Writing Skills

The Purpose of Writing• Writing is a Product, used to disseminate research

results• Writing is a Process which helps us derive research

results– We are actually going to cover the second of these first,

thinking about how we can use writing to learn, then move on to the details of writing as a process

Writing Skills I: Writing as a Process

Writing as a Process• Process of writing is called Composition.• The point of this lecture is to provide ideas of how to

use composition to learn.– It includes analysis (taking something apart)– It includes synthesis (putting things together)

• Writing forces you to think clearly and concretely.– To figure out what you mean, as a tool of

discovery– To organize your arguments, and to recognize the

inherent weaknesses– Your audience for writing as a process is YOU

Structure of an argument• Purpose is to be persuasive to experts, which will

require composing and refinement• Should have a logical, hierarchal structure– Series of nested arguments– Leading to the thesis as a conclusion

Primary assertion

Competition leads to low prices (P=AC)

Major reasons

Firms want to make profit,

Consumer want to maximize utility,

Supporting points

Firms maximize profit by setting MR=MC

MR=P

Consumers seek low price

Firms compete for sales with low price

Process pushes price to lowest possible level

The Structure of an Argument

The Conclusion must follow from the evidence• An Inference is a conclusion reached after logical

reasoning– About facts or assumptions– About relationships

• An example: A decrease in unemployment caused an increase in consumer spending– Is the reason or fact true? Suppose the answer is yes.– Is it a logical inference? Possibly

• As UE decreases, incomes usually go up• As incomes go up, spending usually increases

• Look for common fallacies in your arguments– An increase in UE caused an increase in spending

As you write, examine and critique your argument• Are your facts correct?• Are your assumptions correct?• Is there a reasonable basis for the relationships you

use?• Be clear about the type of reasoning you will use– Deductive reasoning starts from general principles

and derives specific predictions. Valid deductions must follow from the premises• Premises: Consumers maximize utility and more is

better.• Conclusion: Consumers always prefer a lower price to a

higher price.• Is this a deductive argument?

Inductive argument flows in the opposite direction• Given specific cases or situations, what can be

inferred about some underlying general rule?• Still start with premises and lead to a conclusion.– But conclusion is not the only possible outcome.– Hence not a proof, it is “probabilistic” based on

the reasonableness of the inference.• Statistical evidence is always inductive

Goal is to have a persuasive argument, especially if using induction• A persuasive argument uses evidence– Factual evidence must be accurate. If your

reasoning depends on UE rising, it should have.– Evidence should be authoritative. The source

should be reputable.– Evidence must be precise. To say UE is higher is

one thing, to say it increases 3% is more precise.– Evidence should be complete. It needs depth and

breadth.

• A persuasive argument is based on deep reasoning– Causes and effects make sense– It is not a shallow argumentExample; why did UE go up?• “Businesses are producing less output, thus

needed fewer workers”• A better answer goes back a step or two in the

causality – explaining why businesses are producing less output.

– It is representative, hence you should also provide counter arguments, and explain why your assertion is the better choice.

An example of a deductive argument.

Let F be a measure of family functioning and U(F) be a family’s valuation of this functioning (especially their valuation of the associated likelihood of future drug abuse by children in the family), with U(F) >0, U(F) 0 and U(F)0. The program is designed to increase family functioning. Thus, participation in the program can be thought of as “successful” if it increases and unsuccessful if does not increase. We assume the program does no harm so cannot decrease from program participation. The benefit of a successful program to a family is therefore approximated by FxU(F). What are the underlying assumptions? Etc.

An example of an inductive argument.

Families face psychological and social costs related to organizing and cajoling the family into participating in the program. For example, families participating in the program may be required to share with strangers matters traditionally considered private to the family, or parents may disagree with each other or with their child about attending a program (Spoth et al., 1996). Public exposure of how the family works may be especially hard for families with lower functioning levels. Some research has shown that youth with problem behaviors are unwilling to attend family programs despite the fact that parents who perceive that their child has a problem or is susceptible to problems are more willing to attend a program (Spoth, et al., 1997). In contrast, families with adolescents who feel strongly attached to a parent are more likely to attend a program (Bauman et al., 2001). A decision to attend a family strengthening program may imply that the family is in trouble or that parents are doing a poor job; in this case, participants may face social disapproval, which has been shown to discourage program participation (Gensheimer, Ayers, & Roosa, 1993).

What is the principle assertion? What are the reasons? Etc.

Exercise:

Split into small groups:

Construct an argument about the impact of extending the Bush tax cuts for upper income people. Decide if you are for or opposed, and make your case.

Writing Skills II:Writing as a product

The ultimate goal of your research is that it be used• Writing as a product is a report of your intellectual

inquiry• Audience is not you, the audience is others.– Requires better format, grammar, punctuation and

style than writing as a process– Needs to be more explicit and formal

Good academic writing relies on a unique blend of vocabulary, concept, and method unique to your discipline. Good economic writing requires economic analysis – so plan on providing a economic context to your writing.

Writing steps1. Prewriting or Exploration2. Writing the first draft3. Revising4. Editing

Prewriting or exploration is the “process” purpose of writing combined with the analysis and modeling you have done to get to the point of putting together a first draft. Hence, we’ll start there.

The First Draft• Getting started on the first draft is one of the hardest

steps to completing a paper.• One approach is to write “throughout” the process– Take notes on what you are finding– Formalize your own ideas in prose

• Review and organize your research materials• Be clear about who is your audience; if you fail to

identify who it is, you will miss them.

Features of Good Economic Writing• It is focused, not fuzzy. It is easy for readers to

understand your points and your purpose. Clarity is you goal.

• It is well organized, and follows a logical order. This is more than format. The paper follows a logical, hierarchal structure; The thesis is supported by a series of nested arguments that logically lead to the thesis as a conclusion. (see figure in next slide)

• It is solidly developed. Each major point is explained in detail and supported by evidence.

• It is clear, concise and precise (more on this later) and free of grammatical errors.

Example of the structure of a paper

THESISChildren’s cognitive

development is harmed when mothers work

||

MAJOR POINTSLess caregiver concern and

attentionLess interactionLack of stability

||

CONCLUSIONChildren’s cognitive

development is harmed when mothers work

SUPPORTING POINTS

Low paid caregivers lack emotional connection to the child.

Low paid caregivers are unable to provide high level intellectual stimulation.

Worker turnover in daycare centers means child loses connections made to caregivers.

SUPPORTING POINTS

Even highly motivated caregivers lack the time to provide sufficient attention to children because of the large numbers of children they must care for.

There is little one-on-one interaction.

Revising the paper• The first draft is a sketch, not a blueprint. Ask yourself

the following questions:– Is the thesis clear? Does it have a clear, sharp

focus? Can you underline the thesis in the introduction? Can you find the corresponding sentence in the conclusion?

– Is it well organized? Create an outline following the paragraphs. Does it make sense? Do the arguments follow an orderly pattern?

– Are your points supported by your premises and evidence?

• You should completely revise your paper several times.

Style – the quest for clarity• Clarity is the most important thing about style.• Follow simple rules:– A sentence must have a subject and a verb. The subject is

the main actor, the verb the main action.– Use strong verbs over weak verbs

• “Noticeably different is the negative coefficient on CPI.”• “The negative coefficient on CPI is noticeably different.”• “The negative coefficient on CPI differs noticeably.”

– Use active voice, not passive voice.• “Next, the data were analyzed” or “I analyzed the data.”• “It is argued that …” or “We argue that …”• The active voice is more precise, telling who is doing

what.

• Describe action with a verb– “The data were subjected to analysis” or “I analyzed the

data”?

• Be precise and Concise– “Some areas that enforce affirmative actions are helping

those who are at a disadvantage to overcome discrimination.” or

– “The states that enforce affirmative action help individuals overcome discrimination.”

• Use complete sentences. Make sure you have a verb and a subject.

• Don’t use run-on sentences. Make sure each independent clause is separated by proper punctuation.

An increase in the price of seed caused an increase in the price of corn an increase in the price of corn caused a decrease in the price demanded.

An increase in the price of seed caused an increase in the price of corn, and an increase in the price of corn caused a decrease in the price demanded.

An increase in the price of seed caused an increase in the price of corn. The subsequent increase in the price of corn caused a decrease in the price demanded.

Which is best? Why?