WSP_SACOSAN_Report_14-10-13

Sanitation Country PaperIndia 2013

SACOSAN, 22–24 October 2013, Nepal

SANitAtiON COuNtry PAPer: iNDiA 2013 i

Contents

Abbreviations ii

executive Summary v

introduction 1

institutional set-up for Sanitation Sector 1

State of Sanitation 3

Sanitation Policy 5

Sanitation Monitoring System 8

Sanitation Promotion Approaches 9

Different Aspects of Sanitation 11

Best Practices 19

Future Plan for Meeting National targets 20

SACOSAN Commitments 21

Contacts 23

Key Documents 24

ii SANitAtiON COuNtry PAPer: iNDiA 2013

ANM Auxiliary Nurse Midwife

ANN Agra Nagar Nigam

APL Above Poverty Line

ASer Annual Survey of education report

AWW Auxiliary Woman Worker

BPL Below Poverty Line

BrC Block resource Centre

BSuP Basic Services for the urban Poor

CAP Cross-cutting Agra Program

CBO Community-Based Organisation

CBuLB Capacity-Building for urban Local Bodies

CCDu Communication and Capacity Development unit

CLtS Community-Led total Sanitation

CPCB Central Pollution Control Board

CPHeeO Central Public Health and environmental engineering Organisation

CSP City Sanitation Plan

CSr Corporate Social responsibility

DeWAtS Decentralised Wastewater treatment System

DiSe District information System for education

DPr Detailed Project report

DWSC District Water and Sanitation Committee

DWSM District Water and Sanitation Mission

eHCP essential Health Care Programme

FyP Five year Plan

Goi Government of india

GP Gram Panchayat

HPeC High Powered expert Committee

iAS indian Administrative Service

iCDS integrated Child Development Scheme

iHHLs individual Household Latrines

iLCS integrated Low Cost Sanitation

JMP Joint Monitoring Program

JNNurM Jawaharlal Nehru National urban renewal Mission

KMC Kalyani Municipal Corporation

KrC Key resource Centre

M&e Monitoring and evaluation

MDM Midday Meals

MDWS Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation

MGNreGS Mahatma Gandhi National rural employment Guarantee Scheme

MHFW Ministry of Health & Family Welfare

MHM Menstrual Hygiene Management

MHrD Ministry of Human resource Development

MHuPA Ministry of Housing & urban Poverty Alleviation

MiS Management information System

MLAs Members of a Legislative Assembly

MouD Ministry of urban Development

MOHFW Ministry of Health & Family Welfare

MPHW Multipurpose Health Worker

MPs Members of Parliament

MWCD Ministry of Women and Child Development

NBA Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan

NDWSC National Drinking Water and Sanitation Council

Abbreviations

SANitAtiON COuNtry PAPer: iNDiA 2013 iii

NeruDP North-eastern region urban Development Project

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NGP Nirmal Gram Puraskar

NrDWP National rural Drinking Water Programme

NrHM National rural Health Mission

NrLM National rural Livelihoods Mission

NSS National Sample Survey

NSSO National Sample Survey Organisation

NuePA National university of educational Planning and Administration

NuSP National urban Sanitation Policy

O&M Operation and Maintenance

ODF open defecation free

PC Production Centres

PC Planning Commission

PeArL Peer experience and reflective Learning

PHeD Public Health engineering Department

Pri Panchayati Raj institution

PtA Parent teacher Association

PWSS piped water supply systems

rAy Rajiv Awas Yojana

rDAC research and Development Advisory Committee

rSM rural Sanitary Mart

rte right to education

SC Scheduled Caste

SHe Sanitation and Health education

SHG Self Help Group

SLB Service Level Benchmarking

SLWM Solid and Liquid Waste Management

SPCB State Pollution Control Board

SSA Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan

SSHe School Sanitation and Hygiene education

St Scheduled tribe

StP sewage treatment plant

SWSM State Water and Sanitation Mission

SWSM State Water and Sanitation Mission

tCC trichy City Corporation

tSC total Sanitation Campaign

tuSP total urban Sanitation Programme

uiDSSMt urban infrastructural Development Scheme for Small and Medium towns

uiDSt urban infrastructure Development of Satellite towns

uiG urban infrastructure and Governance

uLB urban Local Bodies

VWHSNC Village Water Health, Sanitation, Nutrition Committee

VWSC Village Water and Sanitation Committee

WAi WaterAid india

WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

WeS-Net Water and environmental Sanitation Network (of india)

WinS WASH in Schools

WSP-SA Water and Sanitation Program – South Asia

WSSO Water Supply and Sanitation Organisation

SANitAtiON COuNtry PAPer: iNDiA 2013 v

Executive Summary

Providing sanitation and hygiene to a growing population of more than 1.21 billion is a major challenge that is being faced by the country. Currently, india adds more people to its population than any other country in the world and is all set to overtake China as the most populous country by 2030. this would bring about further pressing demands on sanitation, provision for water, solid and liquid waste management, health and hygiene and environmental pollution. taking these issues under consideration, the Government of india has undertaken a large number of focused initiatives to address these concerns. the government has set a target of 2022 as the year to achieve universal sanitation in the country.

Rural Sanitation

While the urban sanitation coverage in the country is around 81%, the rural sanitation coverage is only 32.7% which calls for more focused interventions. the country paper analyses the various steps that have been taken by the Government to address this issue.

the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, the nodal department for rural sanitation in the country was upgraded to the status of an independent Ministry in July 2011. the existing total Sanitation Campaign was revamped and renamed as the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA) in April 2012 by adopting community-led and people-centred strategies with a saturation approach backed by post achievement incentives.

to reach out to various sections of the society, the provision of incentives under rural sanitation have been extended from the existing Below Poverty Line (BPL) families to various sections under Above Poverty Line (APL) households, Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled tribe (St) families, small and marginal farmers, landless labourers with homestead, physically handicapped and women-headed households. the government is also aggressively promoting sanitation services in Schools and Anganwadis through the School Sanitation and Hygiene education (SSHe) programme to bring about the much needed behavioural change amongst the younger generation and inculcate safe sanitary practices. Apart from building adequate toilets with provision for water, all schools are encouraged to include sanitation as a topic in the school curriculum.

the country paper also addresses the key steps that have been initiated under the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan. the Ministry of Drinking Water & Sanitation has developed a comprehensive system for monitoring and evaluation of the programme through periodical progress reports, performance review committee meetings, district level monitoring and through the Vigilance and Monitoring Committees at the State and District levels. to promote rural sanitation, the programme has incorporated steps to help individual households adopt the sanitation technology based on socio-cultural aspects, hydro-geological conditions and economic status of the incumbents. Another key aspect has been the setting up of rural Sanitary Marts and Production centres at the local level to make sanitation materials within the reach of the rural population.

vi SANitAtiON COuNtry PAPer: iNDiA 2013

the rural sanitation programme apart from its thrust on sanitation also looks at various other aspects including hygiene and aims to provide a clean and healthy environment in the country. the programme places importance on issues related to solid and liquid waste management in rural areas and addresses issues related to collection of waste, waste disposal, drainage facilities, reuse of waste water and composting. the programme also focuses on media campaigns and advocacy initiatives to create awareness and a demand for sanitation facilities. An intensive audio visual and radio campaign has been launched from this year at the national level while the states and the gram panchayats have been directed to focus on interpersonal communication and direct media activities at the local level.

Urban Sanitation

As far as urban sanitation is concerned, one of the major challenges before urban sanitation is the growing urban population and the migration from rural to urban india. By the year 2050, it is expected that 50% of the country’s population will be urban thus putting a huge pressure on sanitation and provision of water in urban areas. the major challenges before urban sanitation would thus be to provide adequate toilets especially in congested areas and in urban slums, provide facilities for collection and treatment of human excreta and human wastes, create infrastructure for waste water

generation and treatment and address issues pertaining to solid waste management.

the government has already initiated various initiatives to tackle these problems. the National urban sanitation policy has set specific goals and urges the States to develop their own City Sanitation Plans. the focus is on providing sanitary facilities and safe disposal of human waste, proper operation and maintenance of sanitary installations and creating awareness for behavioural change.

the government has also provided various technical guidelines and formulated the set of standardised Service Level Benchmarks for four basic urban services like water supply, sewage, solid waste management (SWM); and storm water drainage. the government has also initiated various pilot programmes like the Solid Waste Management and Drainage projects in 10 Selected Airfield towns and initiated schemes like the Jawaharlal Nehru National urban renewal Mission (JNNurM) which encourages reforms and planned development of 65 identified cities in the country having a population of more than one million.

the whole emphasis behind these initiatives under both rural and urban sanitation is to bring sanitation on the national agenda thus arousing the consciousness of the country as a whole to achieve total sanitation by 2022.

SANitAtiON COuNtry PAPer: iNDiA 2013 1

Introduction

india is the largest democracy in the world with a population of 1.21 billion people. the indian peninsula is separated from mainland Asia by the Himalayas in the north, the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west and the indian Ocean in the south. the countries neighbouring india include Afghanistan and Pakistan to the north west, China, Bhutan and Nepal to the north, Myanmar and Bangladesh to the east and Sri Lanka, separated by a narrow strip of sea to the south east.

Administratively, india is divided into 28 states and seven union territories and follows a federal parliamentary structure. the President is the Head of the State and the Prime Minister heads the government with a cabinet of Ministers, answerable to elected Members of Parliament (MPs) while each State Government is headed by a Chief Minister, with a cabinet of Ministers, accountable to elected Members of a Legislative Assembly (MLAs). Officially, the country has 22 scheduled languages recognised by its constitution.

india has witnessed an enviable growth rate of over 7% over the last decade and is today recognised as the world’s fourth largest economy. the country, since independence, has attained self sufficiency in food; life expectancy has doubled; literacy rates have more than quadrupled and health indicators have shown a marked increase. india has also taken giant strides in industrial growth, and even in diverse spheres such as science and space technology.

Although still pre-dominantly rural (table 1) with nearly 70% of the population living in 631 rural districts, india

recorded the highest ever urban population in 2011, with 31% of the population living in 7,935 urban cities and towns, including 468 ‘Class i cities’ (with more than 100,000 people) and 53 ‘million-plus’ cities.

Institutional set-up for Sanitation Sector

the responsibility for provision of sanitation facilities in the country primarily rests with local

Sanitation Country Paper

2 SANitAtiON COuNtry PAPer: iNDiA 2013

Table 1: iNDiA FACt SHeet: urBAN AND rurAL

Unit Unit

total Area 3.3 Million km2 Male literacy 82 %

Population 1.21 Billion Life expectancy at birth (male) 64 years

% rural 69 % Life expectancy at birth (female) 63 years

% urban 31 % Maternal mortality 212 per 100,000 live births

% Literate 74 % infant mortality rate 50 per 1000 live births

Female literacy 65 % Child mortality rates 14.1 per 1000 children of 0–4 years

Source: Census of india (2011), MOHFW (2011).

government bodies – municipalities or corporations in urban areas and Gram Panchayats in rural areas. the State and Central Governments act as facilitators. in the Central Government, the Planning Commission, through the Five year Plans, guides investment in the sector by allocating funds for strategic priorities.

the Ministry of urban Development and Ministry of Housing and urban Poverty Alleviation (MHuPA) are the nodal agencies for formulation of policies, strategies and guidelines and assist the States by providing financial assistance for the development of urban water supply and sanitation schemes in cities and towns. the Central Public Health and environmental engineering Organisation (CPHeeO) is the technical arm of the Ministry and assists in preparing policy guidelines, technical manuals etc., related to urban water supply and sanitation.

the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS) is the nodal agency for the overall policy, planning, funding and coordination of programmes of rural drinking water and sanitation in the country. MDWS provides financial and technical support in sanitation to all the states and uts, while the respective state governments are vested with the responsibility of implementation of the programme in their respective regions. in most states, the rural Development department or the Public Health engineering department has the responsibility for management of the rural sanitation programme – known as “Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA)” while the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) of the Ministry of Human resource Development is the nodal programme for School Sanitation.

in addition, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) look into establishment and the violation of norms of Solid and Liquid Waste Management, which are the main responsibility of uLBs in urban areas and district administration in rural areas.

under the NBA, fund utilisation is planned and implemented through an institutional set-up comprising of State Water and Sanitation Mission (SWSM) which is a multi stakeholder body consisting of all relevant government departments and non government stakeholders mandated for planning, supervising and monitoring the programme in the district. the SWSM prepares the annual implementation plan for each district and supervises the implementation of NBA in the project districts.

the District Water and Sanitation Committees/Zilla Parishads ensure fund flow to the Gram Panchayats while Village Water and Sanitation Committees play a crucial role in social mobilisation and planning. it is the Gram Panchayats which plays the pivotal role in actually carrying out the implementation of the programme. the Fund flow of NBA is directly linked to the district with the matching state share being released by respective states.

State governments have the flexibility to devise their own specific approaches within the broad framework provided by the programme. in addition, the NBA Guidelines provides a flexible framework for district projects, allowing adoption of different methodologies depending on the context, demand and capacities within the district.


State of Sanitation

Sanitation includes interventions for the safe management and disposal/re-use of waste. the delivery of safe sanitation services includes infrastructure, associated behaviours and a requisite

enabling environment. Lack of adequate sanitation is a pressing challenge in both rural and urban india. Sanitation-related diseases take a heavy toll of lives and are a drain on productivity and incomes, impacting economic progress. india over the last decade has made rapid strides in sanitation. Out of 35 states and uts, two states have become totally ‘Nirmal’ (ODF). the country aims to achieve total sanitation by the year 2022.

Access and Practices: the 2011 Census of india found that almost 50% of nearly 250 million households surveyed had toilet facilities on the premises, but many more of these (81%) were urban households and far fewer (31%) were rural households (table 2).

As per the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) of the WHO and uNiCeF (JMP, 2013), the proportion using improved and shared facilities in rural india increased from 10%–34% in 2011 while the urban proportion rose from 72%–87% (table 3).

FIgURe 1: NBA DeLiVery StruCture

CenTReGovernment of india(Ministry of Drinking Water & Sanitation)

Planning, Formulate Policy, Strategies and Guidelines, Funding, technical support, M&e, training and inter-sectoral coordination

Planning & regulation, Funding, technical support, development of state action plan, inter-sectoral coordination and training, M&e

Facilitate and support overall implementation development of action plan, inter-sectoral coordination, training and M&e

institution building (e.g. GPs, watsan committee), facilitate supply chains, hygiene education and monitoring

institution building, mobilisation, facilitate construction of hardware, hygiene education, monitoring and O&M

State Government(State Water and

Sanitation Mission)

Zilla Panchayat(District Water and Sanitation

Mission/District Sanitation Cell)

Panchayat Samiti(extension Workers of Govt.

and Non Govt. organisations)

Gram Panchayat(Motivators)

STaTe

DISTRICT

bloCk

VIllage


Health and Education: the District information System for education (DiSe), managed by the National university of educational Planning and Administration (NuePA) is the major source for data on WASH in schools, with an annual database of more than 1.3 million primary and upper primary schools in urban and rural areas of india (see www.schoolreportcards.in). the latest DiSe report (DiSe, 2013) notes that in 2011–12, more than 81% of schools covered had boys’ toilets, but out of these, only 65% were functional – while 72% of schools surveyed had girls’ toilets and 85% of these were functional (table 4).

Annual Survey of education report (ASer 2013), a civil society initiative covering almost seven million children

in 13,000 rural government schools in 522 districts reported that schools without toilets have reduced from 12.2% in 2011 to 8.4% in 2012, while schools with useable toilets increased from 47.2% in 2010 to 56.5% in 2012.

Equity: the gap in improved sanitation coverage by wealth quintile shows inequality in access, with the poorest not benefiting as much as the richest quintile (Figure 2).

the rural sanitation programme by its emphasis on collective achievement of safe sanitation follows an inclusive approach by including the marginalised populations, involving the poor, physically disabled

Source: Census (2011).

absolute number Percentage

Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban

total number of households 24,66,92,667 16,78,26,730 7,88,65,937 100.0 100.0 100.0

Latrines facility within the premises 11,57,37,458 5,15,75,339 6,41,62,119 46.9 30.7 81.4

Without latrines within the premises 13,09,55,209 11,62,51,391 1,47,03,818 53.1 69.3 18.6

Public latrines 79,97,699 32,53,892 47,43,807 3.2 1.9 6.0

resorting to Open Defecation 12,29,57,510 11,29,97,499 99,60,011 49.8 67.3 12.6

Table 2: HOuSeHOLDS By tOiLet FACiLity, CeNSuS OF iNDiA, 2011

Source: WHO/uNiCeF (2013).

Proportion of householdsUrban (%) Rural (%) Total (%)

1990 2011 1990 2011 1990 2011

using improved facilities 50 60 7 24 18 35

using shared facilities 17 20 1 4 5 9

using other unimproved facilities 5 7 2 6 3 6

With access to sanitation 72 87 10 34 26 50

resorting to open defecation 28 13 90 66 74 50

Table 3: SANitAtiON COVerAGe iN iNDiA, 1990–2011, JMP

Table 4: urBAN AND rurAL SCHOOLS WitH SePArAte BOyS AND GirLS tOiLetS, iNDiA, 2011–12

Source: NuePA (2013)

all schools Primary schools

% schools having boys’ toilets 81.14 78.10

% schools having girls’ toilets 72.16 65.40


and women. One hundred per cent of the total sanitation budget is allocated for the poor and the marginalised poor which gets almost fully utilised.

Finance: reflecting the high priority attached to rural sanitation, in 2013–14 a budget of rs. 4260 crores has been allocated for providing sanitation and hygiene services in rural areas.

Indicators Rural Sanitation

% of total budget allocation to sanitation and hygiene under social sector allocation

2.14%

% of total sanitation and hygiene budget utilisation

99%

Sanitation Policy

the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS) in rural areas and the Ministry of urban Development, Ministry of Housing and urban Poverty Alleviation (MHuPA) in urban areas, are the nodal agencies for the overall policy, planning, funding and coordination of programmes of drinking water and sanitation in the country.

to promote Rural Sanitation, Government of india launched its first nationwide centrally sponsored Central rural Sanitation Programme (CrSP) in1986

100Poorest 2nd 3rd 4th Richest

80

60

40

Cove

rage

(%)

20

1995 2008 1995 2008 1995 2008 1995 2008 1995 20080

Open defecation Unimproved facilities Improved facilities

FIgURe 2: ACCeSS tO iMPrOVeD SANitAtiON By WeALtH QuiNtiLe, iNDiA, 1990 – 2008

Source: WHO/uNiCeF (2011).

which was subsequently restructured as the community led total Sanitation Campaign (tSC) in 1999. to accelerate the progress of Sanitation coverage, tSC was revamped as the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA) with effect from April 2012. the vision of NBA is to have a clean and healthy nation that thrives and contributes to the well-being of the population. the NBA aims to ‘transform rural india into ‘Nirmal Bharat’ by adopting ‘community-led’, ‘people-centred’ strategies and a ‘community saturation approach’ with emphasis on awareness creation and demand generation for sanitary facilities in houses, schools and for cleaner environment. Conjoint approach with drinking water supply is further followed for sustaining sanitation facilities created.

The main objectives of the NBA are to:

Bring about an improvement in the general quality ��

of life in the rural areas.

Accelerate sanitation coverage in rural areas to ��

achieve the vision of Nirmal Bharat by 2022 with all GPs in the country attaining Nirmal status.

Motivate communities and �� Panchayati Raj institutions (Pris) to promote sustainable sanitation facilities through awareness creation and health education.

Provide proper sanitation facilities to schools not ��

covered under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and to all Anganwadi (Child Day Care) Centres in rural areas.

undertake proactive promotion of hygiene ��

education and sanitary habits among students.

encourage cost-effective and appropriate ��

technologies for ecologically safe and sustainable sanitation.

Develop community-managed environmental ��

sanitation systems focusing on solid and liquid waste management for overall cleanliness in the rural areas.

Achieve sustainable behaviour change with ��

provision of sanitary facilities in entire communities in a phased, community saturation mode with “Nirmal Grams’ as outcomes.


Activities promoted under Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan

Individual Household latrines (IHHls): the construction of the individual Household Latrines are promoted and cash incentives are given to individual households for construction and use of toilet. to promote safe and sustainable sanitation, wide technology options are being provided in rural areas to effectively deal with human waste and to completely eliminate the faecal oral transmission routes of pathogens through water, air, insects and other vectors. in 2013, the scope of provision of incentives has been extended to cover other needy households too along with poorest of the poor households. All targeted beneficiaries are also incentivised to convert from the use of the bucket/dry latrines into sanitary toilets.

Community Sanitary Complexes: Community-planned and managed toilets are provided wherever necessary, for groups of households who have constraints of space,

tenure or economic difficulties in gaining access to individual facilities.

Institutional Toilets: Schools/Anganwadis are appropriate institutions for changing the behaviour, mindset and habits of children. Financial assistance is provided for construction of toilets in all type of Government schools and separate toilet units are provided for boys and girls in co-educational institutions. in Anganwadis (pre-schools), child-friendly toilets are constructed for the use of babies and little children with the intention of inculcating best sanitary practices from a young age.

Solid and liquid Waste Management: For overall cleanliness and improvement of general quality of life in rural areas, community-managed sustainable sanitation systems are encouraged under NBA. Government of india provides focused funding to Gram Panchayats (GPs) based on the number of households in each GP to enable them to implement sustainable Solid Liquid and Waste Management (SLWM) projects. under the SLWM component, initiatives like compost pits, vermin composting, common and individual biogas plants, low-cost drainage, soakage channels/pits, reuse of waste water and proper system for the collection, segregation and disposal of household garbage are taken up.

Rural Sanitary Marts and Production Centres: For providing an alternative delivery mechanism and to ensure that proper sanitary materials, services and guidance are made available to the local people for constructing different types of latrines and other sanitary facilities for a clean and environment, provision for rural Sanitary Marts (rSM) and Production Centres has been made under the NBA. rSMs ensure that a variety of pans (ceramic, mosaic, HDP, fiberglass) are available for the general public at nominal costs at the local level.

For Urban Sanitation, the National urban Sanitation Policy (NuSP) of 2008 articulated, for the first time, a vision for urban sanitation in india: ‘All indian cities and towns should become totally sanitised, healthy and liveable and ensure and sustain good public health and environmental outcomes for all their citizens with a special focus on hygienic and affordable sanitation facilities for the urban poor and women’. the policy goal identified in the NuSP was to transform urban india


into ‘community-driven, totally sanitised, healthy and liveable cities and towns’. the policy lays out funding options including direct central and state support through existing schemes, public-private partnerships, and external funding agencies. the policy directs that at least 20% of the funds should be earmarked towards servicing the urban poor. the key goals and objectives of the urban Sanitation Policy include:

i. Awareness Generation and Behavioural Change

a. Generating awareness about sanitation and its linkages with public and environmental health amongst communities and institutions.

b. Promoting mechanisms to bring about and sustain behavioural changes aimed at adoption of healthy sanitation practices.

ii. Open Defecation Free Cities

the ultimate objective is that all urban dwellers will have access to and be able to use safe and hygienic sanitation facilities and arrangements so that no one defecates in the open:

a. Promoting household access to safe sanitation facilities (including proper disposal arrangements).

b. Promoting community-planned and managed toilets wherever necessary, for groups of households who have space, tenure or economic constraints.

c. Adequate availability and 100% upkeep and management of public sanitation facilities in all urban areas.

iii. Integrated City-wide Sanitation

re-orienting institutions and mainstreaming sanitation by:

a. Mainstreaming thinking, planning and implementing measures related to sanitation in all sectors and departmental domains as a cross-cutting issue.

b. Strengthening national, state, city and local institutions (public, private and community) to accord priority to sanitation provision, including planning, implementation and Operation & Maintenance (O&M) management.

c. extending access to proper sanitation facilities for poor communities and other un-served settlements.

iv. Sanitary and Safe Disposal

the policy calls for 100% disposal of human excreta and liquid wastes from all sanitation facilities including toilets:

a. Promoting recycle and reuse of treated waste water for non-potable applications.

b. Promoting proper disposal and treatment of sludge from on-site installations (septic tanks, pit latrines, etc.).

c. ensuring that all the human wastes are collected safely, confined and disposed-off after treatment.

v. Proper Operation and Maintenance of all Sanitary Installations

a. Promoting proper usage, regular upkeep and maintenance of household, community and public sanitation facilities.

b. Strengthening urban Local Bodies (uLBs) to provide or cause to provide, sustainable sanitation services delivery.

Sanitation, however, is the responsibility of uLBs, following the 74th Constitutional Amendment. Accordingly, a major component of the NuSP is the City Sanitation Plan (CSP), a comprehensive sectoral planning document which details the full cycle of sanitation, financing and institutional arrangements for achieving the goals of city-wide sanitation. the CSP is, therefore, a living document that details the steps developed through a consultative process (with the city residents) that the civic body needs to undertake to achieve universal access to sanitation for all its citizens, safe collection, treatment and disposal of


sewage/sludge in an economic, environmental friendly and sustainable manner.1

Sanitation Monitoring System

Both urban and rural sanitation attaches a lot of importance for monitoring and evaluation of their respective sanitation programmes. this includes keeping a check on both programme implementation and process implementation and review of utilisation of allocated funds.

the Ministry of Drinking Water & Sanitation has developed a comprehensive system for Monitoring and evaluation of the Rural Sanitation Programme under nba. this includes monitoring the implementation process and impact, including utilisation of allocated funds, through periodical progress reports, performance review committee meetings, district level monitoring and vigilance and monitoring committees at the state/district Level. the main features of the system are:

A Comprehensive web-based online monitoring ��

systems to monitor GP-level physical and financial progress of construction of individual household latrines (iHHLs), School and Angwanwadi toilets across india’s 607 districts, using reports submitted by districts (who can also download data and view reports) have been introduced. Provision has been made to issue automatic reminders and SMSs to field functionaries and State Secretaries through online monitoring system.

Spot evaluation of the quality of implementation ��

by National Level Monitors (experts from Goi, State Governments, external Support Agencies, NGOs, etc.) have also been introduced.

regular central-level review meetings of state ��

secretaries for monitoring the implementation of the Programme have been undertaken.

State-level Monitoring and evaluation (M&e) by ��

Water Supply and Sanitation Organisations (WSSOs) have been set up under the State Water and Sanitation Mission (SWSM).

1 On the last issue of disposal of sewage/sludge, see MouD (2013), Draft Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Volume i (engineering). New Delhi: Ministry of urban Development, Government of india.

A system where GP-level progress is monitored ��

by District Water and Sanitation Missions (DWSMs) has been introduced.

Social Audits in GPs through a monthly �� Swachchhata Diwas (Sanitation Day) and the convening of Gram Swachchhata Sabhas (sanitation meetings) every six months, have been introduced to review progress of sanitation initiatives.

third party monitoring is being carried out by ��

independent agencies, such as the Planning Commission and the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MOHFW) which carries out the National Family Health Survey.

evaluation and monitoring of totally sanitised ��

communities under ‘Nirmal Gram Puraskar’ by continuous modifications in the online systems is resulting in evolution of a unique evaluation process.

Sanitation in rural and urban schools is monitored by the District information System for education (DiSe) of the Ministry of Human resource Development (MHrD) while the Management information System (MiS) of the MDWS monitors rural schools, while the ASer surveys and reports on a sample of rural schools. Besides descriptive reports on each school, DiSe produces School report Cards, with quantitative and qualitative information, including numbers of gender-segregated toilets and toilets for children with special needs – their functionality, facilities to wash hands near toilets and before mid-day meals.

the Ministry of Housing and urban Poverty Alleviation undertakes various initiatives for evaluation of urban sanitation initiatives. the two major national-level initiatives include:

a bi-annual national rating for cities�� , launched by the GOi to achieve the goals of the NuSP, which rates the performance of 423 cities (with population greater than 100,000). the first national rating was carried out in 2009 (results published in May 2013) using indicators that included physical infrastructure, systems, processes, and outcomes related to achievement of total sanitation. the rating exercise aimed to:


Compare intra-city and inter-city data �

on sanitation.

Monitor and measure improvement of cities �

over time.

Generate awareness on the need to create �

totally sanitised cities.

Allow states and cities to identify and address �

areas of poor performance.

enable cities to think city-wide, emphasising �

smarter planning and investments for improved sanitation.

instil a sense of healthy competition �

among cities.

Motivate and recognise excellent performance �

through national rewards.

the rating measures sanitation performance related to the entire cycle of sanitation (safe access, collection, treatment and disposal of all liquid and solid waste)

on 19 indicators, which set out standards or benchmarks to classify cities into 4 categories: red (on the brink of public health and environmental emergency – needing immediate remedial action); Black (needing considerable improvement); Blue (recovering, but still diseased) and Green (healthy and clean). the exercise not only rates physical infrastructure or expenditure incurred but also places strong emphasis on outcomes achieved and on practices and processes followed by cities for safe access, collection, treatment, and disposal of liquid and solid wastes. the rating also recognises that improved public health and environmental standards are the two outcomes that cities must seek to achieve for its citizens.

Service Level Benchmarking (SLB) of uLBs ��

that focuses on service delivery and not just infrastructure creation, and ranks uLBs in terms of their performance on 29 indicators across four key service sectors (water supply, sewerage, solid waste management and storm water drainage).

the awards and ranking from both initiatives are available online (http://moud.gov.in).

Sanitation Promotion approaches

the practice of open defecation in india is due to a combination of factors – the most prominent of them being the traditional behavioural pattern and lack of awareness of people about the associated health hazards. Government of india (Goi) under Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA) has been promoting sanitation coverage in a campaign mode to ensure better health and quality of life for people in rural india including personal hygiene, home hygiene, school sanitation, safe water, garbage collection, excreta disposal and waste water disposal. A strong information education communication campaign has also been envisaged to bring about a behavioural change among the people. the government has also adopted a holistic approach of involving all stakeholders including NGOs, civil society and corporate houses for popularising sanitation in the country.

the NBA advocate a ‘demand-driven’, ‘community-led’, ‘people-centred’ and ‘community saturation’ approach


to rural sanitation backed by post-achievement incentives. to attain community outcomes, other needy households are also incentivised along with the poorest of the poor households. Conjoint approach by providing piped water supply including into households is further followed for sustaining the sanitation facilities created. the sanitation programme for remote, hilly and difficult areas is also addressed through the development of separate guidelines on the programmatic and technical approaches.

To cater to the community needs, alternate delivery mechanisms are promoted for providing cost-effective and affordable sanitary materials at the local level. to promote safe and sustainable sanitation, wider technology options are being provided in rural areas which shall effectively contain human waste and completely eliminate faecal oral transmission routes through water, air, insects and other vectors. in addition to individual incentives, the strategy under NBA makes incentives available to Gram Panchayats under Nirmal Gram Puraskar (‘Clean Village award’) for making the village 100% Open Defecation Free. the GPs also promote construction and usage of toilets by highlighting the community spirit to make the village open defecation free.

an intensive IeC Campaign involving Panchayati Raj institutions, Co-operatives, ASHA, Anganwadi workers, Women Groups, Self Help Groups, NGOs etc. has been adopted with the aim of bringing about a behavioural change among the general public. the achievement

of 100% safe sanitation, at the community level, apart from individual achievements are the main messages disseminated through various interpersonal and mass media channels.

Social marketing approaches are adopted to push for attitudinal and behavioural change among the people. effective mass media-based campaigns to change the basic mindsets among people in the villages towards sanitation are undertaken at national and state levels so that attitude towards safe sanitation and hygiene is changed.

Gram Panchayats (gPs) are the ultimate units of NBA implementation plan. in line with the 73rd Constitutional Amendment transferring responsibility to GPs for 29 subjects including water, sanitation, and solid and liquid waste management (SLWM), appropriate technical and financial support is provided to GPs to engage NGOs for community mobilisation, awareness generation and capacity building activities in the GPs.

Involvement of other stakeholders, such as academic institutions are also facilitated to provide research guidance to address specific issues and private sector companies wishing to utilise their CSr funds, in this sector are also actively encouraged.

In urban areas while the 74th Constitutional Amendment vests uLBs with the responsibility of providing urban sanitation services, this responsibility is shared between uLBs, parastatals and the State Government due to financial and human capacity resource constraints. Also, unlike NBA or tSC in rural sanitation, there is no single funding programme for the entire country for urban sanitation. Funds come, instead and as mentioned earlier, from a variety of programmes (e.g., BSuP, uiG, uiDSSMt and rAy), each with its own implementation guidelines. Overall, however, the NuSP of 2008 details the following approach, comprising activities to support goals (see table 5) and an implementation Support Strategy.

recognising not only that sanitation is a state subject but also that a number of factors, constraints and opportunities are peculiar to specific situations of states and cities with respect to sanitation (climate, physiographic


goal activities

Awareness generation & behaviour change

Generating awareness about sanitation and its linkages with public and environmental health a. amongst communities and institutionsPromoting mechanisms to bring about and sustain behavioural changes aimed at adoption of b. healthy sanitation practices

Achieving open defecationfree cities

Promoting access to households with safe sanitation facilities (including proper disposal a. arrangements)Promoting community-planned and managed toilets wherever necessary, for groups of b. households who have constraints of space, tenure or economic constraints in gaining access to individual facilitiesAdequate availability and 100% upkeep and management of Public Sanitation facilities in all urban c. Areas, to rid them of open defecation and environmental hazards

re-orienting institutions &mainstreaming sanitation

Mainstream thinking, planning and implementing measures related to sanitation in all sectors and a. departmental domains as a cross-cutting issue, especially in all urban management endeavoursStrengthening national, state, city and local institutions (public, private and community) to accord b. priority to sanitation provision, including planning, implementation and O&M managementextending access to proper sanitation facilities for poor communities and other c. unserved settlements

Sanitary and safe disposal of wastes

Promoting proper functioning of network-based sewerage systems and ensuring connections of a. households to them wherever possiblePromoting recycle and reuse of treated waste water for non potable applications wherever possibleb. Promoting proper disposal and treatment of sludge from on-site installations (septic tanks, c. pit latrines, etc.)ensuring that all the human wastes are collected safely, confined and disposed of after treatment d. so as not to cause any hazard to public health or the environment

Proper operation & maintenance of all sanitary installations

Promoting proper usage, regular upkeep and maintenance of household, community and public a. sanitation facilitiesStrengthening uLBs to provide or cause to provide, sustainable sanitation services deliveryb.

Table 5: ACtiVitieS tO SuPPOrt NuSP GOALS

factors, economic, social and political parameters, and institutional variables, etc.), the NuSP suggests that each state and city needs to formulate its own sanitation strategy and CSPs, in overall conformity with the National Policy. GOi shall provide the following support to states and cities (NuSP, 2008, p. 10):

encourage states to prepare State Level Sanitation ��

Strategies within 2 years.

urge identified cities to prepare model CSPs ��

within 2 years.

Provide assistance for the preparation of Detailed ��

Project report (DPr) as per CSP, as soon as requests for funding are received.

Promote public-private partnerships for key ��

projects/activities identified in the CSP.

Provide technical assistance and support for ��

awareness generation and capacity-building to states and cities within this financial year.

Carry out periodic city sanitation ratings and give ��

National Awards to best performers.

Fund projects from existing MouD schemes (e.g., ��

JNNurM, uiDSSMt) where possible.

Different aspects of Sanitation

School Sanitation

Water, sanitation and hygiene are known to have major impact on the health of an individual and more so in case of growing children. empirical studies have established


how lack of safe drinking water and sanitation facilities adversely affect childhood nutrition. Five of the ten top killer diseases of children aged 1–4 in rural areas are related to consumption of contaminated water and poor sanitation. Considering the debilitating impacts of poor water and sanitation facilities on children’s health and learning ability and, in order to change the behaviour of the children from very early stage in life, all Anganwadis (pre-school day care centres) in the country are being provided with baby-friendly toilets under the NBA. this not only facilitates sanitation but also inculcates safe sanitary practices among infants.

initiatives supporting school sanitation and hygiene in india, however, include a strongly supportive legal and policy framework that includes the right to education (rte) Act of 2009 (which provides a legally-enforceable rights framework that includes norms for safe and adequate drinking water facility for all children and separate toilets for boys and girls) and a directive from the Supreme Court of india to all State governments to ensure that every school has separate toilets for girls by March 2013.

the School Sanitation and Hygiene education (SSHe) under NBA is a comprehensive programme comprising of a hardware component (child-friendly and separate toilets and urinals for boys and girls, water supply and hand washing facilities as well as provisions for the safe disposal of sanitary napkins) and a software component of hygiene education in all types of government schools (primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary), including menstrual hygiene and health education.

in addition, there is an inter-Ministerial initiative for WASH in Schools (WiNS) that will impact 110 million children in 1.3 million schools including the pooling of funds from other schemes (e.g., National rural Drinking Water Programme, 12th Finance Commission, Panchayat Funds, Maintenance of toilets & urinals utilising School Grants, maintenance grants under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) of MHrD, water quality monitoring in schools through national drinking water and quality monitoring programme, convergence under National rural Health Mission and the Ministry of Woman and Child Development that prioritises three

key interventions: (1) Promotion of hand washing with soap; (2) Provision of clean drinking water and adequate sanitation and (3) Provision of Health, Hygiene and Nutrition education).

However despite significant achievements, the SSHe faces several challenges. these include developing appropriate low-cost, sustainable and child-friendly school sanitation complexes with appropriate and gender-sensitive designs (especially for physically-challenged children), providing adequate supply of water in toilets and enhanced hand-washing facility in schools, provision of incinerators or girls toilets with more focus on hygiene (especially menstrual hygiene). Other key structural issues include, improving the delivery mechanism for SSHe implementation in some states and strengthening institutional structures at state, block, district and village levels with clear role and responsibilities. the other area that needs to be addressed is imparting of hygiene education and increased ieC activities among children for better adoption of safe sanitary practices.

to address some of these issues, the concerned Ministries are taking several concerted steps, including preparing a comprehensive national and state-level SSHe Action Plans, carrying out intensive capacity building and ieC activities for all stakeholders (including teachers, parents, PtAs and students), developing an implementation Manual for an inclusive approach for SSHe implementation (SSA and uNiCeF), recruiting sanitation messengers (Swachchata Doots) to undertake sanitation awareness activities particularly in schools and Anganwadis, increasing adequate GOi incentives to ensure good-quality construction of school toilets and constructing mass hand-washing facilities.

Urban Sanitation

india witnessed unprecedented urban growth in the last decade when, for the first time in her history, the net decadal population increase was more urban than rural (90.99 to 90.47 million). the total urban population of india was more than 377 million according to the 2011 Census and is projected to touch 600 million by 2030. the number of cities and towns has increased from


about 5161 towns in 2001 to 7935 in 2011. the urban growth is skewed, with the population in 35 metro cities (more than a million inhabitants) constitutes about 37% of the total urban population. By the year 2050, it is expected that 50% of the country’s population will be urban. this would prove to be a huge challenge. Provision of water supply facilities in cities is becoming increasingly challenging due to depletion of fresh water sources, increasing industrialisation, vagaries of monsoon, ground water depletion and declining ground water tables and decreasing water quality (due to contamination and other factors). the latest urban sanitation scenario situation is as follows:

Toilet facilities: According to the 2011 Census, 81.4% urban households have toilets within their premises; the remaining (6%) share public toilets (while (12.6%) defecate in open. Of the 81.4% households with toilets, 32.7% are connected to piped sewerage systems, 8.80% have pit latrines and 1.70% of households have other type of toilets (connected to open drains, night soil removed by humans etc.).

Collection and treatment of human excreta and solid wastes: the Sanitation rating of 423 Class i cities in 2010 revealed that the collection of human excreta and solid waste was better than its treatment facilities. More than 50 cities reported the safe collection of more than 90% or more of human excreta generated. As far as solid wastes are concerned, 24 cities collected more than 80% of their solid wastes while another 6% reported an outstanding performance of nearly 100% primary collection; but only 17 cities reported treating of at least 60% of their wastes. the rating exercise showed that no city fell in the Green category, although there were four cities (Chandigarh, Mysore, New Delhi and Seurat) in the Blue category, while more than half the cities are in the Black and red categories. However, almost all cities reported complete elimination of manual scavenging.

Wastewater generation and treatment: According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB, 2009), Class i and Class ii towns generate about 38,254 million litres of sewage per day, of which treatment facilities have been provided for only 11,787 MLD (31%) of total sewage generated. it is estimated that (69%) of the rest is disposed into water bodies without any treatment. Due to discharge of untreated sewage and improper

disposal of municipal solid waste in cities, 75% of fresh water resources including major rivers in the country are estimated to be contaminated.

Solid waste management: urban india produces about 42 million tonnes of municipal solid waste annually, {i.e. 115,000 Metric tons Per Day (MtPD)}. Waste collection efficiency is not up to the mark, ranging between 70–90% in major Metro cities and below 50% in several smaller cities. uLBs spend an estimated 60–70% of total expenditure on street sweeping, 20–30% on transportation, and less than 5% on final disposal of waste – showing that hardly any priority is given to scientific disposal of waste. to address these issues, the Government of india launched a scheme to create integrated SWM projects, including compost plants for converting garbage into organic fertilisers. eight out of these 10 approved projects have been completed while two are under implementation.

urban Sanitation faces a lot of other practical challenges which includes (1) Preventing the scourge of open defecation, especially in poverty pockets, including slums; (2) insufficient numbers of well-maintained and user-friendly public toilets (especially for the working poor, differently-abled and floating populations); (3) insufficient support for community toilets for the urban poor run by community-based organisations, NGOs etc.; (4) the lack of adequate facilities to dispose of solid and liquid waste (e.g., sanitary landfills and seepage from septic tanks).

to tackle the challenges arising out of urbanisation, based on the recommendation of the HPeC, the MouD has extended the period of the JNNurM till March 2014 and has formulated a new JNNurM, with a view to provide financial assistance to all the cities in the country for creating urban infrastructure, including sanitation infrastructure. the practical challenges are being addressed by state and city administrations through major initiatives of the CSPs and SSSs set in motion by the NuSP, coordinated by the MouD.

Sanitation and Health

Access to sanitation and safe drinking water are the key to good health and the most important components


for leading a healthy life. in india 42.5% of the children under the age of five years are underweight (low weight for age); 48% of our children are stunted (low height for age); 19.8% of our children are wasted (low weight for height). it is estimated that one death in every ten is linked to poor sanitation and hygiene, with diarrhoea being the largest killer. in the survey conducted by Planning Commission (PeO, 2013), it was found that more and more people in NGP awarded villages are adopting better hygienic practices and are less affected by water borne diseases. the survey points out that the “general wellbeing” of people in these villages has improved.

Given the close relationship between safe water, good sanitation and improved health status, MDWS has undertaken several inter-sectoral convergence initiatives with the National rural Health Mission (NrHM) of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW). the notable initiatives undertaken include constitution of joint VWHSCs, which have been expanded by states to include Nutrition. Another area of cooperation is ieC where joint campaign focussing on preventive and curative aspects of water, sanitation, health hygiene and nutrition are being undertaken. efforts are on to train health workers including ASHAs and ANMs on health, hygiene and WASH issues and usage of water quality testing kits.

NBA provides for separate toilets and urinal facilities for girls in all co-educational Government Schools. Special instructions are given to ensure that toilets are located at appropriate location to ensure security and access to girls. NBA also gives special attention to the issue of sanitary hygiene of adolescent girls and women. to ensure availability of sanitary pads, some states are providing sanitary vending machines and women’s SHGs have been involved in setting up and managing sanitary napkin production centres in states like tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana. these have made available reasonably-priced and hygienic sanitary pads, which has created a sense of economic and social empowerment among young adolescent girls and women. Further, in many states convergence with the MoHFW have resulted in creating mechanisms for distribution of sanitary napkins and education of the adolescents and women for safe sanitary practices through ieC activities. in some states like tamil Nadu incinerators have been set up in

Community Sanitary Complexes and schools for safe disposal of menstrual pads.

A lot more, however, needs to be done to strengthen inter-sectoral convergence at central and state-levels: convergence of the SSHe and School Health programmes; regular review and monitoring of progress on convergence initiatives, inclusion of health workers in sanitation initiatives; developing common curricula and training programmes linking sanitation and health; setting up a common monitoring mechanisms to identify endemic water-quality affected areas, track water and sanitation-related diseases and develop institutionalised response systems to outbreaks; joint ieC, Media Campaigns and documentation of best cases of integration of sanitation and hygiene education with health initiatives.

Reaching the Unreached

Access to sanitation and drinking water contribute to the wellbeing of people and improved human development indicators. reports and surveys such as the Census reports, National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) data and the WHO/uNiCeF JMP do report systematic discrimination and disparities in access to sanitation amongst the general population including women and girls who are the worst affected. they are faced with a lot of issues like shame, public scorn which impacts their safety and security. A combination of factors that include age, state of health and physical ability, caste, class and gender and socioeconomic status thus makes it impossible for millions of people in the region to access and use basic services like WASH, education and health. Additionally, geological and geographical conditions complicate delivery mechanisms and inhibit access to use and practice of sanitation. these include, remote habitations, poor soil conditions (sandy, water logged mountainous and rocky terrains) seasonal flooding and drought-hit areas.

According to the 2008 WHO/uNiCeF JMP report, india provided over 200 million people with access to sanitation between 1995 and 2008. However, the progress has been inequitable: Only five million from the poorest section benefited compared to 43 million and 93 million from the


richest sections. However, results from the Goi 2008–09 NSSO survey indicated a more positive trend with 15% of the population living in the lowest quintile in rural areas having access to improved sanitation.

the Government of india under NBA aims to achieve universal sanitation coverage in rural india through inclusive and community wide saturation approach. it aims to provide privacy and dignity to women and other vulnerable sections of the population. Financial assistance are provided to the economically deprived and socially excluded communities like Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled tribes (St), physically disabled, women-headed households with additional assistance for people in hilly and difficult terrain. Community toilets have been provided for group of people having space constraints and in public places. Apart from this, the MDWS is also working for convergence of NBA with schemes/policies of various other Ministries to ensure an all round inclusion and growth.

Given the difficulty of defecating in the open in crowded urban locations, the ‘unreached’ in urban areas also tend to be slightly different from the rural and include the urban poor, women, the physically-challenged, the elderly and chronically-ill. to facilitate sanitation facility for urban poor, the Government of india under the integrated Low Cost Sanitation (iLCS) schemes aims to convert the existing dry latrines into low cost pour flush latrines and to construct new latrines wherever necessary. Access to sanitation is also provided to the urban poor by building community-planned and managed toilets. these toilets are aimed at groups of households who have economic and space constraints to build individual toilets. Moreover, city and local institutions (public, private and community) have been strengthened to accord priority to sanitation provision, including planning, implementation and O&M management of poor and other unreached communities.

A majority of the urban poor reside in slums which are seen as temporary structures that need to be relocated from city-centre locations and hence no real effort is made to improve sanitation facilities. Due to lack of space, difficult terrain and density of population, many of the slums do not have access to piped sewerage systems, worsening the condition.

the real problem of sanitation is faced by small towns and large villages which are being rapidly urbanised where people still have the mindset of defecating in the open. the task therefore, is threefold: (1) to increase awareness among city administrators and politicians of the potential problem of inadequate sanitation; (2) provide appropriate financial, technical and institutional resources to address the issue and (3) recruit, enthuse and capacitate a group of community workers who can convince and work with the slum communities on safe sanitation.

Sanitation Technologies and Marketing

to promote rural sanitation, NBA provides the much needed flexibility to individual households to choose the sanitation technology they prefer from a variety of options, based on their needs. this built-in flexibility gives poor and disadvantaged families opportunities for subsequent up gradation depending upon their future requirements and financial situation.

the Government of india under the NBA programme advocates adoption of various technologies for human waste disposal and encourages communities to choose the best available option based on socio-cultural and economic aspects of the beneficiaries, hydro- geological conditions and soil type of the area. the objective is to give technological options or informed choices to the user to select the most suitable design in terms of cost and usability without compromising on the quality of sanitary latrine and maintain it without much external support. the two pit Water Seal is the most preferred toilet technology for normal soil types with low water table, however, Pit toilet (Single or twin pit) is not suitable for high water table and rocky areas. in high water table areas, there is a chance of ground water contamination. Further, due to high water table, adjoining soil of the pit becomes saturated and further percolation from pit reduces significantly causing frequent filling of the pits. in case of rocky areas, there is no chance of percolation of water from pits. Consequently, pit gets filled in frequently. Due to unavailability of mechanical devices to clean the pits, it is not acceptable by the beneficiaries. For coastal and other areas having high water table and also for rocky areas the technologies like the


(a) ecosan toilet; (b) Biogas toilet and (c) Septic tank toilet are recommended.

Proper management of solid and liquid waste is also an important determinant of improved sanitation in any community. in rural areas this aspect is mostly neglected due to lack of proper infrastructure; unavailability of sustainable technology at household or community level and moreover lack of adequate awareness of common people. there is a range of technological options for waste water and solid waste management in india based on the geographical condition. under the SLWM component, initiatives like compost pits, vermin composting, common and individual biogas plants, low cost drainage, soakage channels/pits, reuse of waste water and proper system for collection, segregation and disposal of household garbage are taken up.

As a part of promoting sanitation technologies and marketing them, NBA provides incentives for setting up rural Sanitary Marts and Production centres to SHGs/women Organisations/Panchayats/NGOs to ensure that proper sanitary materials, services and guidance are made available to the local people for constructing different types of latrines and other sanitary facilities as per their need. rSMs ensure that a variety of pans (ceramic, mosaic, HDP, fiberglass) are available for the general public at nominal costs at the local level. the rSMs also ensure that hardware and designs required for the construction of sanitary latrines, soakage and compost pits, vermi-composting, washing platforms are made available at nominal costs to the general public. the Production Centres (PCs) are to produce cost-effective affordable sanitary materials at the local

level’, either as part of an rSM or as an independent institution to supplement these initiatives.

One of the major issues that need to be addressed is a lack of adequate functioning rSMs and Production centres to meet the demand of the general public across the country. in most of the places, the rSMs are not functioning as per the plan and are not fulfilling the needs of the local population as envisaged.

Knowledge Management and Networking

Sanitation and hygiene is a complex sector, institutionally and in terms of strategy and approach, therefore Knowledge management and Networking have been accorded top priority under rural sanitation. the emphasis has been to involve various stakeholders in various activities and draw on their key skills and expertise in various strategic areas like training, capacity building, research and policy formulation.

Institutional Support Mechanisms: under the NBA, Water and Sanitation Support Organisations (WSSOs), Communication and Capacity Development units (CCDu) and Block resource Centre (BrC) were set up in each state, under the State Water and Sanitation Mission (SWSM) to provide support for awareness creation and training activities. the Ministry has also enlisted the services of Key resource Centres to organise training, orientation and capacity development programmes for all key staff including district officials, Pri representatives, motivators, health workers, religious leaders, media agencies, sector professionals, NGOs, self-employed mechanics, masons, school-teachers and students.

Knowledge Sharing Mechanisms: Knowledge management aims to facilitate the supply of the right knowledge to the right person at the right time in order to take effective action. it requires systems and technologies to ensure that information and knowledge is documented and organised in a way that it can be easily retrieved and used by those who need it. Best practices prevailing in various parts of india is documented and disseminated through Web portal and also through various workshops organised in support with national and international resource partners. Similarly necessary


‘software’ like technical guidance on toilets, SLWM, ieC etc. needed to tackle sanitation and hygiene issues has been put in public domain.

Networks for Sanitation: Several networks and online discussion forums exist on the issue of sanitation and hygiene, including WeS-Net india, the uN Solution exchange and the india Sanitation Portal.

WES-Net India: �� the Water and environmental Sanitation Network of india was set up in 2004 with the objective to ‘improve knowledge sharing and co-ordination within the water and sanitation sector’ and to ‘enhance horizontal and vertical exchange of information and experiences through continuous feedback from people who use it’.

UN Solution Exchange India:�� A unique initiative launched in 2005 by united Nations in india, the Solution exchange (Se) ‘provides an impartial platform for exchange of knowledge and ideas among 33,000 (and growing) development practitioners across 13 thematic areas (Communities of Practice – COPs)’.2

India Sanitation Portal:�� the iSP launched at SACOSAN in November 2008 was conceived as a collaborative effort between several organisations (Arghyam, DDWS, Plan india, Sei, WASH institute, WSP, WaterAid india, Water for People, WeS-Net india and Wherever the Need). the portal is an ‘open, inclusive, web-based platform for sharing sanitation knowledge amongst practitioners and the general public.

India WASH Forum�� : registered as a legal entity in 2008, the iWF comprises a large number of member organisations and individuals from all over india and works towards promoting knowledge generation through research and documentation.

Community-wide Total Sanitation and Sustainability

recent trends in the rural sanitation sector in india have identified that motivating sustainable behaviour change

2 uNDP (2013), http://www.undp.org/content/india/en/home/knowledge-and-solutions/solution-exchange/solution-exchange/

is the key outcome of a successful sanitation program. Community-wide Sanitation is a behaviour change approach based on participatory principles to achieve the goal of Open Defecation Free (ODF) communities. the focus is to make sure that all households use safe and functional sanitation facilities. Achieving community-wide sanitation implies that, the approach is implemented in a way as to achieve extensive reach in a cost- and time-effective way. Sustaining the outcome of community-wide sanitation implies that the behaviour of using a safe sanitation facility is practiced by all members of the community at all times.

Government of india under the NBA has adopted a holistic approach to comprehensively cover the whole community with saturation approach, adopting community wide total sanitation by extending its definition of sanitation to include personal hygiene, home sanitation, school sanitation, safe drinking water supply, garbage disposal, excreta disposal and waste water disposal. As a part of its community wide sanitation and sustainability, the government has taken a number of steps to accelerate the process as under:

to attain community outcomes, other needy ��

households are also incentivised along with poorest of the poor.

Apart from incentives to individuals, NBA makes ��

incentives available to Gram Panchayats under Nirmal Gram Puraskar (‘Clean Village award’) for achieving community-wide total sanitation.

Promoting conjoint approach with National rural ��

Drinking Water Programme (NrDWP) to ensure water availability for sustaining sanitation created.

encouraging cost-effective and appropriate ��

technologies for ecologically safe and sustainable sanitation.

Developing community managed environmental ��

sanitation systems focusing on Solid & Liquid waste management for overall cleanliness in the rural areas.

importance for encouraging Community managed ��

public toilets.

An intensive information education Communication ��

(ieC) Campaign involving Panchayati Raj


institutions, Co-operatives, ASHA, Anganwadi workers, Women Groups, Self Help Groups, NGOs etc. have been adopted with the aim of bringing about a behavioural change among the general public for sustainable sanitation.

Media Advocacy for Sanitation Promotion

Media advocacy and Sanitation are key components of the NBA, in which ieC and capacity- building activities (supported by 15% of the total outlay of project funds) are aimed at increasing awareness among rural people, generating demand for sanitation facilities, encouraging creation of a clean environment and bridging the gap between construction of toilets and their proper use. Other major steps taken by the GOi to promote sanitation and media advocacy are:

A comprehensive Sanitation and Hygiene ��

Advocacy and Communication Strategy Framework (2012–2017), for a phased roll out of a number of

communication activities and to provide a framework for states to develop state-specific action plans.

emphasising the enlistment of NGOs, village level ��

motivators (Swachhata Doots/Sanitation Managers), field functionaries like ASHA and Anganwadi Workers, School teachers, and Bharat Nirman Volunteers to disseminate key information regarding, hygiene and sanitation at the village level.

A �� Nirmal Bharat Yatra, as an exhibition of games and other innovative tools to disseminate sanitation and hygiene messages, undertaken in six states.

A mass-media campaign on radio and television, ��

produced in collaboration with uNiCeF is currently being aired across the country.

Mass media activities (tV, radio, mobile phone-based messages, print media) folk media, (melas, street plays, wall writings, hoardings and banners, picture frames, exhibitions, school rallies) and interpersonal communication are also carried out at the State till the GP-level.

Phase I: Raising awareness – To raise visibility of the importance of good sanitation & hygiene practices & build public support

increasing mass awareness and making identified audiences more conscious about issues related to the importance of sanitation and hygiene, by:

increasing the number of individuals y who describe open defecation as a problem

increasing the number of individuals with the correct knowledge about sanitation and hygiene practices y

Phase II: advocacy – To arm influencers and decision- makers with the information they need and to encourage them to speak up and take action for positive change

influencing decision-makers and opinion leaders to advocate for improved sanitation and hygiene standards, to create an overall positive environment, by:

engaging with key stakeholders who understand the importance of sanitation and can describe government initiatives yfor total sanitation

Building alliances/partnerships to support sanitation and hygiene programmes y

Phase III: Social and behavioural Change Communication – To empower individuals and families to make decisions based on correct information and improved understanding, and to motivate communities to help create positive social norms

ensuring that households know the linkages between sanitation, hygiene and health, and therefore public demand increases for quality sanitation services and the adoption of hygienic practices:

increase the number of individuals with a positive attitude towards: (1) building and using a toilet; (2) safe disposal of ychildren’s faeces; (3) hand-washing with soap at critical times; and (4) safe storage and handling of drinking water

increase the number of individuals who: build toilets, always use a toilet, dispose of children’s faeces safely; wash their yhands with soap at critical times and store and handle drinking water safely

Table 6: tHe tHree PHASeS OF tHe WASH ADVOCACy AND COMMuNiCAtiON StrAteGy

Source: MDWS, 2012, pp. 12–13.


best PracticesRural Sanitation

Although there are several success stories from different parts of india, three cases are presented here, illustrating Sanitation, Waste water management and Solid waste management.

box 1: tOtAL ViLLAGe-LeVeL trANSFOrMAtiON

it has been an amazing story of transformation of Chaphyachapada village in Nashik district, Maharashtra, the village with a primarily tribal population of 1,020 consisting of 159 families is today regarded as a model village with each family having a toilet, a kitchen garden in its premises and facilities for solid waste management. Not so long ago, the residents of this village lived in filthy and unsanitary surroundings, and suffered from a range of water-borne diseases. it was the launch of the tSC in Nashik district in 2004 that brought about a transformation in the mindset and behaviour of the residents of Chaphyachapada. With the initiation of tSC, district and block officers began by carrying out a survey to assess awareness and use of toilets. elected GP representative and officials held meetings to educate people on sanitation. A village-level committee was established and a unique set of ‘Good Morning’ squads were formed to patrol the village and check open defecation. Anyone found defecating in the open was made to pay a fine of rs. 500.

One of the reasons for the success of the initiative was the active involvement of women groups, Anganwadi workers, school teachers and other stakeholder. While the focus was on sanitation which included drainage management, solid waste management and drinking water management, serious efforts were also made to make the people aware of family planning, tree plantation and health and hygiene issues leading to holistic development of the village. today this beautiful village dumps its garbage at a landfall site, uses cattle dung for fertilizer purposes and has a clean and healthy environment. All this has led to Chaphyachapada GP being the proud recipient of several state and national awards, including the prestigious NGP given by the President of india.

For the inhabitants of Vadakkencherry, a remote village located in Palakkad district of Kerala, the central pond in the village called ‘Mekkulam’ was a source of desperation and worry. this once beautiful pond had transformed into a garbage pit with all wastes being dumped there and had become a breeding ground for pests and vectors. the stench emanating from the pond had become unbearable and permeated the entire village forcing the Panchayat authorities to approach the District Suchitwa Mission. this crisis came as a God-sent opportunity for the rural sanitation team to intervene and prove its credibility. in coordination with the Mahatma Gandhi National rural employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNreGS), the rural sanitation team prepared an action plan to clean the pond. the pond was desilted and the filth and dirt was removed and then reused to fill the sides of the pond. As a part of beautification drive, a side wall was constructed and the pond was filled with clean water. in the land-filled portion, a colourful garden was laid out as a special attraction and sanitation funds were used to build a community sanitary complex nearby. thus a place that was once filled with dirt and filth has become a beautiful pond surrounded by a garden.

box 2: FrOM A DuMPiNG GrOuND tO A BeAutiFuL POND

Human excreta and solid waste littered the streets and water-borne diseases were rampant in the Nandiya, a small GP of Khargone district of Madhya Pradesh, but the death of a girl child due to this insanitary condition changed it all. A sustained ieC campaign and a large number of innovative approaches by the Sarpanch brought about this amazing turnover. the village received the prestigious ‘Clean Village Award’ (Nirmal Gram Puraskar) from the President of india. today this GP has been declared as a Nirmal Gram Model training Centre by the State government and the villagers are proud and happy about this newly acquired status of their village.

box 3: COMMuNity PArtiCiPAtiON FOr tOtAL SANitAtiON

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the GP is not only free from open defecation but also from the scourge of plastics. the GP purchases plastic bags from all its inhabitants every tuesday at the rate of rs. 25 per/kg. these plastics are then sold to vendors on a regular basis. For the disposal of other solid waste, the GP has adequate compost pits, bio-gas system, and so on. the GP also has a proper underground drainage system, through which waste water from each household is accumulated at one single point. the GP auctions the waste water every year to farmers who use it for irrigation. the transformation this holistic approach to sanitation has brought in the village has to be seen to be believed. the two medical practitioners who earlier treated waterborne diseases have left the village due to a lack of work. the villagers have never used the free medical treatment card provided to them by the government. the key factors responsible for this success story of achieving ODF status and sustaining it since 2007 have been leadership, community participation, involvement of Pri members, and support from the district administration.

Future Plan for Meeting national Targets

the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan visualises a shift in strategy for accelerating the progress of sanitation coverage in the country. the future emphasis shall be on not to compromise on quality and sustainability of outcomes, but to attain targets in a planned and constructive manner. the Government of india has under the NBA has itself a target to achieve universal sanitation coverage by 2022. As per 12th Five year Plan objective, 50% of Gram Panchayats (GPs) are to attain Nirmal Gram status by 2017. the total fund allocated for rural sanitation during 2012–2017 (12th plan period) is rs. 37,159 crores (around 6.19 billion uSD). the following strategies have been adopted to achieve the aforesaid goals:

Phased approach:�� in order to focus more centrally on sustainability of outcomes, a phased approach will be adopted where more and more Nirmal GPs shall progressively lead to achievement of Nirmal blocks, Nirmal districts and eventually, to Nirmal States.

Priority for ngP: �� the pattern of fund release will enable flexibility to the districts to prioritise funding to GPs identified for achievement of Nirmal Grams. thus Nirmal Grams with full access and usage of toilets, water availability and systems of waste disposal and drainage shall be the outcome of NBA.

Convergence with water supply:�� Facilitate convergence between drinking water and sanitation projects. the NBA shall give priority to coverage of areas with functional Piped Water

Supply Systems (PWSS), followed by areas with ongoing PWSS that are nearest to completion. Similarly new PWSS will be taken up in GPs of districts where iHHL coverage has reached higher milestones of coverage in a descending order. in all such new and ongoing PWSS, NBA shall be implemented simultaneously with the planning and execution of PWSS (to ensure that behavioural change for usage of toilets is generated). PWSS shall be planned and executed to saturate entire habitations, so that health and other impacts of safe water and sanitation are clearly discernible.

Convergence for Schools and Institutional ��

sanitation: running water availability shall be ensured in all Government school toilets, Anganwadi toilets and Community Sanitary Complexes under NrDWP. Child-friendly toilets will be developed in Anganwadi and schools, along with capacity building of school teachers, ASHA and Anganwadi workers and ANMs among others on hygiene and sanitation. Sanitation will be made a part of the school curriculum so that safe sanitation practices are ingrained in the minds of children who would be the torch bearers of sanitation in their households and the community.

Increasing Incentives through Convergence:�� encouraging convergence with other rural development programmes like MGNreGA, the government plans to increase increased inflow of funds and incentives for construction of toilets.

enhancing Capacity-building budgets:�� Apart from 2% of the district project outlay being earmarked for capacity building in each district, a massive training campaign will be launched in

box 3: CONtD...


convergence with the National rural Livelihoods Mission (NrLM). this will focus on skills such as masonry work, brick-making, toiletpan-making and plumbing. Nirmiti Kendras will be set up to develop and manufacture cost-effective construction materials. existing PCs and rSMs shall be revitalised and entrusted to appropriate SHGs.

For urban areas, a new programme called the Total Urban Sanitation Programme (TUSP) is envisaged as a Centrally Sponsored State Sector programme to remedy the sanitation situation, covering all cities/towns/urban areas including house service connections, collection, conveyance and treatment systems involving both on-site and off-site sanitation systems. the tuSP will be integrated with the provisions of the NuSP for 100% sewage sanitation in cities along with open defecation free status.

the following components and activities are envisaged under the tuSP:

Providing all urban households with sanitary ��

individual and community toilets.

Converting insanitary household toilets to sanitary ��

toilets to prevent manual scavenging.

Providing sewage collection, conveyance and ��

appropriate treatment systems consisting of off-site and on-site systems at the individual/community/town levels as appropriate.

Promoting proper functioning of network based ��

sewerage systems and ensuring connections of households to them wherever possible.

Promoting access to households with safe sanitation ��

facilities, community planned and managed toilets (for groups of households who have constraints of space, tenure and economic constraints) for achieving open defecation free cities.

Creating facilities for septage management and ��

safe processing and disposal of sludge generated from sewage treatment plants (StPs).

Promoting recycle and reuse of treated waste water ��

for non-potable applications wherever possible and recycle and reuse of sludge.

eliminating manual cleaning of sewers and septic ��

tanks by adopting mechanical cleaning methods, to facilitate the eradication of manual scavenging.

Providing public toilets to satisfy sanitation ��

requirements of floating populations in cities.

SaCoSan Commitments

in the fourth SACOSAN held at Colombo in Sri Lanka, the SACOSAN member countries had made commitments for initiating various initiatives for better sanitation. Key commitments undertaken include: Recognising the right to sanitation; Time-bound plan with increased fund allocation; Undertaking context specific equitable and inclusive sanitation programme; Accelerating WASH in schools and identifying one national body for coordination, Setting up a monitoring mechanism with indicators and defined roles.

in light of the uN resolutions recognizing the right to sanitation, the Government of india has provided an enabling environment and sufficient funds for creation of sustainable sanitation facilities for poor and marginalized section of societies. to accelerate progress towards achieving MDGs and national goals on sanitation, the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation was upgraded as a separate independent Ministry in July 2011 and total Sanitation Campaign (tSC) under rural sanitation programme was revamped as Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan from 1st of April, 2012. the NBA advocates a ‘demand-driven’, ‘community led’, ‘people centred’ and ‘community saturation’ approach to rural sanitation backed by post-achievement incentives. A strong information-education-Communication campaign based on a new Communication and Advocacy Strategy, involving all stakeholders has also been envisaged to bring about behavioural change among the people. to make the country open defecation free, the Government of india has set itself a target to achieve universal sanitation coverage by 2022. As per the Census report of 2011, the rural sanitation coverage in the country is around 32.7%. the total fund allocated for rural sanitation during 2012–2017 (under 12th plan period) is rs. 37,159 crores (about uSD 6.19 billion) which is nearly 468% higher than the allocation made during 2007–2012


(11th plan period). For the year 2013–14, rs. 4260 has been allocated for rural Sanitation.

under NBA, financial resources have been extended to marginalised groups like SCs & Sts for inclusive approach and equitable growth. incentives for household toilets have been extended to certain groups of APL households (all SCs/Sts, small and marginal farmers, landless labourers with homestead, physically handicapped and women-headed households) along with BPL households. All the States in the country are being encouraged to include Sanitation in school curriculum. A course in WiNS was launched in collaboration with uNiCeF to plan, implement, monitor and accelerate the WASH in School programme.

For convergence and better planning, a National Drinking Water and Sanitation Council (NDWSC) has been set up with representation from related Ministries (e.g., Human resource Development, Health, Women &

Child Development, Panchayati Raj, rural Development). this Council will provide national level guidance on the implementation of the sanitation programme. the council is chaired by the Hon’ble Minister for Drinking Water and Sanitation.

the Ministry also carried out a pilot evidence-based monitoring study in association with WSP-SA for replication at scale. A provision of Social Audit was introduced at Gram Panchayat level from July 2011. the number of ODF communities/Nirmal Grams is one of the indicators that is being monitored for community outcomes. till date 28002 Gram Panchayats have become open defecation free. to give more thrust to communication and Advocacy initiatives, a National Sanitation & Hygiene Advocacy & Communication Strategy Framework (2012–2017) was developed and is being implemented across the country. Key resource Centres identified by the Ministry are involved in imparting training to various stakeholders.


Contacts

key Institutions

Institution address Website

Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation CGO Complex, New Delhi www.mdws.gov.in

Ministry of urban Development Nirman Bhavan, New Delhi www.moud.gov.in

Ministry of Human resource Development Shastri Bhavan, New Delhi www.mhrd.gov.in

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Nirman Bhavan, New Delhi www.mhfw.gov.in


MOuD (2008), National Urban Sanitation Policy, [pdf ] New Delhi: Ministry of urban Development, Government of india. Available at: http://www.urbanindia.nic.in/programme/uwss/NuSP.pdf

CSe (2011) Policy Paper on Septage Management in India [pdf ] New Delhi: Centre for Science

and environment, Available at: http://www.urban india.nic.in/programme/uwss/slb/SeptagePolicy Paper.pdf

GoMP (2013) Sanitation Vision 2013 [pdf ], Bhopal: urban Administration and Development Department, Government of Madhya Pradesh.

Urban Sanitation

Key Documents

MDWS (2012) Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA) Guidelines [pdf ] New Delhi: Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of india. Available at: http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ddws/files/pdfs/Final%20Guidelines%20(englis).pdf

MDWS (2012) Handbook on Technical Options for On-site Sanitation [pdf ] New Delhi: Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of india. Available at: http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ddws/files/pdfs/Final%20Handbook.pdf

MDWS (2012) Towards Nirmal Bharat: Rural Sanitation and Hygiene Strategy (2012–2022) [pdf ] New Delhi: Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of india.

MDWS & uNiCeF (2012) Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Advocacy and Communication Strategy Framework (2012–2017) [pdf ] New Delhi: Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of india. Available at: http://www.wsscc.org/sites/default/files/publications/sanhygadvcommstrat_2012-2017_ 11-09-2012_final_2.pdf

MDWS and WSP (2012) Towards scaling up Solid and Liquid Waste Management in Rural Areas:

A Handbook [pdf ] New Delhi: Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of india and Water and Sanitation Program (South Asia). Available at: http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ddws/files/pdfs/Handbook%20on%20SLWM%20WSP%20final%20May%202012.pdf

MDWS (2011) Establishment and Management of Community Sanitary Complex in Rural Areas: A Handbook [pdf ] New Delhi: Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of india and Water and Sanitation Program (South Asia). Available at: http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ddws/files/pdfs/CommunitySanitaryComplexes_2Jun 2011_PreSS.pdf

PC (2013) Evaluation Study on Total Sanitation Campaign [pdf ] New Delhi: Programme evaluation Office, Planning Commission, Government of india. Available at: http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/peoreport/peo/rep_tscv1_2205.pdf

WSP (2010) From Dreams to Reality: Compendium of Best Practices in Rural Sanitation [pdf ] New Delhi: Water and Sanitation Program – South Asia. Available at: http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ddws/files/pdfs/WSP_Compendium_Press_28Oct2010.pdf

Rural Sanitation

Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation Government of India12th Floor, Paryavaran BhavanCGO Complex, Lodi RoadNew Delhi-110003Phone: 011-24362705, Fax: 011-24361062www.mdws.gov.in

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