Wrist and hand examination
Transcript of Wrist and hand examination
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Clinical Examinationof the Hand and Wrist
• Campbell’s operative orthopaedics 11th edition• Text book of orthopaedics & fractures 5th edition Dr B. Aalami Harandi• Gray’s anatomy 2nd edition• Clinical anatomy Richard S. Snell
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Anatomy of the wrist
Distal radioulnar jointRadiocarpal jointUlnocarpal joint8 carpal bones (proximal and distal row and attached
ligaments)
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Proximal:1. Scaphoid2. Lunate3. Triquetrum4. Pisiform (smallest)
Distal:5. Trapezium6. Trapezoid7. Capitate (largest)8. hamate
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Variations
Fourth carpometacarpal articulationScaphotrapeziotrapezoid articulationCapitolunate articulationHamatolunate articulation
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Articulations Radiocarpal joints Triquetrum and triangular fibrocartilage Midcarpal articulations Distal row articulations with the matacarpals
1. Mobility in the thumb
2. Stability in the index and long finger metacarpals
3. Increased mobility in the ring and little finger
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Triangular fibrocartilage complexUlnar collateral ligamentDorsal and volar radioulnar ligamentArticular disc(Compressed with Pronation and
Extension Compressed with Ulnar deviation)
Meniscal homologueExtensor carpi ulnaris sheatUlnolunate and ulnotriquetral ligament
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Carpal Ligaments
The major ligaments of the wrist include the palmar intrinsic ligaments, the volar extrinsic and the dorsal extrinsic and intrinsic ligamentsThe extrinsic palmar ligaments provide the
majority of the wrist stabilityThe intrinsic ligaments serve as rotational
restraints, binding the proximal row into a unit of rotational stability
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Radiocarpal Joint Formed by the large articular concave surface of the distal
end of the radius, the scaphoid and lunate of the proximal carpal row, and the TFCC
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extensor retinaculum
The extensor retinaculum compartments, from lateral to medial, contain the tendons of:Abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis
brevisExtensor carpi radialis longus and brevisExtensor pollicis longusExtensor digitorum and indicisExtensor digiti minimiExtensor carpi ulnaris
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The Flexor RetinaculumTransforms the carpal arch into a tunnel, through
which pass the median nerve and some of the tendons of the hand Proximally, the retinaculum attaches to the tubercle of the
scaphoid and the pisiform Distally it attaches to the hook of the hamate, and the tubercle
of the trapezium In the condition known as ‘carpal tunnel syndrome’
the median nerve is compressed in this relatively unyielding space
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Carpal Tunnel
Serves as a conduit for the median nerve and nine flexor tendons The palmar radiocarpal ligament and the palmar ligament
complex form the floor of the canal The roof of the tunnel is formed by the flexor retinaculum
(transverse carpal ligament) The ulnar and radial borders are formed by carpal bones
(trapezium and hook of hamate respectively) Within the tunnel, the median nerve divides into a motor
branch and distal sensory branches
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Tunnel of Guyon
A depression superficial to the flexor retinaculum, located between the hook of the hamate and the pisiform bones The palmar (volar) carpal ligament, palmaris brevis
muscle, and the palmar aponeurosis form its roof Its floor is formed by the flexor retinaculum (transverse
carpal ligament), pisohamate ligament, and pisometacarpal ligament
The tunnel serves as a passage way for the ulnar nerve and artery into the hand
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PhalangesFourteen in numberEach consist of a base, shaft, and headTwo shallow depressions, which correspond to
the pulley-shaped heads of the adjacent phalanges, mark the concave proximal bases
Two distinct convex condyles produce the pulley-shaped configuration of the phalangeal heads
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Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) Joints of the 2nd-5th Fingers
The 2nd-5th metacarpals articulate with the respective proximal phalanges in biaxial joints
The MCP joints allow flexion-extension and medial-lateral deviation associated with a slight degree of axial rotation
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Carpometacarpal JointsArticulation between the distal borders of the
distal carpal row bones and the bases of the metacarpals
Stability of the CMC joints is provided by the palmar and dorsal carpometacarpal and intermetacarpal ligaments
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First Carpometacarpal Joint
Functionally the sellar (saddle-shaped) carpometacarpal (CMC) joint is the most important joint of the thumb
Consists of the articulation between the base of the first metacarpal and the distal aspect of the trapezium
Motions that can occur at this joint include flexion/extension, adduction/abduction and opposition (which includes varying amounts of flexion, internal rotation, and palmar adduction)
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Metacarpophalangeal Joint of the Thumb
A hinge joint Consists of a convex surface on the head of the metacarpal, and
a concave surface on the base of the phalanx
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Interphalangeal (IP) Joints
Adjacent phalanges articulate in hinge joints that allow motion in only one plane
The congruency of the IP joint surfaces contributes greatly to finger joint stability The proximal IP joint is a hinged joint capable of flexion and extension The distal IP joint has similar structures but less stability and allows
some hyperextension.
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Palmar Aponeurosis
A dense fibrous structure continuous with the palmaris longus tendon and fascia covering the thenar and hypothenar muscles
Dupuytren’s contracture is a fibrotic condition of the palmar aponeurosis that results in nodule formation or scarring of the aponeurosis, and which may ultimately cause finger flexion contractures
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Extensor Hood
A complex tendon, which covers the dorsal aspect of the digits is formed from a combination of the tendons of insertion from extensor digitorum, extensor indicis, and extensor digiti minimi
Creates a ‘cable’ system that provides a mechanism for extending the MCP and IP joints, and allows the lumbrical, and possibly interosseous muscles, to assist in the flexion of the MCP joints
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Synovial Sheaths
Long narrow balloons filled with synovial fluid, which wrap around a tendon so that one part of the balloon wall (visceral layer) is directly on the tendon, while the other part of the balloon wall (parietal layer) is separate
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Flexor Pulleys
Annular (A) and cruciate (C) pulleys restrain the flexor tendons to the metacarpals and phalanges and contribute to fibro-osseous tunnels through which the tendons travel A1 from the MP joint and volar plate A2 from the proximal phalanx A3 from the PIP joint volar plate A4 from the middle phalanx A5 from the DIP joint volar plate
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Muscles of the Hand
Short muscles of the thumb Abductor pollicis brevis (APB) Flexor pollicis brevis (FPB) Opponens pollicis (OP) Adductor pollicis (AP)
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Muscles of the Hand
Short muscles of the 5th digit Abductor digiti minimi (ADM) Flexor digiti minimi (FDM) Opponens digit minimi (ODM)
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Muscles of the hand
Interosseous muscles of the hand Three palmar interossei. Each functions to adduct the digit, to which it
is attached, toward the middle digit Four dorsal interossei. Each functions to abduct the index, middle and
ring fingers from the mid-line of the hand
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Muscles of the hand
Lumbricales Function to perform the motion of IP joint extension with the MCP joint
held in extension Can assist in MCP flexion
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Anatomic Snuff Box
A depression on the dorsal surface of the hand at the base of the thumb, just distal to the radius
Formed by the tendons of the APL and EPB, while the ulnar border is formed by the tendon of the EPL
Along the floor of the snuffbox is the deep branch of the radial artery and the tendinous insertion of the ECRL. Underneath these structures, the scaphoid and trapezium bones are found
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Neurology
The three peripheral nerves that supply the skin and muscles of the wrist and hand include the median, ulnar, and radial nerve
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Vasculature of the wrist and hand
The brachial artery bifurcates at the elbow into radial and ulnar branches, which are the main arterial branches to the hand
Vascular arches of the hand Dorsal arches Palmar arches
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Biomechanics The wrist contains several segments whose combined
movements create a total range of motion that is greater than the sum of its individual parts
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Pronation
Approximately 90° of forearm pronation is available During pronation, the concave ulnar notch of the radius glides around
the peripheral surface of the relatively fixed convex ulnar head Pronation is limited by the bony impaction between the radius and the
ulna
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Supination
Approximately 85-90° of forearm supination is available Supination is limited by the interosseous membrane, and the bony
impaction between the ulnar notch of the radius, and the ulnar styloid process
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Wrist flexion and extension
The movements of flexion and extension of the wrist are shared among the radiocarpal articulation, and the intercarpal articulation, in varying proportions
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Wrist flexion and extension
During wrist flexion, most of the motion occurs in the midcarpal joint (60% or 40° versus 40% or 30° at the radiocarpal joint), and is associated with slight ulnar deviation and supination of the forearm
During wrist extension, most of the motion occurs at the radiocarpal joint (66.5% or 40° versus 33.5% or 20° at the midcarpal joint), and is associated with slight radial deviation and pronation of the forearm
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Radial Deviation
Radial deviation occurs primarily between the proximal and distal rows of the carpal bones
The motion of radial deviation is limited by impact of the scaphoid onto the radial styloid, and ulnar collateral ligament
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Ulnar deviation
Ulnar deviation occurs primarily at the radiocarpal joint Ulnar deviation is limited by the radial collateral ligament
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The handThe hand accounts for about 90% of upper limb functionThe thumb is involved in 40-50% of hand functionThe index finger is involved in about 20% of hand
functionThe middle finger, which accounts for about 20%
of all hand function, is the strongest finger, and is important for both precision and power functions
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Thumb motions
Within the first CMC joint, the longitudinal diameter of the articular surface of the trapezium is generally concave from a palmar to dorsal direction
The transverse diameter is generally convex along a medial to lateral direction
The proximal articular surface of the first metacarpal is reciprocally shaped to that of the trapezium
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Thumb flexion and extension
Thumb flexion and extension occur around an anterior-posterior axis in the frontal plane that is perpendicular to the sagittal plane of finger flexion and extension
In this plane, the metacarpal surface is concave, and the trapezium surface is convex
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Thumb abduction and adduction
Thumb abduction and adduction occur around a medial-lateral axis in the sagittal plane, that is perpendicular to the frontal plane of finger abduction and adduction
During thumb abduction and adduction, the convex metacarpal surface moves on the concave trapezium
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A number of grips have been recognized:
Fist gripCylindrical gripBall gripHook gripRing gripPincer gripPliers grip
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history
What is the cause of pain?Mechanism of injury? Previous history?Location, duration and intensity of pain?Creptitus, numbness, distortion in temperature?Sounds or sensations?Technique changes?Weakness or fatigue?What provides relief?
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Observation
The clinician inspects for lacerations, surgical scars, masses, localized swelling, or erythema
Scars should be examined for degree of adherence, degree of maturation, hypertrophy (excess collagen within boundary of wound), and keloid (excess collagen that no longer conforms to wound boundaries)
The location and type of edema should be noted
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Examination AROM, then PROM with over pressure
The gross motions of wrist, hand, finger and thumb flexion, extension, and radial and ulnar deviation are tested, first actively and then passively
Any loss of motion compared with the contralateral, asymptomatic wrist and hand should be noted
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Palpation
Palpation of the muscles, tendon, insertions, ligaments, capsules, bones of the wrist and hand should occur as indicated, and be compared with the uninvolved side
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Pain provocation tests These tests are used to determine the cause of a painful or
dysfunctional motion by systematically testing each of the articulations to see whether the maneuvers reproduce the patient’s symptoms
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Strength testing
Isometric tests are carried out in the extreme range, and if positive, in the neutral range
These isometric tests must include the interossei and lumbricales
The straight plane motions of wrist flexion, extension, ulnar and radial deviation are tested initially
Pain with any of these tests requires a more thorough examination of the individual muscles
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Examination Functional Assessment
The functional range of motion for the hand is the range in which the hand can perform most of its grip and other functional activities
A number of assessment tools are available
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Examination Passive Physiological Mobility Testing
In each of the tests, the clinician notes the quantity of motion as well as the joint reaction (end feel).
The tests are always repeated on, and compared to, the same joint in the opposite extremity
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Passive Accessory Mobility Tests
In each of the tests, the clinician notes the quantity of accessory joint motion as well as the joint reaction
The tests are always repeated on, and compared to, the same joint in the opposite extremity
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Ligament Stability
A number of tests are available to evaluate the ligamentous stability of the forearm, wrist, hand and finger joints
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Neurovascular Status
Allen Test Tinel’s test for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
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Examination Sensibility Testing
The assessment of sensibility of the hand is an important component of every hand examination because sensation is essential for precision movements and object manipulation
Two types of sensibility are assessed Protective Functional
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ExaminationSpecial tests
Carpal Shake test Sit to Stand test Ulnar Impaction test Finkelstein’s test Flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) test Flexor digitorum profundus test Extensor Hood rupture test Froment’s sign Murphy’s sign
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ExaminationDiagnostic testing
Diagnostic testing of the forearm, wrist and hand is limited to plain radiographs for most patients
Bony tenderness with a history of trauma or a suspicion of bone or joint disruption indicates a need for radiographs
Standard projections for the wrist are the posteroanterior, lateral, and oblique
For the patient with a suspicion of a scaphoid injury, a scaphoid view should be added
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Radiographic Anatomy Wrist AP
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Adult Wrist - Lateral View
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CT scan:
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CT
Radius ulna
scaphoid
Lunate
triquetrum
hamate
Capitate
Trapezoid Trapezium
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surface anatomy
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MRI
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ROM
Distal Radioulnar joint Supination and Pronation – 80-90o
Ulna moves posteriorly and laterally with pronation
Radiocarpal joint (and Ulnocarpal joint) Flexion (80-90o) and Extension (75-85o) Radial (20o) and Ulnar (35o) Deviation
Intercarpal joints Gliding
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palpationBony and Soft Tissue Palpation Are they where they should be? Do they feel like they should feel?
Circulatory and Neurological Evaluation Hands should be felt for temperature
Cold hands indicate decreased circulation Take pulse – radial artery Pinching fingernails can also help detect circulatory problems
(capillary refill) Hand’s neurological functioning should also be tested
(sensation and motor functioning)
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