Writing Proposal in Education Booklet

7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet

1/22

WWRRIITTIINNGGAAPPRROOPPOOSSAALL

IINNEEDDUUCCAATTIIOONN

AcademicLanguageandLiteracyDevelopment

FacultyofEducationFebruary2012


2/22

1

TABLEOFCONTENTS

1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................2

2. PurposeofaProposal.......................................................................................................................................2

3. ComponentsofaProposal(structure).............................................................................................................2

4. Aspectsofacademicwriting.............................................................................................................................6

4.1Acknowledgingsources....................................................................................................................... 7

4.2Informationprominentandauthorprominentreferences............................................................... 7

4.3Verbs

of

attribution

.............................................................................................................................

8

4.4Attributionandcriticalanalysis........................................................................................................ 10

4.5Verbtense......................................................................................................................................... 10

4.6Listofreferences............................................................................................................................... 11

5 Facilitatingyourwritingprocess.................................................................................................. 12

5.1Lettingyourownvoicebeheard(hedging).................................................................................... 12

5.2Imaginingyouraudience................................................................................................................... 13

5.3Signposting

........................................................................................................................................

14

5.4Mapping............................................................................................................................................ 14

5.5Usefuldiscoursemarkers.................................................................................................................. 14

6 Commonproblems(grammar,style,conventions)..................................................................... 15

7 ReportingwithStyle..................................................................................................................... 19

ListofReferences.................................................................................................................................... 20

TheTasksinthisbookletaredesignedtobeusedinourworkshopsandstudygroups.

Ifyourequirehelpdoingthembyyourself,pleaseconsultyourAcademicLanguageandLiteracy

DevelopmentAdvisors


3/22

2

1. Introduction

Thisbookletisdesignedtohelpyouasyoubegintowriteyourresearchproposal.PhDandcourseworkminor

thesis students must write a proposal early in their allotted study period. We write research proposals to

convince others that we have a research project that is worthwhile and that we have the skills and the

strategies

to

complete

it.

Remember,yoursupervisorisyourfirstpointofcontactforanyquestionsrelatedtoyourresearch.Youshould

thereforediscussallaspectsofyourproposalwithyoursupervisorthroughoutyourcandidature.

If you need help with issues such as language and expression, structuring, understanding referencing and

citationetc.,youmayconsultDrRaqibChowdhuryon99055396([email protected])orDrAnna

Podorova on99044346 ([email protected]) in the Faculty. Help is also available from Language

SkillsAdvisorsintheuniversitylibrariesatClayton,Peninsula,GippslandandBerwickcampuses.

2. PurposeofaProposal

Thepurposeoftheproposalistohelpyou(asastudent)tofocusanddefineyourresearchplans.Theseplans

arenotbinding,inthattheymaywellchangesubstantiallyasyouprogressintheresearch.However,theyare

an indicationtoyourfacultyofyourdirectionanddisciplineasaresearcher.Theyalsohelpyouprepareyour

presentationfortheEthicsCommittee.

Theproposalisexpectedto:

Showthatyouareengagingingenuineenquiry,findingoutaboutsomethingworthwhileinaparticular

context

Linkyourproposedworkwiththeworkofothers,whileprovingyouareacquaintedwithmajorschools

ofthoughtrelevanttothetopic

Establishaparticulartheoreticalorientation

Establishyourmethodologicalapproach,and

Showyouhavethoughtabouttheethicalissues.

3.

Componentsof

aProposal

(structure)

Theproposalislikelytocontainmostoftheelementslistedinthetablebelow,althoughyoursupervisormay

requiretheinclusionoromissionofparts.Checkfirstwithyoursupervisor.

It is suggested that you use the following table as a checklist of items and the order in which they usually

appearinproposals.


4/22

3

COMPONENT FUNCTION CHARACTERISTICS

Coverpage

identifiestopic,writer,

institutionanddegree

proposedthesistitle

(shouldbedescriptiveof

focus,concise,

eye

catchingandpreferably

usekeywordsfrom

internationalinformation

retrievalsystems)

writer'snameand

qualifications

department,university

and

degree

the

proposal

isfor

TableofContents

listssectionsof

proposalandpage

references

useahierarchyfortitles

andsubtitles

usethenumbering

systemasfollows:1;1.1,

1.2...;1.1.1,1.1.2...;

1.1.1.1,1.1.1.2...etc.

(don'tusemorethanfour

digits)

Background:

(preferablyamore

descriptivename)

providesbackground

informationrelatingto

the

social/political/historic

al/educational(etc.)

contextofthestudy

mayincludehistorical,

cultural,political,socialor

organisational

informationaboutthe

contextoftheresearch

mayincludeatheoretical

startingpoint

mayincludepersonal

motivation

mayincludepolicy

mayproblematisethe

currentstatusquo


5/22

4


Needforthestudy/

Rationale

Usuallythisiscombined

withtheprevious

section

followsfrom

backgroundto

persuadethereader

thatthestudyis

neededand

will

be

useful/interesting

thismayinclude

referencetoagapinthe

researchliterature,tothe

needtoapplycertain

ideasin

anew

context,

or

tothesignificanceofyour

particulartopic

thewaysinwhichthe

studymaybesignificant

fortheeducational

communitymayalsobe

discussed

Purposeandaimsof

thestudy

statesclearlyand

succinctlythe

purpose

ofthestudy

outlinesthekey

researchquestions

andaims

thepurposeisexpressed

interms

of

the

broader

contextofthestudy

theresearchquestion(s)

(usuallyWhat,How,Why,

orWhatif) shouldbe

few,sothatthefocusis

manageable

theaimswillberelatedto

thepurposeandthe

questions

Reviewofthe

literature

showsyoursupervisor

anddepartmentthat

youareawareof

significant

writers/researchersin

thefield,andto

indicatewhich

issues/topicsyouwill

focusoninyour

review(thismay

changelater)

showsthatyoucanbe

judiciousinyour

selectionofissuesto

focusonandtakean

approachofcritical

thisisnotexpectedtobe

extensivefortheproposal

youshouldhavedonean

initialsurveyofthemain

theoristsandalibrary

informationsearchto

establishyourdirections

andformulate

atentative

listofreadings

youshoulddemonstrate

criticalanalysis

yourreviewshouldbe

shapedbyyourargument

andshouldseekto


6/22

5


inquiry

situatesyourown

researchwithinthe

field

establishyourtheoretical

orientation

Researchdesign

outlinesanddescribesthe

researchplanswaysinwhich

itwillbeconducted

includesyour

understandingsofthe

natureofknowledgeand

howthisaffectsyour

choiceofresearch

approach

includesdescriptionof

and

rationale

for

selectionofparticipants,

methodsofdata

collectionandanalysis,

andproceduresyouwill

usetoensureethical

practice

includesastatement

aboutthedelimitations

(scope)ofthestudy

Timetable/Plan(maybepartofresearch

design)

depictsthetasks

proposedandthe

stages/timesfortheir

completion

thismaytaketheformof

achart,timelineor

flowchart(oranyother)

Proposedthesis

structure

describesthe

sequenceandfocusof

eachproposed

chapter

eachchapter'sproposed

contentsisdescribedina

fewlinesorasmall

paragraph,or

aproposed

table

of

contentsispresented

Significance/Expected

Outcomesofthestudy

predictsthe

significanceofthe

studyandexpected

outcomes.Thesemay

thisisonlyaprediction,

andmaybeexcludedif

therationaleforthestudy

hasbeenwelldeveloped


7/22

6


relatecloselytoaims earlierintheproposal

Glossaryofterms

listsspecialisedterms

orwordsandtheir

meanings(e.g.,from

anotherculture,

acronyms,key

conceptsina

relativelynewfield)

thisisplacedinaposition

whichiseasytolocate

(e.g.,beforeorafterthe

maintextparts)

Appendices

displaysdocuments

whicharerelevantto

maintext,butwhose

presenceinthetext

woulddisturbrather

thanenhancetheflow

oftheargumentor

writing

includesdocuments,pilot

studymaterial,questions

forinterviews,survey

instruments,explanatory

statementtoparticipants

etc.

References

listsworksthathave

beenconsultedthus

farandappeartobe

useful

useconventions

recommendedbyyou

supervisor,orusethe

APAStyleGuide,orfollow

theconventionsina

prestigiousjournalinthe

field

4. Aspectsofacademicwriting

In thispart we discuss some aspects of good academic writing. Section 4.1 introduces a link whichoutlines

some common rules of citation and referencing in academic writing. 4.2 looks at two types of intext

attributions,while4.3 providesa listofcommonverbsandexpressions of attribution.Section4.4discusses

how to use attribution in critical analysis. Some examples of verbtense use are presented in section 4.5.

Finally,thebasicsofwritingalistofreferencesareexploredinSection4.61.

1 This paragraph itself is an example of an advance organiser, one such can be useful in introductory paragraphs

throughoutthedifferentpartsofaproposal.


8/22

7

4.1Acknowledgingsources

Theartofreferringtothewordsand ideasofotherwriters (citingand referencing) involvesmanyrulesand

requiressubtleusesofvocabulary (suchaswordsofattributionandevaluation)andgrammar (suchasverb

tense pastandpresent).

Aninformativeandinteractivetutorialwithreasonablydetailedrulesabouttheconventionsandmechanicsof

citingandreferencingcanbefoundontheMonashLibrarywebsiteat:

http://www.lib.monash.edu/tutorials/citing/

4.2Informationprominentandauthorprominentreferences

Swales (1990,pp.149,153)showshowyoucandecidewhetherto focusonthesourceofan ideaoronthe

idea itself inyourwriting.Heprovides twocategoriesof referencing:authorprominent,where theauthors

name

appears

in

your

sentence,

or

information

prominent,

where

the

authors

name

appears

only

in

brackets.

Anadaptationofhisexamples2follows:

Category

Author

prominent

Brie(1988)

showedthatthe

moonismadeof

cheese.

Themoons

cheesy

compositionwas

establishedby

Brie(1988).

AccordingtoBrie

(1988),themoon

ismadeofcheese.

Briestheory

(1988)contends

thatthemoonis

madeofcheese.

Information

prominent

Previousresearch

hasestablished

thatthemoonis

madeofcheese

(Brie,1988).

Ithasbeenshown

thatthe

moon

is

madeofcheese

(Brie,1988).

Itiscurrently

arguedthatthe

moonismadeof

cheese(Brie,

1988).

Themoonmay

bemadeof

cheese(Brie,

1988,butcf.

Rock,1989).

It is important to be aware of the effect of your choice to use information or authorprominent intext

referencing.Ifthefocusisontheauthor,thenthereadercanseetheideasanddiscussionasclearlyrelatingto

thatauthorsthinking.Youcanoftengivemoredetailsaboutastudy.Thiscanmakeiteasierforthewriterto

see ideas as individual and discuss important ideas, facilitating a critical approach (whether positive or

negative).An informationprominentwayofcitingandreferencingcansoundveryauthoritativeandcanalso

sound liketruthtellingeventhoughyouhaveno ideaatallwhether it isthetruth! Ifyouuse information

prominentreferencing,trytobeawareoftheeffectonthereader.Iftheinformationseemstobeassertinga

truthyouarenotsureof,trytouseadifferentverbtoshedmoredoubt.Givealittlemoredetail.Trynotto

usecategoricalandgeneralisingstatementsfollowedbyareferenceallthetime.

2Thesearealsoexamplesofthedifferentwaysofparaphrasingsomeoneelsesideas


9/22

8

TASK1:Comparethefollowingtwoboxes,identifyingthesubstantialdifferencesinmeaningconveyed.

Inclusion is the fairest and most productive approach to educating children with special needs

(Smith,1999;Tollington,2000).Thevisuallyimpairedachievehighlevelsofsocialinteractionand

intellectualdevelopmentinmainstreamschools(Johnstone,2001).

And,

Smith(1999),writingaboutschoolinginVictoria,Australia,arguesthatinclusionisthefairestand

mostproductiveapproachtoeducatingchildrenwithspecialneeds(seealsoTollington,2000).Ina

study of 10 young adolescent students with visual impairment, Johnstone (2001) found that all

participants achieved high levels of intellectual development for their year level and that they

perceivedimprovedwellbeinginsocialinteraction.

4.3Verbsofattribution

Belowaresomeverbsand theirsynonyms foryou todrawonwhenyouwant to talkaboutsomeoneelses

ideasorwordsathesaurusofverbsofattribution.Trytoworkoutwhichverbsgiveamorepositiveviewof

the ideasyouare reportingothersas saying,whichverbsare simplyveryneutralwaysof restatingwhatan

authorsaysorshowthatauthorspositiveornegativeattitudestothe ideas,andfinally,whichverbsexpress

yourownslightlynegativeattitudestowardstheauthorsideas.

Show: demonstrate,establish

Persuade: assure,convince,satisfy

Argue: reason,discuss,debate,consider

Support: uphold,underpin,advocate

Examine:

discuss,explore,

investigate,

scrutinise

Propose: advance,propound,proffer,suggest(theviewthat)

Advise: suggest,recommend,advocate,exhort,encourage,urge,

Believe: hold,profess(theviewthat)

Emphasise: accentuate,stress,underscore

State: express,comment,remark,declare,articulate,describe,

instruct,inform,report

Evaluate: appraise,assess

Hypothesise: speculate,postulate

Disagree: dispute,refute,contradict,differ,object,dissent

Reject: refute,repudiate,remonstrate(against),disclaim,dismiss

Claim:

allege,

assert,

affirm,

contend,

maintain

Anargumentcanbe:

foundedon

basedon

groundedinatheory/view/setofdata

embeddedin

underpinnedby


10/22

9

Note that the above words are all valueladen. Your choice of word will reveal to your reader your stance

toward the author you are reporting on. It will show whether or not you consider her claims to be

substantiated.

ArnaudetandBarrett(1984,p.1535)provideausefulresourceonverbsofattributionreproducedinthebox

below:

Neutralverbsofrestatement

Add inform(of,about) remind(of,about)

clarify present report(on)

describe remark speak/writeof

Verbsofrestatementwithapositiveornegativeconnotation

apprise(someoneof) explain indicate

argue(about) express observe

Verbsofopiniontoreportthecontentofanotherwritersopinion(orconclusionorsuggestions)

Positiveopinions:

affirm agree(with) applaud

concur(with,in) praise support

Reportingopinion(usuallyneutrally)

assert believe(in) claim

determine expound(on) maintain

pointout think

Verbsofuncertaintytoreportthecontentofanotherwritersexpressionofdoubtoruncertainty

challenge dispute question

disagree

(with)

doubt

suspect

(of)

dismiss mistrust wonder(at)

Somesentencestemstohelpyoubegin:

Muchresearchhasfocussedon.(thebenefitsofinclusioninAustralianprimaryschools)(Foreman,

2001;Lee,1999;Li&Phan,2003;Smithetal.2005)

Smith(2005)hasheadedthecritiqueof

AccordingtoJones(2001),the.

IncontrastwithLis(2002)view,Smith(2005)arguesthat


11/22

10

Itisclearfromtheliteraturethat. (Foreman,2001;Lee,1999;Li&Phan,2003;Smithetal.,2005)

Whilemanyauthorsargue that (Foreman, 2001; Lee, 1999; Li & Phan, 2003; Smith et al. 2005),

othersmaintainthat(Johnston,2003;Zavarce&Gonzalez,2006)

Keepyourownlistofstemsfromthearticlesyouread!

4.4Attributionandcriticalanalysis

TASK2Thefollowingparagraphisanexcerptfromanessayonapproachestointerculturaleducation. Notice

thewordsthat indicatewhatthewriterthinksaboutthe ideasoftheotherwritersshementions. Howdoes

sheuseparticularverbsofattributiontoconveyaparticularattitudetotheworkofthewriterssherefersto?

Whatwordsorphrasessignalherownideas?

ClanchyandBallard(1991)proposeacontinuumofattitudestoknowledgeandspecifylearningapproaches

andstrategiesthatcorrespondtotheseattitudes.Drawingmainlyonanecdotalevidence,theysuggestthat

their three learning approaches, namely the reproductive, analytical and speculative (p.11)

approaches, are characteristic of certain stages of schooling (in Australia) or of certain cultures. In their

considerationoflearningstrategies,however,theyhavepresentedonlyalimitedunderstandingoftheways

in which the strategies assist learning. For example, they see memorisation as a way of retaining

unreconstructed(p.11)knowledge. TheworkofBiggs(1996)demonstratesthatmemorisationservesthe

purposeofretainingideassothattheycanbeconsideredandunderstood.

4.5Verbtense

Verbtense inacademicwritingmayexerciseagreater influenceonyour readers interpretationofyourtext

thanyoubargainedfor.Pasttensecangivemorethanatimeperspective;itcandistancethereaderfromthe

ideasbeingexpressed.Thepresenttenseontheotherhandisoftenusedtomakegeneralisationsyouneed

tobesureyouwantedreaderstofeelthiswasageneralisablepoint. Below isasimplifieddescriptionofthe

usesandpossibleeffectsoftenseonthemeaningmade.

Thetenseyouselectforyourverbsinyouressay,reportorliteraturereviewrevealsagreatdealmoretoyour

readerthanjustthetimeframe.Ittellsyourreaderwhose idea isbeingproffered(yoursorsomeoneelses),

somethingaboutyourattitudetowardstheideasyouarereportingifyouhaveattributedthemtoaresearcher

or theorist, and indicates how general or specific the point is. In brief and note that this is a simplified

descriptionoftheuseoftensethethreetenseswhichappearmostfrequentlyareusedinthefollowingways:

Thepresenttense isused for:generalisation (inoverviews,statementsofmainpoints);astatementwhichisgenerallyapplicableorwhichseemsrelevant;astatementmadebyyouaswriter;ortoreport

the position ofa theorist/ researcher towhichyou feel someproximity,either in timeor allegiance

(e.g..Piaget(1969)outlinesthestages.).


12/22

11

Thepast tense isused toclaimnongeneralityaboutpast literature (Ostler,1981,cited inSwales,1990, p.152); that is, it is used to report or describe the content, findings or conclusions of past

research.Thespecificityofthestudyisthusemphasised.

Thepresentperfect is used to indicate that inquiry into the specified area continues, to generaliseaboutpast literature,ortopresentaviewusinganonintegral formofreferencing (thenameofthe

authordoesnotappearinthetextofthesentence;itappearsonlyinthesubsequentparentheses).

Thefuturetense isoftenusedinthemethodologysectioninaproposaltostateintention.Whenyouare describing what appears in your writing, use the present tense, not the future (its not your

intention,sinceyouvealreadydoneit):e.g.,Thesectionsbelowdescribetheprocessof,not,the

sectionsbelowwilldescribetheprocessof

TASK3:Nowconsider theexcerpt from theprevioussection. Whatsubtledifference inmessagemightyou

receiveasareaderifitwerewrittenasfollows?

Clanchyand Ballard (1991) proposeda continuum of attitudes to knowledgeand specified learning

approaches and strategies that corresponded to these attitudes. Drawing mainly on anecdotal

evidence,theysuggestedthattheirthreelearningapproaches,namelythereproductive,analytical

andspeculative(p.11)approaches,werecharacteristicofcertainstagesofschooling(inAustralia)or

of certain cultures. In their consideration of learning strategies, however, they presented only a

limited understanding of the ways in which the strategies assist learning. For example, they saw

memorisationasawayofretainingunreconstructed(p.11)knowledge. TheworkofBiggs(1996) in

contrast demonstrates thatmemorisation serves the purpose of retaining ideas so that theycan be

consideredandunderstood.

4.6Listofreferences

The

most

commonly

used

set

of

referencing

conventions

in

Education

is

the

American

Psychological

Associations (2010)PublicationManual (6thed.),commonlyknownas theAPA. The following reference list

uses APA conventions. For examples of the most common types of citation and referencing, see:

http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/tutorials/citing/apaa4.pdf

NotesomeverybasicAPArules:

Booktitlesareinitalicsbutonlythefirstwordandpropernounsarecapitalised

Journalnamesareinitalicsandcapitalisedthevolumenumberalsoappearsinitalics

Thetitlesofarticlesinjournalsandchaptersofbooksareinplainfontandarenotcapitalised

Whenachapterofaneditedbook(onewherethedifferentchaptersarewrittenbyadifferentauthor)

is referenced, thechapter is treated in the samewayasajournalarticle,but insteadof thejournal

name, the book in which the chapter appeared must also be referenced in the reference list entry.

NotethatthebookisintroducedbythewordIn,whichisfollowedbytheinitialsoftheauthor(first)

andthenthefamilyname.This isthereverseofwhatyoudo intherestofthe list,wherethefamily

namecomesfirstandthentheinitialsofthegivenname!


13/22

12

TASK4:

Findthechapterofaneditedbookinthelistbelow

Findanarticlefromajournal

Findabook

Findanelectronicsource

Doveston,M.&Keenaghan,M.(2006).Improvingclassroomdynamicstosupportstudentslearningandsocial

inclusion:Acollaborativeapproach.SupportforLearning,21(1),511.

Foreman,P. (2005).Disabilityand inclusion:Conceptsandprinciples. InP.Foreman (Ed.). Inclusion inaction,

(pp.234).Australia:Thomson

Loreman,T.,Deppeler,J.&Harvey,D.(2005).Inclusiveeducation. CrowsNest,NSW:Allen&Unwin.

McLeskey,J.,Hoppey,,D.Williamson,P.&Rentz,T.(2004).Isinclusionanillusion?Anexaminationofnational

and state trends toward the education of students with learning disabilities in general education

classrooms. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. 19 (2), 109115. Retrieved July 4, 2006 from

http://www.blackwellsynergy.comezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/doi/a

Stanovich,P.J.(1996)Collaborationthekeytosuccessfulinstructionintodaysinclusiveschools.Intervention

inSchoolandClinic.32(1),3942.

Formore

detail

and

more

complex

referencing,

please

refer

to

the

website

listed

above.

5 Facilitatingyourwritingprocess

Discussion, concept maps, questions, notetaking techniques may all facilitate your writing. Using certain

software(e.g.,Endnote)canalsohelp.

5.1Lettingyourownvoicebeheard(hedging)

How do you speak up in your proposal without having to say, I think or It is my opinion that (rather

inelegantexpressions)?


14/22

13

TASK5:ReadthefollowingexcerptfromHylands(1996,p.477)articleonhedging,acategoryoflanguageuse

thathelpstoinsertyourveryownvoice.

NURTURINGHEDGESINTHEESPCURRICULUM

KENHYLAND

EnglishDepartment,

City

University

of

Hong

Kong,

Tatchee

Avenue,

Hong

Kong

ABSTRACT

There isapopularbelief that scientificwriting ispurelyobjective, impersonaland informational,

designedtodisguisetheauthoranddealdirectlywithfacts. ButwhileESPcoursesoftenprovide

thelinguisticmeanstoaccomplishthisinvisibility,theyoftenignorethefactthateffectiveacademic

writing always carries the individualspoint of view. Writers also need topresent their claims

cautiously, accurately and modestly to meet discourse community expectations and to gain

acceptance for their statements. Such pragmatic aspects of communication however are

vulnerable

to

cross

cultural

differences

and

L2

students

are

rarely

able

to

hedge

their

statements

appropriately. Thispaperarguesthathedgingdevicesareamajorpragmaticfeatureofeffective

scientificwritingandthatstudentsshouldbetaughttorecogniseandusethemintheirownwork.

Itexaminesthefrequency,functionsandrealisationsofhedgesanddiscussedarangeofstrategies

forfamiliarisingstudentswiththeirappropriateuse.

Copyright1996ElsevierScienceLtd.

INTRODUCTIONThetermhedgingwasintroducedtolinguisticsbyLakoff(1972)todescribewordswhosejobitis

tomake

things

more

or

less

fuzzy

(p.

195).

It

has

subsequently

been

used

by

sociologists

to

describeameanstoavoidfacethreateningbehaviourandbyappliedlinguisticstodiscussdevices

suchasIthink,perhaps,mightandmaybewhichqualifythespeakersconfidenceinthetruthofa

proposition. In scientific writing these effective and propositional functions work in rhetorical

partnership to persuade readers to accept knowledge claims. Hedges express tentativeness and

possibilityincommunicationandtheirappropriateuseisacritical,althoughlargelyneglected,area

ofscientificdiscourse.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss how ESP teachers can help develop L2 learners

understanding of the principles and mechanics of the appropriate use of this critical pragmatic

feature. Firsthowever, Iwillgive abriefoverviewofhedging inacademicwriting, sketching its

importance

5.2Imaginingyouraudience

Trytofindouttheparticularrequirementsofyouraudience inrespectofpreferredconventions. It isalways

usefultoimagineyouraudienceasanintelligentpersonwho,however,isnotanexpertinthisparticulararea


15/22

14

ofyourfield.This isnottosaythatyoucangetawaywithpresenting inaccuratestatements,butratherthat

you need to explain ideas or concepts and arguments clearly to your reader. You cannot assume that your

readeralwaysknowseverything, andyou shouldnot feel that it is insulting to explain specialised concepts.

Yourreaderwantstoseehowwellyouunderstandthe issuesyouhavechosentodiscuss. Nevertheless,the

readerdoesnotwanttowaitforyoutogetalongwithyourargumentwhileyouareshowinghim/herhowwell

youknowsomethingelseinthefield(unrelatedtoyourargumentormainissue).

5.3Signposting

Itisagreathelptoyourreaderifyoumakeaclearlysignpostedmapofyourwriting. Youcandothisby:

Using subheadings which indicate what you will focus on in thatpart of your writing. Brown (1993)

recommendsusingverbs inheadingsandrewritingheadingsaftersectionsarewritten.Atallevents,

dontoverlooktheusefulnessofheadingsinguidingyourreader;

Statingexplicitly

the

points

you

will

focus

on

in

the

introduction

of

achapter

or

(for

alonger

piece)

at

thebeginningofamajorsection;and

Repeating key words or further developing propositions from an earlier sentence in order to make

cleartheconnectionbetweentheideasdiscussedearlierandthosediscussedlater.

5.4Mapping

Theuseofmappingoradvanceorganisersisveryimportantinalongpieceofwork. Insuchpiecesofwriting

you may insert maps at strategic points (e.g. beginnings of chapters/sections) so that readers reorient

themselvesandknowwheretheyreheaded.

Examplesofmapswillbegivenintheworkshops.

5.5Usefuldiscoursemarkers

Theways

in

which

parts

of

your

writing

are

related

to

other

parts

are

made

clearer

by

discourse

markers,

which

canbegroupedaccordingtotheirfunctioninthediscourse.Herearesomegroupsofmarkersthatmighthelp

youwhenyouneedalittlevariety.

Orderingpointsorsequencing

Firstly,secondly,finally,

Addingsomething

Moreover,Furthermore,Further,Inaddition,Additionally,[NOTE:Besidesismainlyusedinspeaking]


16/22

15

Comparing(similarity)

Similarly,;likewise,;equally,

Comparing(differenceestablishingcontrast)

However,;infact,;Ontheotherhand,;,rather,;Incontrast,;Onthecontrary,;Nevertheless,;

Nonetheless,;,yet(moreformal)

Introducingacause

Asaresultof;Becauseof;Because;Owingto;Dueto

Introducingaresult

Consequently;Therefore;Hence,;Asaresult,;Thus,;So;Then;

Exemplifying

Forexample,;Forinstance,;Notably,

Restating

Inother

words,;

that

is,;

namely,

Generalising

Ingeneral,;generally,;onthewhole,

Summarising

Insummary,;Inconclusion,;

AdaptedfromParrott,2000,pp.301307

6 Commonproblems(grammar,style,conventions)

Below are examples of some commonly confused words/expressions in academic writing. Can you think of

more?

Etal.(andothers)

Only one of these two words is abbreviated. Et is a whole word meaning and, while alii, a word meaning

others,

is

abbreviated

to

al.

(note

the

full

stop/period

mark).

For

example,

Held

et

al.

(1999)

confront

the

questionofwhetherWesterncapitalismandinstitutionsarethedriversofglobalisation.

Useofthe&sign

The & (ampersand) sign in referencing appears only in brackets or in the reference list at the end of your

thesis. Thus,youwouldwriteCarverandGaines (1987)conducted the firststudy,orThe firststudy that

examinedstressfocusedonidentifyingonesownemotions(Carver&Gaines,1987).


17/22

16

Pluralsandsingulars

*Datum/data(thedatawerecategorised)

*Phenomenon/phenomena(wasunderstoodtobeaphenomenon)

*Focus/foci(orfocuses)(Thefociofthisstudywere)

*Criterion/criteria

*Research/information(used

as

non

countable

nouns

in

the

singular)

Oftenconfusedspelling

Affect/effect:

Whenthesewordsmeaninfluence,affectisusedasaverbandeffectisusedasanoun.

e.g.,Chocolateaffectsmyskinbadly.

The

effects

of

chocolate

on

my

skin

are

disastrous.

When thewordsmeansomethingdifferent from influencetheyareuseddifferentlygrammatically.Toeffect

(verb)somethingistosuccessfullycompleteit,whileapersonsaffect(noun)referstotheirfeelings.

Practice/practise

ForAustralianspelling,theverbusesans.

e.g.,IwouldliketopractisetheskillsIhaveacquired.

Thenounisspeltwiththecandcontainsanothernounice

e.g.,Thepracticeofleavingchildrenaloneinthecarshouldbediscouraged.

Its/its

Itsisusedwhenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingbelongingtothethingyouhavealreadymentioned. Itsisa

contractionorashortenedformofItisorIthas theapostrophestandsfortheletteromitted.

E.g..ThemethodologyappearsinChapter3. Itsapproachisprincipallyquantitative.(Itsapityitcouldntalso

bequalitative)

Thatorwhich?

Inacademic

writing,

which

often

needs

to

very

specifically

define

the

issues

that

it

is

discussing,

while

the

word

thatisusedmorefrequentlythanwhich. Boththesewordsintroduceinformationthatisrelatedtoaword

or phrase that appeared earlier. That is used when you wish to specify more closely the defining

characteristicsofthewordorphrase(thewordorphrasethatappearedearlier). Which isusedtoprovide

extrainformationratherthantospecifyordefine. Youneedacommabeforewhich,butnotbeforethat

(thatmuststicktotheworditisdefining).


18/22

17

Asandthat

Manywritersuseboth asand thatto introducewhatotherauthorsaresaying.Theybothmeanthesame

thing,soyoumustchooseonlyONEofthesewords.

e.g.,AsStrunkandWhite(1959)argueintheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguagethatsimplicityinlanguageuseis

best.

Thisshouldbeoneofthefollowing:

AsStrunkandWhite(1959)argueintheirwidelyreadstudyof language,simplicityinlanguageuse is

best.

StrunkandWhite(1959)argueintheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguagethatsimplicityinlanguageuseis

best.

Intheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguage,StrunkandWhite(1959)arguethatsimplicityinlanguageuseis

best.

Parallelstructures

Notethatthe lastproblemsentenceabove isonethatwascausedbythefailuretouseparallelgrammatical

formsforthestemthemainfactorsthatcontribute. Thesentenceshouldread:Cognitivebiasisoneofthe

mainfactorsthatcontributetotheconfidencewehaveinourdecisionmakingaswellastotheaccuracyofourconfidence.Bothunderlinedtermsarenounsandtheyareprecededbyato.Theyarejoinedbywordssuch

asand,aswellas,or,orpossiblyformpartofalist,whereitemsareseparatedbycommasorsemicolons.

Hanging(dangling)modifiers

Inasentencewithtwoparts,thewriters intentionmightbetogivethereaderonepieceofinformationthat

canenlightenusabouttheother(main)partofthesentence. Thisextrainformationseemstoremainhanging

ordanglingifthewriterforgetstoindicateclearlywhoisdoingwhatinbothpartsofthesentence.

E.g., AfterfailingtheCAT,theteacherhelpedthestudent.(DidtheteacherfailtheCAT?)

Thisshould

read:

After

failing

the

CAT,

the

student

was

helped

by

the

teacher.

Therule isthat ifyouhaveaningwordatthebeginningofthefirstpartofthesentence,theactionofthat

wordmustbecarriedoutbythefirstwordofthesecondpartofthesentence. Thatistosay,thesubjectofthe

twopartsshouldbethesame,evenifitisnotexplicitlystatedinthefirstpart.Toputitingrammaticalterms,

whenweuseapresentparticiple(aningword) inan initialclause,butdonotstatethesubject(theperson

doingtheaction)weexpectthesubjecttobe identifiedattheverybeginningofthesecondclause(afterthe

comma).


19/22

18

TASK6:Thefollowingsentencesareexamplesofwritingthatmaycauseconfusionduetogrammatical,stylistic

errorsorreferencingconventions. Seeifyoucanworkoutwhattheproblemsare.

Identifyingthecauseofstress,workrelatedstressisbetterunderstood.

Thereareanumberofareaswillberesearched.

HolmesandRaheslifeeventschecklistwasthefirststudyonstress.

Thedataisrelativelyold,yetuseful.

Carver&Gaines(1987)didoneofthefirststudieswhichexaminedstress.

Differencesamongindividualsabilitiestoappraiseandexpresstheiremotionsareeffectedbytheirsocial

learning.

ItisinterestinginlightofthecriticismoftheSOCascontaminatedwithemotionality(Korotkov,1993)that

Antonovskyisatpainstopointoutthecognitivenatureofthisperceptiondespiteitsemotionalsounding

terminology.

Cognitivebiasisoneofthemainfactorsthatcontributetotheconfidencewehaveinourdecisionmaking

aswellasbeinganaccurateconfidence.

Havingevaluatedthecurriculum,differentteachingmethodswereintroduced.

AsStrunkandWhite(1959)argue intheirwidelyreadstudyof languagethatsimplicityin languageuseis

best.

Therearemanystudiesininclusiveeducationfocusonsocialisation.

Weshouldallawareofhownegativefeedbackaffectsstudents.

Johnsonet.al.(2003)reviewedmanyresearchesongiftedmathematicalthinkers.

These researchers undertook the study by first reviewing the literature ongiftedness, then interviewing

mathsstudentswithhighgradesandidentifiedthetraitsofmathematicalgiftedness.


20/22

19

7 ReportingwithStyle

TASK7:Astylishreportercombinesthevirtuesofclarityandgoodlanguagesense. Tryyourhandatimproving

thestyleoftheitemsbelow:

1. Eachandeverygoodwriternevereverusestautologicalexpressionsorsaysthesamethingtwice(inthesame

sentence).

2. Eachsubjectprefacedbyeachuseaverbinthesingular.3. Agoodwritershouldalwaysremembertoneversplitaninfinitive(oratleastnotalways).4. Therewasadifferenceofopinionamongthetwoteachers,eventhoughthePrinciplehadmadeevery

efforttocreateharmonybetweenallstaffmembers.

5. TheGAT (GeneralAchievementTest)wasusedforvalidationof results. While theVCEprovided themain

source

of

assessment.

6. Thatistherelativepronoun,whichweuseinadefiningclause,whilewhichisusedinaclause,which

givesanextrabitofinformation,whichisaparentheticalclause. Whichisprecededbyacomma,but

thatisnt.

7. Thenewpolicywhichwasintroducedin1999wasoneofthemostproblematicpoliciesforteachersthathaseverbeenused.

8. AndIthoughttomyself,Whatawonderfulworld. Canwethinktoanyoneelse?9. Itisnoteverydaythatyouseesuchaneverydayoccurrence.10.Agood researchermusthavestamina,which isnecessaryforaccuratelyrevealingwhatthedataare

tryingtosay. Moreover,clearcriteriaforgoodresearchisveryimportant.

11.Ourresearchesledustotheveryimportantissueoftheeconomicalcontext.12.Thewritingof complex ideasoften involves theuseofparallel structures,whichbuildupa seriesof

ideas,addslayersofmeaningandactingasakindofechoofthefirststructure(oftenaverb).


21/22

20

ListofReferences

AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.(2010).PublicationmanualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(6th

Edn).Washington,D.C.:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.

Arnaudet, M.L.&Barrett,M.E. (1984). Approaches toacademic readingandwriting. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ:

Prentice

Hall

Regents.

Hyland,K.(1996).NurturinghedgesintheESPcurriculum.System,24(4),477490.

Parrott,Martin.(2000).GrammarforEnglishLanguageTeachers. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Strunk,W.&White,E.B.(1959). Theelementsofstyle. NewYork:MacmillanPublishingCompany.

Swales,J.(1990). Genreanalysis:Englishinacademicandresearchsettings. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity

Press.


22/22

21

TheAcademicLanguageandLiteracyDevelopmentUnit,FacultyofEducation,MonashUniversity,wishes to

acknowledgethestaffwhohavecontributedtoproducingthisbooklet:

AcademicLanguageandLiteracyAdvisors:

MsRosemaryViete

DrRaqib

Chowdhury

DrAnnaPodorova

MsSueMarch

TeamLeader,Teaching/TechnologyLearningCentres:

MsBronwynDethick

Copyright(2012).NOTFORREPRODUCTION.AllmaterialsproducedforthiscourseofstudyarereproducedunderParts

VB/VAof theCopyrightAct1968,orwithpermissionof thecopyrightownerorunder termsofdatabaseagreements.

Thesematerialsareprotectedbycopyright.Monashstudentsarepermittedtousethesematerials forpersonalstudy

andresearchonly.Useofthesematerialsforanyotherpurposes,includingcopyingorresale,withoutexpresspermission

ofthecopyrightowner,mayinfringecopyright.Thecopyrightownermaytakeactionagainstyouforinfringement.

Writing Proposal in Education Booklet

Documents

Transcript of Writing Proposal in Education Booklet