lack of supplies seriously weakened Napoleon's army; French suffered heavy losses. Berezina River Crossing (Nov. 26-28); Napoleon's forces suffered heavy losses while crossing this Russian river; French retreat became a rout. Napoleon abandoned his

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 15troops and made a dash for Paris (Dec. 5); only some 30,000 of his troops survived his retreat.

The French failure in Russia resulted in other nations (Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Austria, and Britain) sending forces against Napoleon. The Treaty of Paris (May 30, 1814) formally ended hostilities after Napoleon’s defeat.

Elba—Napoleon will be placed in exile to this island off the western coast of Italy in the Mediterranean Sea.

Louis XVIII—he was the brother of Louis XVI, who was a member of the Bourbon monarchy, was restored to the French throne.

Hundred Days (March 20-June 28, 1815)-- Period in French history during which Napoleon returned from exile in Elba and attempted to reestablish his empire in France. French troops were sent to capture Napoleon, but on their meeting, Napoleon opened his coat and invited anyone who would to kill the emperor. Napoleon entered Paris in triumph on March 20, 1815. When Napoleon entered Paris he announced, “Your general, summoned to the throne by the prayer of the people and raised upon your shields, is now restored to you; come and join him.”

Escaping exile on the island of Elba, he landed in the south of France (Mar. 1, 1815) and marched north with a small force. By the time he reached Paris (Mar. 20, 1815), he had rallied France behind him and forced King Louis XVIII to abdicate. Once again emperor, he was opposed (from Mar. 25) by a new coalition of nearly all the other European nations. Following the coalition victory over Joachim Murat at Tolentino (May 3) and subsequent capture of the kingdom of Naples, Napoleon launched an attack (June 14) into Belgium. Napoleon's forces were victorious in the battles of Ligny and Quatre Bras (June 16), but were completely crushed at the great Battle of Waterloo (June 18). Soon after, Napoleon surrendered to the British, and King Louis was restored (June 28), ending the Hundred Days period.

Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815)—final battle of the Napoleonic Wars where the British and Prussian forces led by the Duke of Wellington (Arthur Wellesly) will defeat Napoleon. Napoleon will abdicate on June 22, 1815.

Final battle of the Napoleonic Wars, fought (June 18, 1815) at this Belgian village south of Brussels, and famous as Napoleon's military demise. After the Battle of Ligny, Napoleon sent a third of his 105,000-man army, under Marshal E. de Grouchy, in pursuit of the retreating 45,000-man Prussian army, under G. von Blucher. He then forced the duke of Wellington's 68,000-man army to withdraw toward Brussels after a battle at Quatre Bras. With the two forces thus separated, Napoleon attacked Wellington at Waterloo at noon on June 18. However, Napoleon's main attack on Wellington's center was stalled by the British. Later that day Blucher arrived with his Prussian force, after having managed to elude Grouchy. These added reinforcements turned the battle into a rout and Napoleon was compelled to retreat with heavy losses (25,000 French casualties plus those taken prisoner; 23,000 allied casualties). Napoleon abdicated for his second and last time June 22.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 16St. Helena—an island in the south Atlantic Ocean were Napoleon will be placed in exile after his 2nd abdication. He will live here until his death in 1821.

Results of Napoleon’s Empire1. Ideas and reforms of the French Revolution will spread throughout Europe.

2. Constitutions

3. Freedom of Religion

4. Equality Before the Law

5. Reform of Tax System

6. Destroyed Feudalism

7. Attempted to destroy absolute monarchs

Congress of Vienna (September 1814-June 1815)—meeting that settled the disputes of the powers after the fall of Napoleon.

Clemons von Metternich (1773-1859)—he was the chief minister of Austria, and he would dominate the Congress of Vienna. He wanted things to go back the way they were before the French Revolution.

3 PRINCIPLES OF THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA1. Compensation—repayment to all countries for expenses in fighting the French.

2. Legitimacy—restore to power the royal families who ruled before Napoleon.

3. Balance of Power—no country should ever be allowed to dominate Europe.

TERMS OF THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA1. France had to give up all territory gained

2. France had to pay a large debt for war damages (indemnity)

3. England go the French islands in the West Indies

4. Austria got the Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia

5. Prussia received land along the Rhine River and Saxony

6. Russia got most of Poland

7. Royal monarch were restored in France, Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sardinia, and Sicily

8. Buffer states were placed around France

Buffer States—a neutral territory between two rival powers.

French Revolution Chapter 11 World History 17Quadruple Alliance (1815)—made up of England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. They agreed to meet every so often to discuss the security of Europe, preserve the boundaries set at Congress of Vienna, to exclude Napoleon and his heirs from the French throne, and to stop any democratic revolutionary movement.

Holy Alliance (1815)—made up of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. It called for all European monarchs to rule according to Christian values.

Concert of Europe—meetings of major European nations to avoid major conflicts in Europe. It was used by Clemens von Metternich for 30 years to oppose liberalism and nationalism and to support absolute monarchs.