Linguistics 480 70

Computers in the Second Language Writing Classroom

Pennington, M. C. Chapter 8

The early studies of computer use in composition focused almost exclusively on wordprocessing.

Some of the outcomes of the studies were that students who use word processors have beensaid

• to spend more time writing

• to alter revision behaviour

• to make more and different types of revisions

• to show less of a tendency towards writer's block

• to improve their attitudes toward writing

But for many positive claims, there are negative counter-claims.i.e. the word processor does make it easier to revise. However, the revision process is morecomplex, in that it involves more steps and more different types of manipulation.

Due to the mixed results in studies that compare computer-assisted texts to traditionallyproduced texts + the general emphasis on interactive CALL, the focus in research has movedaway from the question of whether using a computer helps students produce better texts.

Linguistics 480 71Pennington, M. C. Chapter 8

A Different View of Computer-Assisted Writing

More interesting to researchers now is the nature of the human-machine interface.Important research questions are:

• how has the computer changed the way students approach the writing process• how have new computer software products changed the way teachers approach the writing process

Recent studies have begun to identify profiles of computer writers that may be different from thoseof pen- and-paper composers.

Some studies showed that• writers change their focus when writing on the computer

• some revised earlier in the process than they did when writing by hand

• others revised and reviewed their text less on screen than they did on paper

• computer experience affected the amount and type of revision more than language proficiency did

• the novice computer users wrote by hand and copied the text onto the computer, or

drafted a text into the computer and revised very little

• they did not take advantage of the spelling checker or the thesaurus

• intermediate users made some revisions and used the spelling checker

• they made revisions at the micro-level but not at the macro-level

• expert users, those with two or more years of computer writing experience, revised and

reviewed their texts extensively and made little distinction between first and final draft.

Linguistics 480 72Pennington, M. C. Chapter 8

Shift in Emphasis from Word Processing to Collaborative Writing

As researchers have become more interested in the nature of interaction in the computerenvironment, the computer-assisted composition community has moved from a focus on the word-processor as a tool to an examination of the interactions among teachers, learners, and technology.

Although the word processor is still the primary tool used in computer writing classrooms, theenvironment of these classrooms has changed

• in the old lab, students came in, sat down, and wrote• to talk with the teacher or with another classmate about their papers, they had to get up or wait untilthe teachers threaded their way to them.• in the new lab, teachers have complete freedom of movement• students can cluster around one single machine or a group of machines to work on collaborative projects• teachers are free to move in order to speak with any student in the class, even to sit at the computerto work with that person• with a network in the lab

• they can leave messages for their partners,• have a class discussion using Aspects (Daedelus)• search the Internet, etc.

The non-traditional spaces force teachers to develop a variety of new strategies in a computer writingclass. Instructors can

• model the writing process as it occurs• can help students adapt their individual writing strategies to a computer environment• can communicate with their students verbally or on-line (developing different on-line personas)

Linguistics 480 73Pennington, M. C. Chapter 8

The Shifting Paradigm of Computer-Assisted Writing

The ideology that writing is both a social and personal process

(writers should be encouraged to interact with other writers about their texts as well as to

discover their own authorial voice)

has led to the development of software sometimes called "groupware". Such software allows writers

• to use the computer as a tool for collaborative communication

• to share drafts

• to critique written work

• to revise texts electronically

Aspects, Daedelus, etc. are examples of such software.

In many classes, the traditional essay is no longer the primary aim or the sole product.

• students may produce a range of documents, from brief electronic mail notes to longer postings on a

bulletin board, from hypertext documents with links and graphics to hypermedia packages including

video and sound.

The computer is seen as a gateway for information, or a way to link teachers and learners.

Linguistics 480 74Pennington, M. C. Chapter 8

The Computer as Tool, Doorway, and Linkage: Electronic Commenting

Electronic Commenting

An important part of a process-oriented writing class involves getting the reader's comments on a text in progressThis aspect of the process writing, known variously as peer feedback, peer response, or per review, involves

• one or more students making comments on the content and organization of a draft• comments are often generated using question heuristics and this technique has been incorporated into some writing software

• a useful feature of such program is that the number of commenters is unlimited

Manipulation of Information

The use of electronic tools for writing and information gathering has also changed the tasks that studentsundertake in the classroom

• the research paper is no longer simply a product of the resources available in the local library• CD-ROM databases, knowledge bases

• encyclopedias can provide reading material, videos, audio clips, etc• resources of the Internet

• signing on to the Clinton White House might be more intriguing than going through the government documents section of the library• search facilities such as Gopher

• electronic mail to connect with experts• conference systems

Linguistics 480 75Pennington, M. C. Chapter 8

Manipulation of Information CONT. and Electronic Mail

Students are ready to put together the information they have gathered into their own synthesis, either• in paper form• on the Internet

• on-line project of any kind• as a group project, it fosters cooperative efforts, as students pool theirenergies and talents into a product or project that interests them• students are made aware of audience needs (i.e. ESL learners)

• or they produce an electronic product (i.e. HyperCard)• students need to work in groups to split up the tasks

• a project on the Internet or an electronic product can include sounds, video clips, etc.

Electronic Mail

Most common use of electronic mail in the SL classroom may be for pen pals.• classes which share only the target language may be matched, or a second language class may bepaired with a class of native speakers of the target language

• in a basic pen pal activity, students write electronic messages to their pen pals much asthey might write traditional letters

• electronic mail is delivered almost immediately, so students can write manymore letters than they might be possible otherwise

E-mail has a different rhetoric, including header information, emoticons, and a style that lies somewhatbetween that of speech and writing.E-mail can make collaboration easier and may lead to more cross-disciplinary collaboration than face-to-faceinteraction.

Linguistics 480 76Pennington, M. C. Chapter 8

Synchronous "Chat" or Discussion

One of the major benefits of a networked writing class can be found in synchronous discussion(sometimes called "chat")

• comments can be read at almost real-time speed by other participants, who can then respond

For SL students, synchronous discussion has several advantages:

• students can take time to frame their responses• allowing those who are less fluent orally to catch up with the fast talkers

• in such discussions, more student can and will contribute to the discussion• several students can be writing their contributions at the same time

• instructors have to give up some of their accustomed authority as they become simply another voiceon the net; the consequence is a more learner-centered learning environment

It might take time for students to adapt their attitudes and behaviour to the machine environment

• probably several weeks of exposure before students and teachers can reach an adequate comfort level.

However, it was found that when compared with face-to-face discussion, the electronic environmentled to more on-task discourse in the target languages, whether the instructor was physically present ornot. In a face-to-face environment, the absence of the instructor decreased the amount of talk and ledto less on-task discussion and much less use of the target language [Wusnack and Strongman, 1993].