Writing a Research Report (1)
Transcript of Writing a Research Report (1)
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What is a Research Proposal?
A research proposal is an individuals or researchfirms formal offer to produce a product or render aservice to a client in response to a request fromthe client. A proposal is also known as a work-plan, prospectus, outline, and statement of intent.It is an agreement between a client and aresearcher.
A good proposal communicates the following
things to us:oWhy is it important to know what you areproposing to research?
oWhat information will be obtained to meet
your objectives? 2
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A good proposal communicates the following
things to us:
oWhere will it be obtained?
oHow will it be obtained? and
oWhy will it be obtained?
oWhat contribution is it going to make?
Because a research proposal is clearly an outlinedplan submitted to a client for acceptance orrejection, it allows the client to assess your
oSeriousness
o
SincerityoAdequacy of your proposed design
oThe extent of your background information
oYour competence and
oCommitment in undertaking the study. 3
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Expression of Interest (EOI)
In most instances, clients request the researchersor research firms to express if they are interested
to submit a formal proposal on pre-selected topics
or packages. This is what we call Expressionof
Interest or in short EOI. The broad aim of this EOI
is to identify a researcher or a research firm
capable of doing the job through an evaluation
process in accordance with the governmentprocurement rule. The qualified researchers or
research firms are then asked to submit their
formal proposal in response to a call for RFP
adherin to the TOR 4
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Components of a Proposal
There is no single format for research proposals.This is because every research project is different.
Different disciplines, donor agencies and
academic institutions, all have different formats
and requirements. There are, however, several
key components which must be included in every
research proposal. The specific research problem
will dictate other sections are required.Although this delineation is not necessarily final, a
project proposal may be structured under the
following headings: 5
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Figure: 1 Steps in the development of a research
proposal
The following diagram displays the differentstages of a proposal that shows an overview ofthe whole process:
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Figure: 1 Steps in the development of a research
proposal
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Executive Summary
This part of the proposal is the most important
section of the entire document. Although it usuallyappears as the first section of the proposal, it isnot written until all other sections are completed.Here you will provide the reader with a snapshotof what is to follow. Specifically, it summarizes all
of the key information and is a sales documentdesigned to convince the reader that the proposedstudy should be considered for support. Theexecutive summary should include all the steps tobe followed in executing the study in a very brief
manner. This summary should not be overloadedwith unnecessary information and in no wayshould exceed two pages. Provide simply a briefstatement of the problem, objectives, expectedimplications, methods to be followed, and
resources needed. 9
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Executive Summary
Here is an example of an abstract of a proposalwhich was designed to study the IDD situation inBangladesh (Yusuf et al. 1999):
The rate of goiter prevalence varies widelybetween districts in Bangladesh. Some districts
have a goiter prevalence rate as high as 80percent among adult population, while otherdistricts have a rate as low as 10 percent. Thegeneral objective of the proposed study is to
investigate the goiter prevalence in Bangladesh.The immediate objective of this study is to identifythe factors associated with the regional variationin the prevalence of goiter. The ultimate objectiveof the study is to recommend appropriate
interventions for eliminating IDD problem from10
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Executive Summary
The study will be conducted between January2008 and December 2008 by the Department ofBiochemistry, University of Dhaka in collaborationwith the Department of Statistics and INFS,University of Dhaka.. The entire country will bedivided into there ecological zones: plain, floodprone, and hilly. EPI 30-cluster samplingmethodology, as proposed by UNICEF and WHO,will be followed. A total of 90 clusters will beselected, 30 from each ecological zones.Selection of the clusters will be made on the basisof PPS sampling method. The households will bethe ultimate sapling units and selection of thesehouseholds will follow systematic sampling11
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Executive Summary
All women aged 1549 will be interviewed.Information on education, occupation of thehouseholds, and salt intake will be collected.
Both clinical and biochemical data will also becollected. A team of medical practitioners andparamedics will be employed to collect data. Allcoding, editing, and data processing will be done
in the Department of Statistics. A final study reportwill be made available by December, 2008. Fundsof US $45,000 are required to meet the expenseson staff salaries, travel, questionnaires, computercost and a dissemination seminar.
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose is a single statement or paragraphthat explains what the study intends toaccomplish. A few typical statements are:
The goal of this study is to
o Identifying the consequences of (say) earlymarriage
o Discover what .....
o Understand the causes or effects of......
o Refine our current understanding of .....
o Provide a new interpretation of ...
o Redesign the existing instruments....
o Suggest a new method of data collection, etc, 13
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Significance of the Study
The significance section should create aperspective for looking at the problem. It should
point out how your study relates to the larger
issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justifythe reasons for your study. It makes the purpose
worth pursuing. The significance of the study
answers such questions as:
o Why is your study important?
o To whom it is important?
o What benefits will occur if our stud is done. 14
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Problem Statement
What is the problem you aim to solve and why is it important
enough to be investigated? The problem statement is a summaryof the topic of your planned research and a review of how yourresearch will affect other in your field. It deals with such elementsas
Problem identification
Prioritizing the problemAnalyzing the problem
Justifying the problem in response
In presenting your arguments, take into consideration of the
following points:
Decide which facts or statistics best support the study
Be sure that the data you present are as far as up-dated andaccurate
Avoid overstatement and overly emotional appeals15
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Literature Review
oDetermine whether it is reasonable to present the
need as acute.oDecide whether you can demonstrate that yourproposal addresses the need differently or better thanothers that preceded it.
Literature Review
oLiterature review focuses on the following points:o It explains the needs for the proposed study
o It avoids duplication of workso It shares with the reader the results of other studiesthat are closely related to the study beingundertaken.o It appraises the shortcomings ofothers works
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Literature Review
oIt documents the accuracy of the secondary datao It provides a framework for establishing theimportance of the study, as well as a benchmarkfor comparing the results of a study with otherfindings.o
It examines the weakness (if any) of themethodology used in other studies.To ensure a good review of literaturea) Make your review briefb) Refer to original sources onlyc) Emphasize the important results of other
studiesd) Indicate how your study relates to other
studies
e) Identify the weakness of the methodologyado ted b others 17
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Literature Review
Ahmed, Islam and Rahman (1997) in their study ofClient Satisfaction with Sterilization Procedure madea literature review, a part of which is reproducedbelow:
Ali et al. (1979) found that about 90 percent of the
female and male clients were satisfied with theirsterilization decision. Of those dissatisfied with theirdecision, the major reasons were deteriorated healthand strength, and the incidence of child death
following operation. A much wider range of indicatorsof satisfaction was included in a national follow-upsurvey of 336 tubectomy and 180 vasectomy clientsconducted in 1986 by Miah and Rahman (1987). Theyfound that about 91 percent of the clients have goodfeelings towards sterilization method while only 918
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Benefits of the Study
This section of the proposal should focus on theimportance and urgency of the data needed. Itmust therefore explicitly describe in two to threeparagraphs what benefit will be accrued from theproposed study. In describing this section, youmust take care that you can convince the sponsorthat your plan can meet its needs. Here is anexample that demonstrates the benefits to bederived from a study titled: A Comparative study
between Caesarian Section and Vaginal Deliveryin Eclamsia
From clinical observations in Bangladesh andelsewhere it is noted that early caesarian section
may nullify the violent effect of this grave disease.To date no such stud has been undertaken in19
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Research Objectives
The results of the proposed study can easily beimplemented simply by dissemination of thefindings among the health professionals and thusapplied at all referral hospitals. The study will inthe long run help to reduce maternal mortalityremarkably and thus will improve our nationalhealth status.
Research Objectives
Research objectives describeo What will be demonstrated?
oWhat will tested, evaluated?
oWhat do you want to confirm?
oWhat do you want to compare? 20
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Research Objectives
They communicate:
oWhy do we carry out the research?
oWhat do we hope to achieve from such aresearch?
oWhat recommendations are likely to be made?In addition to research objectives, all proposalsshould contain a formal and explicit statement ofthe research questions or hypotheses wherever
applicable. Whether to use research questions orhypotheses will depend on the type of research.Exploratory or descriptive research does notinvolve hypothesis testing; it is based on
underlying research questions. All proposals for 21
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Methodology
The methodology section describes your basic
research plan. It usually begins with a few
introductory paragraphs that restate the purpose
and research questions. The phraseology should
be identical to that used in Chapter 1.This section should aim at addressing four broad
questions:
a) Where we want to collect the data, how we willselect our sample, and how many subjects will
be included in the study? (This refers to the
coverage, target population, sample design)
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Methodology
b. What information do we need to collect toanswer the research questions implied in ourresearch objectives? (This refers to thevariables we are interested in)
c. What approach will we follow to collect this
information? (This refers to the researchdesign we want to employ)
d. What techniques and tools we will use tocollect it. (This refers to the data collection
techniques and tools, such as questionnaire,observation check-list)
When more than one way exists to approachthe design, discuss the methods you discardedand justify why your selected approach issuperior. 23
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Methodology
Here is an example of methodology adopted in1999 National IDD Survey conducted by DhakaUniversity:
EPI Cluster Sampling Methodology recommended
by the joint WHO
UNICEF
ICCIDD
Consultation for IDD Indicators will be followedin the present study. A three-stage samplingmethod is proposed for the study. The primary
sampling unit will be a Thana which is a compactarea of approximately 130 mauzas. A mauza is adefined area in rural Bangladesh and in 80percent of the times it is synonymous with a single
village. In urban areas, the equivalent of a mauza24
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Methodology
In all 328 thana form our univers from which atotal of 90 Thana will be selected 30 from each ofthe three ecological zones: Plain. Hilly and Floodprone. In selecting these primary sampling units,PPS sampling method will be adopted. The mauza
constitute the secondary sampling units. Theseunits will be selected employing a simple randomsampling procedure since mauza are assumed tobe almost of equal sizes. The ultimate samplingunits are the households, which we propose toselect following a systematic sampling methodwith a random start. The clinical examination forgoiter and cretinism prevalence, biochemicalestimation of urinary iodine, and the
questionnaires will constitute the studyinstruments. 25
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Methodology
In order to complete the field work in a short time,a total of 10 field teams will be recruited. Eachteam will comprise of one physician and onetechnician. Each questionnaire will be manuallyedited and coded. Following this, information onall items of the questionnaire will be entered intocomputer using visual FoxPro and SPSS will beused to analyze data.
While proposing your methodology, you shouldexplore other methodologies and highlight thecomparability of those with the one you propose interms of the methods of interpreting the availabledata, carrying out investigation, analysis andsuggest alternative approaches if needed. 26
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DataCollection
Data collection methods should be clearly specified in
the proposal. These methods may vary from simpleobservation to a large-scale field survey. The specificmethod or methods to be used for collecting datalargely depends on the objectives of the survey, theresearch design and the availability of time money andpersonnel. With the variation in the type of data)qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the methodof data collection also varies.
Plan for Data Analysis
The proposal should contain this section to assure thesponsor that you are familiar with the correct andtheoretically sound techniques of data analysisprocedures. Keeping this in view, you need to providea brief overview of the treatment and theoretical basis
of these procedures. 27
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Plan for Data Analysis
In doing so, you may lay out a sketch of samplegraphs, charts and dummy tables and an overviewof the statistical techniques ranging from simpleregression to multivariate techniques. You mayalso give an indication of the possible statisticaltests that you may employ depending on thenature of data to verify the research hypothesisthat you have formulated. You are also required tospecify the type of data you are anticipating and
the tentative interpretation you will make in theprocess of analysis. Note that the data analysisplan that you are proposing is not a commitment,rather it is an honest desire to fulfill the
commitment as outlined in the proposal. 28
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Work Plan
This section elaborates the work schedule of the
proposed study answering such questions as, whowill do what and when it will be done. A work planhas two major components: personnel and timeschedule. The major issues that a work plan
includes areoPreparatory works/questionnaire development
oRecruitment and training of project personnel
oQuestionnaire revision
oField interviews/data collectionoData editing and data coding
oData entry
oData analysis
oReport writing 29
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Work Plan
Each of these phases should have an estimatedtime and personnel needed. A chart, known asGantt chart may be used for this purpose. AGantt chart is a type ofbar chart that illustrates aproject schedule. Gantt charts illustrate the startand finish dates of the terminal elements andsummary elements of a project. Terminal elementsand summary elements comprise the workbreakdown structure of the project. Some Gantt
charts also show the dependency (i.e.,precedence network) relationships betweenactivities.
As an example, a sample six-month work plan of ahypothetical study is shown in the following Gantt30
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_charthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedule_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependency_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependency_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_breakdown_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedule_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedule_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedule_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_charthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_charthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_chart -
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Work Plan & Analysis Plan
Analysis PlanAddress each research question and objective
Mention the type of statistical treatment (tables,statistical tests) that will be performed to answer
that research question. 31
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Assumptions
State what variables will be included in the
analysis
Identify the dependent and independent variables
if such relationship exists. Indicate in advance
what sort of analytical techniques (uni-variate, bi-variate or multi-variate) will be employed if data
permit to do so.
Assumptions
All research studies need to make someassumptions. The most obvious is that the sample
represents the population. Another common
assumption is that an instrument you are using
has validity and is measuring the desired32
Ethical Considerations & Reporting
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Ethical Considerations & Reporting
Findings
All research proposals should indicate if any ethical
issue is involved when collecting information from therespondents. In such cases, the researcher shouldclearly indicate in advance how he/she is going toaddress this issue. For a detailed description of ethicalissue, see Chapter 2 of the text.
Reporting FindingsThe proposal should indicate what reports and othermeans of disseminating research findings are planned.The types of report that are usually included forreporting purposes are
oProgress report (weekly/monthly etc)oFinal reportoPublicationsoSeminar, workshop, conferenceoDiscussion with policy makers or program managers
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Qualification of the Key Persons
Qualifications of the key persons involved in thestudy play a vital role in the process of evaluationof the proposal. A proposal with experiencedresearchers enhances its credibility and assuresthe program managers and policy makers of a setof policy oriented recommendations that canultimately be implemented. This section shouldbegin with the key qualifications and experiencesof the investigators. Particular emphasis should be
given to include the previous experience of doingrelated works. Relevant societies, to which theresearcher belongs, can be included in thecurriculum vitae. Include the curriculum vitae of
other personnel if the RFP desires so. 34
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Project Management
All administrative activities should be outlined on a
master plan. This plan shows how the study teamis organized to complete the work efficiently. Thisplan is intended to demonstrate (a) therelationship between the researchers and the
assistants, and (b) who is to keep liaison with thesponsor.
The plan should also focus on the process ofrecord control, fund handling, mode of preparingand forwarding progress report, progressmonitoring and project supervision. In addition,mode of payment frequency and number ofinstallments in payment should also be included inthe plan. Legal responsibilities, liabilities and
involvement of the sponsors during the entire35
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Budget
The budget details should be submitted in the format
the sponsor requests. In some cases, the budget issubmitted as a separate proposal for sear reasons ofquality proposal, where budget is somewhat ofsecondary importance. In all cases, the budget shouldbe realistic. Claims for any large and unusual items in
the budget should be explained and justified. Arrangethe major cost categories under the following majorheadings:
o Salaries and benefits,
o Materials, equipment and supplies,o Travel,
o Dissemination seminar, and
o Miscellaneous expenses.
The accompanying table shows a budget format that36
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Table: A sample of a budget format
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Table: A sample of a budget format
Bibliography
A bibliography is necessary for many of theprojects once you have made a literature review.
Following is a frequently used format for38
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Bibliography
Black, F. and M. S. Scoles (1973). The Pricing ofOptions and Corporate Liabilities. Journal ofPolitical Economy, 81: 637659.
Scott, W.R (1997). Financial Accounting Theory.Prentice-Hall.
Sen, A. (1999). The Possibility of Social Choice,American Economic Review, 89(3): 349-378.
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Scope and Limitations
All research studies have limitations of one kind or
another and a finite scope. If you anticipate anyproblem during the course of your study, do not tryto conceal it. It may start with designing ofquestionnaire to data analysis with intermediate
problems in sample size determination, selectionof the sample and data collection. Limitations areoften imposed by time and budget constraints.Fairly list the limitations of the study. Describe theextent to which you believe the limitations might
degrade the quality of data and hence yourfindings. It is best to recognize these limitationsrather than to pretend that they do not exit. Befrank and fair to mention any unprecedented or
situational factors that you might encounter duringthe execution of our stud . 40
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Scope and Limitations
Study the following example: A study is designedto assess the attitude of school-going childrentowards TV program provided by satellitechannels. The study is proposed to be conductedduring March-May. It is apprehended that for such
a study, the proposed months are not suitable,because SSC examination is scheduled duringthese months. The key respondents are busy withtheir examination and are highly likely to be
reluctant to participate despite their interest. Thiswill certainly influence the study findings.
In a study on dowry and discrimination towardswomen, statistical representation cannot beensured in the determination of the size of the41
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Appendix
It is because of the fact that such events are rareand localized. This may be indicated as alimitation and an alternative suggestion may bemade for data collection. One may propose toconduct an in-depth interview, case studies and
FGD.
Appendix
Any additional information that reinforces the body
of the proposal can be included in the appendix.This includes, for example, CV of the projectpersonnel, detailed budget, draft questionnaire,technical notes, informed consent form if any, list
of references and any other information you think42
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Appendix
A simple section consisting of the glossary of the
terms should also be included whenever there aremany words unique to the research topic. A list ofabbreviations should also be provided in theappendix so that nobody faces any difficulty in
understanding these acronyms. Here are someexamples of glossaries and abbreviation:
Glossary /abbreviations/operational definitionof the terms
If you use technical terms in writing your proposal,you require to clarifying them in non-technicalterms so as to make them understandable to thereaders with brief explanations of their meanings.Here are a few examples:
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Appendix
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Apprenticeship: Method of on-the-job training inwhich the employee is trained underthe guidance of a highly skilled co-worker
Adolescent : A boy/girl who is between 12 and 19
years of age.
Norms: Assumptions and expectationsabout how members of a group willbehave
Orientation: A program designed to helpemployees fit smoothly into anorganization.
Reliability : The consistency of a measure
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Abbreviations
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LC: Letter of Credit
TOR: Terms of Reference
GDP Gross Domestic Product
PSU Primary Sampling Unit
CPI Consumer Price Index
NCB Nationalized Commercial Bank
RFP Request for Proposal
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Proposal Presentation
In many instances, the sponsor/donor wants you
to present the proposal for more clarity and anunderstanding of the whole research process youhave planed to follow in your proposed study. Thisgives them an understanding if you have
understood the problem they want to investigateand whether the proposal has been written inaccordance with the guidelines as delineated inthe Terms of reference (TOR). The researcher or
the research firm also gets an opportunity toidentify the strengths and weaknesses in hisproposal and gets a chance to modify his proposalaccordingly.
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WRITING A REPORT
When writing your report, keep in mind that your
purpose is to inform the readers ofo What you investigatedo Why and how you conducted your investigationo What were your findings and finallyo What conclusions you arrived at.Before you start drafting your report, you must beensured thato Every specific objective has been dealt with.o Appropriate analysis of the data has been performed
o Only the relevant tables and charts have beenfurnishedo The conclusions and the recommendations areappropriate and relevant to the specific objectives.o Which tables will be furnished in the text of the report
for comprehensive conclusion and which in the47
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General Format of a Report
The procedure to be followed in reporting a scientific
study consists of rather precise and well-defined stepsthat may be modified only slightly. Immediatelyfollowing the title page, a study report is preparedunder the following broad headings:
1. Title page
2. Table of contents
3. Abbreviation/Glossary
4. Foreword
5. Preface6. Acknowledgement
7. Executive summary/Abstract
8. Introduction
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General Format of a Report
9. Background
10.Methodology
11.Results
12.Discussions
13.Conclusions
14.Recommendations
15.References
16.AppendicesAll research reports are usually organized infive to six chapters, which may be made up ofthree main divisions:
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General Format of a Report
oPreliminary materials
oMain body andoSupplementary materials
The preliminary material part will cover the first sixissues, viz.
oTitle page
oTable of contents
oAbbreviations and/glossary of the terms
o
ForewordoPreface
oExecutive summary/Abstract
The main body of the report will be organized
under the appropriate chapter headings. 50
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General Format of a Report
Here is a layout of the chapters that a scientific
report usually contains:CHAPTER 1: Introduction
CHAPTER 2: Background
CHAPTER 3: Methodology
CHAPTER 4: Results
CHAPTER 5: Discussion
CHAPTER 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
The supplementary material division will include,among others
References or bibliography
Appendices
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General Format of a Report
Each of the individual sections/chapters may be
structured with the contents as shown in thefollowing table:
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Title Page
The above points are briefly discussed below:
It is important that the
title of the report be both
Brief and descriptive of your
research. It should alsoclearly indicate the topic
and scope.
Here is an example
of a typical title page
on the cover of the report
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Table of contents
This is a list of the headings and appendices of the
report. Depending on the complexity and length of thereport, you could list tables, figures and appendicesseparately. Make sure that the correct page numbersare shown opposite the contents. Up-to-date word
processing packages can generate a table of contentsfor you. Here is an example of a content page drawnfrom a study on Adolescent Fertility Behavior inBangladesh by Islam and others (1995):
54
Contents Page
List of tables and figures
iForeword ii
Preface iii
Acknowledgements iv
Executive summary v
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Chapter
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The Executive Summary
The foreword, preface and acknowledgements are
not necessarily mandatory in all reports, but somestudies adhere to this practice as many sponsorsask for this as an acknowledgement of theircontribution.
The Executive Summary
The intent of the executive summary is toimmediately provide the time-constraint reader
with the important facts and findings derived fromthe study. As appropriate for your study, try toinclude
oA statement of the problem (which answers the
WHAT question), 56
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The Executive Summary
oThe people you studied (which addresses the
WHOM question),
oStudy period (which answers the WHENquestion)
o
The dependent and independent variables,oThe instruments you used,
oThe design (which provides answer to HOWquestion),
oMajor findings, andoConclusions along with any recommendations.
Although the executive summary precedes themain report, it is written only after the report hastaken its final sha e. 57
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The Executive Summary
It is very vital to remember that the summary
should include no new information not presentedin the report. All conclusions andrecommendations presented in the summary alsoshould follow what appear in the report. We
present below a summarized version (partlymodified) of an Executive Summary based on astudy Utilization of Credit in the Rural Areas ofChittagong by Uddin and Uddin (1999)
Credit is the lifeblood of modern economic system.It plays a vital role in the economy of a country.But there is other side of the picture too. It is said
that credit is like fire. 58
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The Executive Summary
If properly utilized, it can have a favorable impact
and if not, it can be destructive. It is because ofthis, credit management is so vital that everyaspect of it needs periodic evaluation. To this end,the present work is undertaken to evaluate rural
credit utilization with the following specificobjectives:
o To know the purposes for which the loan wassanctioned
o
To identify the utilization patterns of loanso To isolate the factors associated with misuse ormisdirection of loans.
The study was conducted in some selectedvillages under Chittagong district. A sample of2000 loanees was selected for detail investi ation.59
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The Executive Summary
It was revealed that rural credit is misdirected
significantly and that farm size and income level havesignificant relationship with the misuse andmisdirection of the credit. Surprisingly, the higher thefarm size and the income level, the greater is themisdirection. Time lag in sanctioning and
disbursement of loan, complexity of the sanctioningprocess, lack of supervision on the part of institutionallending agencies, pressing need to fund for otherreasons, inadequacy of fund on the part of the loanessmainly account for misdirection. As such more
supervised credit, timely monitoring provision foradequate loan, sincerity on the part of both lendersand borrowers are vital to ensure satisfactory use ofcredit. Concerned authorities need to take appropriateand objective-based steps to minimize the problem.
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Chapter 1: Introduction
The introduction prepares the reader for the
report by describing the following parts of the
project:
a) Background of the study
b) Statement of the problem
c) Objectives of research
d) Research hypotheses
The primary goal of the introductory paragraphs in
the form ofbackground of the study is to
o Catch the attention of the readers and
oGet them tuned on about the subject. 61
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Chapter 1: Introduction
The statement of the problem describes the
nature and scope of the problem. You may borrowa substantial part in this chapter from yourresearch proposal with comments and additionaldata based on your research experience gained in
conducting this study. Any relevant history orbackground of the problem that is essential to athorough understanding of the problem shouldalso be included here. A brief profile of the country,indicating the geographical location,
administration, economic condition, literacy,religion and other pertinent issues may also beincluded in the introduction. A statement is madeexplaining why the solution of the problem is
important and the critical need to formulate acourse of action. 62
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Chapter 1: Introduction
The statement of the problem is the focal point of
your research and demonstrates an overview ofyour research strategy. Present convincingargument why the problem you studied was a direnecessity and its execution was urgent from policy
point of view.The general and specific objectives should beincluded followed by research questions and ifappropriate, research hypotheses. If you have
not been able to meet some of the objectives, thisshould be stated in the methodology section andin the discussion of the findings. A brief review ofthe literature pertaining to the topic being
investigated should be given with a view to63
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Chapter 1: Introduction
The following is an illustrative example of an
introduction adopted from 1989 BFS report.There is a constant need in Bangladesh for highquality demographic data both to assess Govt.policies and to provide the basis for future
planning. Although the Govt. of Bangladeshestablished Contraceptive Prevalence Surveys(CPSs), as a major monitoring tool to assess theprogress of the family planning program every twoyears, yet these surveys provided data mainly on
knowledge and use of contraceptives. As a resultthe need for data on fertility and on itsdeterminants and on infant and child mortalityremained unsatisfied since 1975. Such need in
fact led to the repeat of the 1975 BFS in 1989. 64
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Chapter 1: Introduction
The 1989 BFS was conducted by National
Institute of Population Research and Training
(NIPORT) with the short-term objectives (i) to
assess the current level and recent trends in
fertility that have taken place in the last 10 yearsand to document the direct causes namely
marriage, contraception, and breast-feeding; (ii) to
collect information on variations in fertility and
childhood mortality by region, residence, socio-
economic status and other characteristics. In the
long term it is expected that the 1989 BFS will
form the basis upon which smaller more65
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Chapter 2: Background
The introductory chapter is followed by an
extensive literature review. The goal of literaturereview is to demonstrate the logical continuity
between previous and present work (APA, 1004).
Discuss the findings of works that are pertinent to
your specific issue. This will help you to justify the
study you have completed. The literature review
allows you to show how your research builds on
prior knowledge by presenting and evaluating
what is already known about your research
problem. Assume that the readers possess a vast
knowledge of the subject, but not the cited
articles, books and journals. 66
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Chapter 2: Background
In reviewing literature, it may be useful to do a
chronological format where you discuss from theearliest to the latest research, placing your
research appropriately in the chronology.
Alternately, you could write in a thematic way,
outlining the various themes that you discovered
in the research regarding the topic. Again, you will
need to state where your research fits.
The current chapter should contain a definition ofterms section when appropriate. Include, if your
report uses special terms that are unique to your
field of enquiry or that might not be understood by
the general readers. 67
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Chapter 2: Background
Operational definitions (definitions that you have
formulated for your study) should also be
included. An example of an operational definition
is For the purpose of this research, the term
improvement is operationally defined as the
difference between the measurements of a
posttest and pretest.
If you have used a lot of technical terms, you
should also provide a glossary (an alphabetical list
of the terms, with brief explanations of their
meanings). 68
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Chapter 3: Methodology
The methodology part of the report is more
technical than rest of the study, as it explains theexact nature of the statistical aspect that youfollowed. It describes in detail the precisequantitative tools and techniques used and
reveals the manner in which they led to thedesired results. Specifically, the methodologysection comprises the following issues:
oThe study type
o The study variables
o The target population
o Sampling methodology
o Data collection strategy 69
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Chapter 3: Methodology
To illustrate, we once again draw the case of 1989BFS methodology (summarized version) as anexample:
The study is based on a field survey all over
Bangladesh among ever-married women under-50years of age. In conducting the survey, a twostage probability sample design was used. At thefirst stage a sample of areas or clusters was
drawn. Each selected area was then mapped andall households listed. At the second stage, asample of households was selected within eacharea. Thus a total of 11729 households were
selected of which 11236 households were70
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Chapter 3: Methodology
Finally, in the 11236 successfully interviewed
households, a total of 12096 ever-married womenaged under-50 were identified as eligible for theindividual interview. Of these, 98 percent wereinterviewed from whom detail information on their
marriage, fertility preference, contraception;breast-feeding, fertility and child health werecollected. Fieldwork started in December 1988and ended in April 1989. It was conducted by a
total of 60 female interviewers working in teamsunder constant supervision of 12 male and 12female supervisors.
Under methodology section, the aforementioned
study discussed the following issues in details 71
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Chapter 3: Methodology
a. Sample size
b. Sample design
c. Sample implementation
d. Response rate
e. Development of data collectioninstruments
f. Recruitment and training of field staff
g. The main field workh. Data management
i. Editing and coding
72
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Chapter 4: Results
Thus is the most critical part of the report. In
presenting the findings, you must be very systematicso that the objectives of the research are clearlyreflected. It is here that the true statistical analysis isperformed. The findings consist of the actual statisticalcomputations that provide the information required to
make decisions and recommendations. Thesecomputations may vary from simple descriptivestatistics to the more advanced statistical analyses.Not that you will always provide detail description ofyour findings, you might choose to complement this
description by tables or graphs. The text will becomemore lively if you illustrate some of the findings withexamples using the respondents own words or withobservations and case-studies that you recordedduring fieldwork. We quote from Islam and Rahman
(1993) how the results of a study can be reported: 73
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Voluntarism in the VSC Programme
Almost all the sterilized clients had universal
knowledge about family planning methods prior toundergoing the operation. About 98 percent of thevasectomy clients and 97 percent of thetubectomy clients knew beforehand that theywould not be able to bear any more childrenfollowing the sterilization procedure. Theyindicated this by signing the consent form orputting their thumb-print on the form. About 85percent of the vasectomy clients and 94 percent of
the tubectomy clients reported that their mainmotive for undergoing sterilization was so thatthey would have no more children and thatcompensation payments had facilitated theiracceptance of the procedure. In the VSC
ro ramme no sterilized client re orted coercion. 74
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Voluntarism in the VSC Programme
To illustrate further, we present below a part of the
findings from Khan et al. (1995) based on studyon salt production in Bangladesh.
The production process of salt start from earlyDecember and continues till mid-April. In general,
it takes 30 days from the beginning of the processto its end that a shift of salt is produced. Accordingto the survey, on average, 3 workers are requiredper acre of land to produce salt. The workers arepaid in cash, food and other amenities. On
average, each worker is paid Tk. 7469 in cash, Tk.3238 worth of food and Tk. 572 worth of differentamenities every year. That is, in every season,each worker is paid wages worth Tk. 11279 while
average labor cost per acre of land is Tk. 3383775
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Chapter 5: Discussion
The major implications of the study need
discussion. This section has a considerableimpact on the formulation of the solution to theproblem described in the introduction, whichmotivated the report. The discussion of the
findings should be presented in a meaningful wayin non-technical approach. The discussion shouldalso mention findings from other related studiesthat support or contradict your findings. It is
important, as well, to present and discuss thelimitations of the study, if any. In the discussion offindings, some general conclusions may also beincluded. We report below a part of the
discussions as Islam and Rahman (1993) made in76
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Chapter 5: Discussion
Sterilization is the single most preferred method of
contraception in Bangladesh. Because of itseffectiveness, it has gained tremendous popularityamong eligible couples in recent years. This studywas undertaken in the face of certainmisconceptions regarding the decline in thenumber of sterilization acceptors in recent yearsand a misunderstanding regarding voluntarism inthe VSC programme. The voluntary nature of theVSC programme is reflected in the findings; no
evidence of coercion emerged from the clientsurvey. The findings dispel the misconception thatthe decline in the number of sterilization cases inthe late 1980s was due to growing dissatisfactionamong sterilization clients.
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Chapter 5: Discussion
What, then, are the principal causes that have
contributed to this decline? During the lastdecade, both the Government of Bangladesh andthe non-government organizations installed anextensive community based service-delivery
system for pills and condoms (to homes) andinjectables (in family welfare centers and satelliteclinics). It is therefore not surprising to see that pilland injectable use has increased sharply in the
1980s as result of adopting the so-calledcafeteria approach which offers a variety ofmodern contraceptives. These changes in theprogramme strategy have tended to make inroads
on the prevalence of sterilization. 78
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Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusions
The conclusion section may repeat some of theinformation in the executive summary. The ClientSatisfaction Survey came up with the followingconclusion:
There is ample evidence to suggest that thenumber of trained physicians available to providesterilization services is declining (Ahmed andothers, 1992). The inability to supply adequateservices owing to the lack of trained providers at atime when there is substantial demand for suchservices plays a major role in the decline in thenumber of sterilizations performed.
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Recommendations
The most important part of the report is the
recommendation section which should followlogically from the discussion and conclusionsections. They must be practical, specific,feasible, and well organized. They may besummarized according to the groups toward whichthey are directed, for example:
Policy makers
Managers
Staff who could implement the activitiesPotential clients, and
Community at large
Based on the findings, the client satisfaction
survey put forwarded a number of 80
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Recommendations
Here we site only a few
The existing system of client compensation shouldbe retained; moreover, the Government shouldconsider adjusting upward the level of thispayment in order to offset, at least partially, the
effect of inflation on the value of the payment.
The Government should consider re-instituting amodest allowance for government field workers.For each voluntary sterilization case that they referand accompany to a clinic, they should receivecompensation for their reported out-of-pocketexpenses.
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Recommendations
One of the conclusions as made in the 1999 IDD
Survey in Bangladesh was as follows:Based on the TGR (Total goiter rate) and urinaryiodine excretion results, prevalence of IDD is morein females than in males, particularly in the age
group of 1544 years.The associated recommendation was as follows:
Information, Education, and Communication (IEC)should be continued in more effective ways. More
emphasis should be given to females, particularlyto those of child-bearing age and adolescent girls.
In a study by Uddin and Uddin (1999: 4761) onthe utilization of credit in a rural area concludedthat
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Recommendations
The main reasons for misdirection of credit are
time-lag in obtaining loan, increasing familyexpenditures, and compulsion to pay off old debts.
Based on the findings and above conclusion, theauthors made the following recommendations:
oIn order to ensure full utilization of the credit, therole of supervision and timely monitoring by theloan giving agencies should be strengthened.
o
Appropriate measures should be taken to createawareness among the loanees regarding thenecessity and benefit of proper utilization of theloans and at the same time, the risk of being
defaulter. 83
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Recommendations
Khans study on salt production as such made no
discussion on the results, but came up with thefollowing conclusions and recommendations:
Salt is one of the most important commodities forhuman food preparation. In Bangladesh, ample
natural opportunities are available to produce salt.Unfortunately, virtually no effective effort wasevident from government to modernize this sector.Consequently, the countrys salt production sectorremained very much dependent on natures
mercy. But as the sector produces an essentialcommodity and can save huge foreign currency,strong and effective measures should be taken tomodernize as well as to finance the salt
production process immediately. 84
References
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References
References can be cited in a number of ways. Within
the text, you can number in the sequence in whichthey appear, and then listed in this order in thereference section. Another possibility is to list theauthors names in the text followed by the date ofpublication in brackets. In the list of references, the
publications are then arranged in alphabetical order bythe principal authors last name. We illustrate belowhow these two approaches work in practice.
The advocacy of development as the major instrumentof fertility decline was largely based on two arguments:(1) family planning is not a substitute for social andeconomic development, and (2) the potential impact offamily planning programs is based on unrealisticexpectations based on the assumption of theexistence of high demand for family planning suppliesand services[1]. 85
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References
The proponents of the development school argue
that in the absence of any major breakthrough inthe socio-economic life of the people, the demandfor contraceptives will continue to remain. Butthere is also evidence from some high-fertility
societies that demographic transition has beguneven in the absence of major developmentefforts[2].
The references in the first case are written as
follows:
Simons, J. B. Family planning programs ordevelopment: how persuasive is the new wisdom?International Family Planning Perspectives, 5(3),1979. 86
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References
While in the second case we need to put the
reference inside the text as follows:The advocacy of development as the majorinstrument of fertility decline was largely based ontwo arguments: (1) family planning is not a
substitute for social and economic development,and (2) the potential impact of family planningprograms is based on unrealistic expectationsbased on the assumption of the existence of highdemand for family planning supplies and services
(Simons, 1984).The proponents of the development school arguethat in the absence of any major breakthrough inthe socio-economic life of the people, the demand
for contraceptives will continue to remain. 87
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ReferencesBut there is also evidence from some high-fertility societies that demographic transition has begun even in the absenceof major development efforts (Jones, 1979).
The references in this case will appear as follows:
Jones, G. W. (1984). Demographic Transition in Asia. Maruzen Asia (Pty.) Ltd., Singapore.
Simons, J. B. (1979) Family planning programs or development: how persuasive is the new wisdom? InternationalFamily Planning Perspectives, 5(3).
Style, layout, and page formatting
Title page
All texts on the title page is centered vertically and horizontally. The title page has no page number and it is not counted in any pagenumbering.
Page layout
Left margin: 1
Right margin: 1
Top margin: 1
Bottom margin: 1
Page numbering
Pages are numbered at the top right. There should be 1 of white space from the top of the page number to the top ofthe paper. Numeric page numbering begins with the first page of Chapter I (although a page number is not placed on page 1).
The End