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    Writing sample

    (An excerpt from my Dissertation)

    May 2010

    Culture and Climate in architecture of

    Bohra Settlements

    Rewa Marathe

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    CHAPTER 1

    The Bohra People

    1.1. Origin

    Trade routes have existed between India and the Arab countries long before the

    arrival of Islamic Invasion. The initiation of Bohra faith in India dates back to that

    time. Though there is no authentic record, it is believed that around the 6th

    century,

    the Fatimid Calif of Egypt, the Ismaili Imam Al Mustansir Bilah sent two imminent

    Arabs to Khambat an ancient port in Gujarat. They lived there and studied the local

    people. They even learned their language. Over time they performed some miracles

    that led people to convert from Hinduism, the common religion to Islam. Bohra

    people are those who were the first to convert to Islam. They are believed to have

    belonged to upper echelons of the Hindu caste system. The word Bohra is supposed

    to have its origin from Gujarati Vohorvu (to trade) the occupation followed by the

    first Hindu converts to Islam.

    1.2. History

    The establishment of Bohra community in Gujarat occurred long before the arrival of

    the Muslim power in India around the 1300. Bohras continued to grow in number till

    Delhi was conquered by Muslim sultans and remained under the rule of Delhi till the

    end of 14th

    century. With the arrival of Muzzafar shah, came the suppression of the

    Shia sect to which the Bohra community belongs. Things became worse when

    Aurangzeb came to power at Delhi. Shia Muslims were persecuted and attempts were

    made to forcibly convert them to Sunnism. As a result, many Shia Bohras converted

    willingly to Sunnism. These Bohras came to be known as Sunni Bohras. Gujarat

    remained under Mughal domain till 1701 A.D. After that the Peshwas and Gaekwads

    of Maratha ancestry became successful in the ensuing struggle. Some Mughal

    officials also gained control of a few pockets, which came to be known as Nawabi

    states. The constant violence against the Bohra sect forced them to move the seat of

    their head priest from place to place. The religious discrimination ended with the

    arrival of the British and finally head priest settled in Gujarat, 1785. Today the seat of

    the head priest resides in Mumbai.

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    During the colonial rule, Bohras were able to establish special relationship with the

    British due to which they were benefited as a minority group within the majority of

    Hindu population. They were encouraged to trade and travel to major cities in India

    and abroad. The total population of Bohras was estimated to be around 5, 60,000 in1980. More than 50% of that population lives in Gujarat. Other cities with significant

    Bohra settlements are Ujjain, Udaipur, Jaipur, etc.

    The foundation of Ismaili communities in Gujarat is a unique fact in Indian history.

    Nowhere else in India did these communities come into being in any sizeable

    dimensions; nowhere else was the penetration of Islam as peaceful or the rise of the

    new communities so imperceptible. No other Muslim community in India suffered

    more at hands of the iconoclastic Sunni ruler. And finally, none other have developed

    a business outlook within Muslim communities. Their only compare in this respect is

    Gujarati community of the memons.

    1.3. Religion

    The Bohras are a closely knit community and have remained so over a long period of

    time. They are peace loving, hardworking and very religious people. Over years they

    have maintained their separate identity even within the sub-sects of Islamic minorities

    in India.

    The Bohras, as mentioned before, belonged to Shia sect of Islam; i.e. they believe the

    prophets son-in-law Ali as his heir and reject the three Caliphs, Abu Bakr Sadik,

    Umar and Usman. They believe in the Quran as the vision of Gods being.

    Essentially the religion is based on peaceful and voluntary conversion. Despite being

    strictly religious, they have never been categorized as religious fanatics. They are

    attentive of their religious duties and both men and women know Quran. They

    abstain from music and intoxicating drinks and drugs. Their head priest is known as

    Dai. He is representative of imam who is the representative of God on earth. He is

    also known as Mullaji/ Syedna/ Bava Saheb, meaning Our Lord. The apparent

    successor of the Dai is known as Mazoon; below him are the Mukhasirs, the

    Shaikhs and the Mullahs.

    Religion is omnipresent in the life of the Bohras.

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    CHAPTER 2

    The Bohra Community

    2.1. Social Background

    They are essentially Gujarati speaking community. Their mother tongue is Gujarati

    marked by some peculiarities in pronunciation and includes Urdu and Arabic words.

    Their dialect is called Bohri that was modified with local/regional influences.

    The chief occupation of Bohras is small scale trade: hardware, food grains, silks,

    electrical appliances, stationary, cloth, color, cutlery, timber, spice, and other

    merchandise. They are family centered. They are by and large well to do, belongingto upper middle class. Though many join the family business, youth are encouraged

    to undertake modern education and seek employment as professionals. As a result,

    the per capita income of the community has prospered threefold since independence.

    Bohras have maintained their separate culture, identity and considered themselves

    superior to other Muslims. There is a strong and distinct influence of their Hindu

    roots on the social system, yet they have remained faithful to precepts of Islam which

    is a religion open to adaptations. When they converted, their religion changed, but

    not their social habits. Their overall lifestyle is a composite of blend of the two.

    The community is characterized by a strong feeling of brotherhood, pragmatism,

    level-headedness and generosity. They stand apart from the rest of the Muslims at

    educational, social, economical, cultural and religious levels. Unlike Hinduism,

    where the caste is an integral part of the social order, Islam is theoretically and in

    many aspects actually an egalitarian, socio-religious system which discourages the

    formation of internal groups. Thus, there is to be no caste or class hierarchy among

    the Bohra community. However, in reality, subtle class distinctions do remain basedmainly on economic and not social background. (Desai, 2007)

    They are sparing in what they eat, taking care that nothing is wasted. Beef eating is

    not common and till today, the entire family eats from one large common plate

    known as Thal. Due to their need for cleanliness, they use certain special jug for

    washing hand and different kind of slippers for bathroom, another hallmark for the

    community. The mode of dressing is one of the most significant aspects of a

    communitys distinctive feature, particularly in a traditional society. The dress not

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    only establishes the ethnic identity of an individual but also largely reflect the social

    and climatic conditions in the region. The Bohras can be easily distinguished from

    other Muslims by their dress.

    2.2. Social Customs & Family Structure

    Bohra society is highly regulated one where everyone knows the rules and follows

    them to a great extent. The hierarchical kinship system forms the organizing

    principles of the social structure. Rituals play important role in their lives and they

    have an aesthetic inclination and respect for the environment.

    Bohra, like most of the communities in India, have a patriarchal system. It includes

    neither, kinship of the mother or the children of the sister. By marriage woman enters

    into the family of her husband, which is generally a joint family. The family structure

    is patriarchal. The joint family is the main cellular unit and cultural index of the

    community. In a joint family, the grandfather is the head of the house and controls all

    the important decisions. Sometimes members of four generations can be found living

    together. The kitchen is common to all and it becomes central to the family.

    The family is important for the development of values, attitudes and interpersonalrelationships. A sense of security is developed and emphasis is placed on tolerance

    and mutual respect. Even the nuclear families that have separated, prefer to live close

    to one another and sons visit their fathers almost daily, often to seek advice in

    business matters. Many women show preference to joint family system for child

    rearing, economic support and sharing of household duties. Such a family is always

    in the state of change and growth. The spatial organization of the traditional houses

    can respond to such changes to

    an extent and eventually whenit is unable to accommodate

    several generations, one or two

    nuclear families move out.

    These nucleated families do

    not close their relationship to

    their ancestral home.

    i. A Joint Bohra Family

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    The women of Bohra community are segregated from men not belonging to

    immediate family. The division is also seen in the spheres of influences, that of

    women being household and that of the men, the world beyond. Thus the public

    sphere is reserved for men and the private for women. Despite the division, thewomen have their own base of social and personal autonomy within the family, in

    social gatherings and in friendship with other women. A married Bohra woman is

    strong figure in the family setup. The status of Bohra women is rather special in

    religious, social, economic and educational terms within larger Muslim society. The

    kitchen is pride of Bohra women and is kept in perfect condition in contrast to north

    Indian Muslims. There is a tradition of hiring female domestic help from poor Bohra

    families. A well-to-do Bohra woman never washes utensils nor does she go to flour

    mill. They also have in variety of modern kitchen gadgets. As a result, they have freetime to indulge into activities like running a library or nurseries in their home.

    Women are encouraged to be independent and are allowed to run their own

    businesses from within the confines of their homes. Their income is used for buying

    luxury items such as TV, refrigerator, etc.

    2.2.b. Women eating from 'Thal'

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    CHAPTER 3

    The Bohra Settlement

    3.1. The Settlement

    Bohra settlements are known as Bohrwads. A Bohrwad is similar to a Hindu Pol.

    These Bohrwads developed usually in urban or semi-urban region given the

    occupation of the Bohra community. Whenever Bohras moved to a new city they first

    occupied the existing houses in the city and later, as they could, they built their own

    settlements, adapting the typical regional dwelling to their lifestyle

    These settlements developed in two ways:

    Organic Geometric

    3.1.a. Organic type layout: Ujjain

    3.1.b. Geometric type layout: Kapadvanj

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    The Characteristic of a typical organic Bohrwad are:

    Houses are built first and then the residual spaces were turned into streets withvarying widths and meandering form.

    It is inwardly oriented with the houses arranged in an introvert neighborhoodform.

    Layout freely responds to site conditions and context, creating modifications ifnecessary.

    The Characteristics of a typical geometrical settlement are:

    There is a rationalized street planning of standard sizes with a regularizedplanning.

    Sizes of plots were usually fixed and shapes were rectangular. Streets almost perpendicular to each other.

    The common characteristic features of a Bohrwad:

    Culturally Influenced:

    The houses in a Bohrwad are grouped around a street and these form a Mohalla;Several Mohallas form a Bohrwad. It has a well-knit and dense urban character.

    The closely knit form of the settlement provided protection from external forces

    during the medieval period in Gujarat. Today this has become a way of

    maintaining their sub-cultural identity.

    The close knit planning also restricts the spread of the settlement. Each Mohalla is an exogamous unit and may have 50-100 houses.Older Bohrwads built prior to 19 th century are close to heart of the cities. They

    formed a part of the medieval fabric.

    While the newer ones are closer tothe outskirts due to the lack of space

    in the city.

    Grouping of houses is done as perkinship, class and ethnic origins. One

    would often find extended family

    members occupying a sub-section of

    a street.

    3.1.c. Streets are kept very clear and rainwater gutters are provided.

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    The tight physical layout and having a large number of members of the samecommunity living in close proximity to one another provides a sense of privacy

    and security.

    Mohallas have a structural unity and give a general expression of orderliness andhomogeneity, as Islam places everyone as an equal. Yet the wealthy would often

    buy two or more plots and build a large mansion on it.

    The strong religious influence also is a reason for the Bohras to live in suchcompactness and also proximity to mosques as this makes it very convenient for

    them to collectively observe the religious rituals during the holy months such as

    Ramzaan and on other occasions.

    Besides the houses, a large Bohrwad also has a mosque, a madressa, a jamat khanaand other buildings for collective functions.

    Most Bohrwads have a formal entrance where gates used to be closed at night inthe past.

    The whole settlement conforms to the social needs of Islam by being a completeunit.

    Shops were placed on the periphery of the settlements so as the privacy of theBohrwad is not disturbed.

    3.1.d. Gate of Nani Vohrwad

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    Climatic features of a Bohrwad:

    The closely placed buildings generated a shading pattern that kept them coolduring hot summer days.

    Houses were grouped to form shaded courts at intervals.The air in the streets remains cool as it is protected from sun.

    Negative features of a Bohra settlement:

    The close placement of buildings causes problems in case of emergencies such asfire, accidents or even when someone needs immediate medical attention.

    In the present context, it is difficult to maneuver vehicles in here and carsdefinitely do not fit.

    Large distances have to be covered on foot from parking spots for cars to thehouses.

    Carrying out jobs such as reconstruction, renovation, etc. is difficult as bringing inthe material for construction and the job itself are to be done in such a small space.

    These are old settlements and they may not be perfect for todays functional needs

    but the socio-cultural needs take precedence as we can see from the fact that most of

    the Bohra population today prefers the Bohrwads. They are the close knit and dense

    and community oriented settlement units providing conscious social identity and

    security to the Bohra community.

    3.1.e. Cluster formed by buildings

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    3.2. The Street

    As mentioned earlier, whenever Bohras settled in a new town, at first they bought

    existing houses and adapt them to their needs. Later, when they were well settled,

    they built their own Bohrwads, adapting the regional dwellings to their lifestyle. Thus

    wherever they settle, their street pattern reflects standard layout of streets in Gujarat.

    Streets in Bohrwad have some typical features.

    Culturally influenced features:

    Any street in a Bohrwad had the sense of order.Streets follow a hierarchy, primary-secondary-tertiary. This provides a transition

    from a public space to the semi-public and finally into the private realm of the

    house by following this hierarchy. Primary: Commercial in nature, linear and straight. Secondary: Branching from the primary street, also partly commercial. Tertiary: Residential in nature, narrow and winding forming squares at

    regular intervals.

    The movement from the street to the inside of house occurs through an elaborate

    system of transitional spaces that respond to the norms of

    Islam.

    They were extremely clean as their realm, the religiousbelief for cleanliness manifests in the extension of their

    territorial concept beyond the house itself into the

    collective realm.

    The streets have a well designated drainage system inaccordance their beliefs about cleanliness.

    In case of organic settlements, street generally getsdivided into sections as they turn a slight angle that

    adds a visual interest to the street. The Street is used as

    a structuring device.

    ii. A shaded street in Bohrwad

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    All the houses are at right angles and oriented along cardinal directions so thatprayers can be offered properly facing towards Mecca.

    3.2.b. Street structure: Informal staggeringhouses forming informal courts

    3.2.c. Parallel system of walls, a groupingeffect obtained to proximity

    3.2.d. Common space at cluster level 3.2.e. Street structure: Formal alonglinear path, houses aligned along theedges, colonial influence inorganization

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    Gates are found at entrance of Mohallas. They divide the Bohrwadmorphologically into smaller spaces and provided physical security during

    medieval period. Gates were a symbol of control and autonomy.

    Most facades contain variations within the standard elemental order.Order is imposed through standardization of scale or proportioning systems shared

    by them.

    Monotony avoided by personification of the details, variety in ornamentation,complexity of elements and even use of color.

    In contrast to Muslims all over the world, they prefer exterior manifestations andprojection of grandeur.

    The streets have a sense of continuity and infinite variations with the visuallimitations and a sense of scale along with an exquisite aesthetic expression that

    draws ones attention to a Bohra Street even today.

    3.2.f. Street Elevation in Moti Bohrwad

    3.2.g. Shifting axis, shorter,constantly changing vistas

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    Spatial hierarchy connects the street to the house.Secondary streets are named after a prominent person living on the street or any

    landmark building located on it.

    Streets act as space for interaction and community gatherings and functions.Many routine social activities take place in the semi-public and public zones. On

    occasions, it is transformed into communal public place.

    It is extensively used for folk dances, religious gatherings, processing, festivalsand weddings.

    They are generally silent and deserted except when children play in the eveningsor when women chat on the steps of the houses on quite afternoon when no

    strangers are expected.

    3.2.i. A street Facade in Bohrwad

    3.2.h. Linear Axis path, larger vistas

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    Climate:

    The streets respond freely to the topography.

    The width of the street varies from 4-10 meters.Narrower the streets better the climate control.Shading of facades by upper stories of buildings across the streets.Projection of upper floors in some cases to increase this effect.Houses utilize complete plot and often only faade remains as means of visual

    communication with outside.

    The long walls are shared between buildings so least part of the building isexposed to sun.

    Additional Service Street is provided at the back of buildings for better circulation of

    air.

    3.2.j. Narrow streets: Better climatic control