World War II

in

Eastern Asia

World War II in Eastern Asia At the outbreak of the war political relations in the region

were marked by: Japan hegemonic role in the Pacific Ocean

UK colonial presence in the Indian sub-continent, Burma, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong

The Netherlands colonial presence in Indonesia and Western New Guinea

USA in the Philippines, Hawaii, Midway, Marshall

France in Indochina, New Hebrides

World War II in Eastern Asia Though we refer to WWII as a single war in practical terms

there were two separate wars

In Eastern Asia a crucial issue was the tense relations between USSR and Japan

For that reason Japan opted for neutralism in the German-USSR conflict

July 1941: Japan occupied Indochina

Aim was the control over Singapore the centre of British interests in the region

World War II in Eastern Asia

December 7, 1941: Japanese attack on the US naval force at Pearl Harbour This event forced the USA to get involved directly in WWII December 11, 1941 Italy and Germany declared war to the

USA The initial USA reaction was of panic Japanese strategic predominance until the end of 1942

The role of Japan 1937-1941 War with China It started with skirmishes in the proximities of Beijing

and culminated wit the occupation of North-eastern China

In the meantime, between 1935 and 1938 Japan experienced a gradual transition toward an authoritarian and fascist oriented system

The defeat of France in 1940 offered to Japan the chance to expand its control over Indochina

The role of Japan

Japan declared its convergence of interests with Italy and Germany

However, this was more a formal declaration In practical terms the war developed along two

separate paths Japan was not at ease in endorsing Germany’

conflict with the USSR

The role of India

At the outbreak of WWII Indian provinces, being part of the British Colonial Empire were assumed to be automatically part of the Allied Forces

The contribution of India to the war effort was substantial

Many of the Raj’s authorities pledged substantial donations of money

1.200.000 Indian “volunteers” soldiers were dispatched on various fronts (Northern Africa, AOI, Southern Europe, South-eastern Asia)

The role of India On the South-eastern Asian front Indian troupes were

crucial in contrasting Japanese advancement India was the only important supporter of the Allied

forces in Asia India played a crucial logistical role as:

Source of food supply Centre for the production of military materials

(uniforms, parachutes…) Centre of mining activities for military purposes

Attitudes of Indian political elites The Indian National Congress (INC) a nationalist party led

by Mohandas Karamdach Gandhi e Jawaharlal Nehru declared itself against Fascism, Nazism and colonialism

Gandhi wrote an open letter to Hitler in which he supported the ideals of pacifism and tolerance

Many others Indian politicians showed concern at the expansion of Fascism and Nazism

Attitudes of Indian political elites However, the INC emphasised also the contradictory nature

of British request of Indian support against Nazi-Fascism and involvement in WWII

If the reasons for supporting the war effort were the defence of values such as freedom and democracy, the then the UK were the first to deny those values in their Indian policy

Therefore the INC refused to join the war effort if independence was not granted first

Attitudes of Indian political elites

For the UK India represented a territory strategic for the development of WWII

Therefore, to solve this impasse, on 1939 the Governor General of India, unilaterally declared the involvement of India in WWII without previous consultation with Indian leaders.

Subash Chandra Bose Bose, was a former member of the Indian National

Congress He quitted the party because he disagreed on the

choice of non-violence as a strategic value of the party Bose travelled through Europe and met some of the

most prominent political leaders of those years

He came to the conclusion that India should have opted for a transition toward a model of authoritarian socialism inspired to Kemal Ataturk Turkey

Subash Chandra Bose

Subash Chandra Bose At the outbreak of WWll Bose criticised the INC

decision to wait for the end of the war to ask for independence

In the opposite he thought that the political and military weakening of the UK might should have been exploited in order to gain independence

For this reasons Bose, who had already been arrested 11 times, ran away and travelling through Afghanistan reached Europe where he offered his collaboration to Hitler

Subash Chandra Bose

Bose siding with Germany was not based on ideological affinity but rather on the everlasting principle “the enemy of my enemies is my friend”

From Germany Bose organised radio broadcasts addressed to India and tried also to organise an Indian Legion composed mainly of Indian POW

Disillusioned by the little support Hitler gave to him and by anti-Semitic policies and by the invasion of the Bose moved to Japan

Subash Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army

With Japanese support Bose organised the Indian National Army (INA)

INA was a military organisation which had as aim the liberation of India from British occupation

INA had about 85.000 regular troupes including a female unit, the first of this kind in Asia

INA was under the political rule of a Provisional Government of Free India, acknowledged by 9 countries (Germany, Japan, Italy, Thailand, Croatia, Burma Provisional Government, Wang Jingwei of Nanjing, Manchukwo and Japanese Philippines)

Subash Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army

The INA took part to some of the relevant battles in the Pacific Ocean against the UK (Arakan, Meiktila)

The Provisional Government of Free India managed to occupy and administer some territories in the Pacific island such as Moirang e Manipur

The INA and the Provisional Government of Free India surrendered after the defeat of Japan and after a long trial disappeared from the political arena

Indonesia and WWII On May 1940 German invasion of the Netherlands A first direct consequence was the siege of Dutch Eastern

Indies by Japan The Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische

Compagnie) was founded in 1602 as a chartered company Between 1602 and 1796 was the strongest commercial

power in South-eastern Asia It was dismantled in 1800 and part of its territories

transferred to the (United) Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814

The Dutch East India Company

Dutch East Indies

Indonesia and WWII

On May 1940 German invasion of the Netherlands Dutch Eastern Indies declared the state of siege and tried

to negotiate oil supply with Japan The negotiation failed and on June 1941 Japan conquered

the region On the same period independentist movements had

started negotiations with Japan in order to organise a revolt against Dutch occupation

Indonesia and WWII The last remain of Dutch troupes were defeated by Japan

on March 1942

On July 1942 the Indonesian leader Sukarno agreed on the Japanese proposal to mobilise Indonesian people to support the war efforts of Japan

Indonesian nationalist supported Japan as they deemed that was their best chance to achieve decolonisation and independence

Indonesia and WWII On March 1945 under Japanese auspices was

established a committee to define the best strategy for the achievement of independence, the Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (BPUPKI)

The main approaches were: Policy of national integration Annexation of coterminous territories (Malaysia,

Timor East, Sarawak and the remaining former Dutch territories)

Indonesia and WWII

On May 1940 German invasion of the Netherlands Dutch Eastern Indies declared the state of siege and

tried to negotiate oil supply with Japan The negotiation failed and on June 1941 Japan

conquered the region On the same period independentist movements had

started negotiations with Japan in order to organise a revolt against Dutch occupation

The BPUPKI drafted also the Constitutional Charter still implemented in Indonesia

On August, 1945 Sukarno and other Indonesian nationalist leaders met in Vietnam to negotiate the independence which was promised for August 24.

However, due to the defeat and surrender of Japan, on August 17 Sukarno declared unilaterally the independence of Indonesia.

Indonesia and WWII

Japan in the Pacific and Indian Ocean

The issue of the role played by Japan in the region is a controversial one

On one side Japan acted as an anti-colonial force

To this end Japan capitalised on the prestige he had accumulated starting from the Meiji reforms of 1868

The Meiji reforms were in part the reaction to the incident of Commodore Matthew C. Perry of 1853

Perry appeared with four-ship squadron in Edo Bay (Tokyo Bay) and imposed heavy trade regulations on the Japanese authorities

Japan in the Pacific and Indian Ocean The Meiji reforms aimed at enabling Japan to face the

challenge of Western hegemonic ambitions This was achieved through:

Fast industrialization Land reforms Reform of the army (substantial reduction of size and role

of the samurai) Administrative reforms Reforms in the educational sector

Japan in the Pacific and in the Indian Ocean

On the other side Japanese role is much more nuanced as its attitudes were different and less accommodating in regions that were considered vital for Japanese strategic interests

In these regions there were repeated cases of torture, arbitrary detention, extra-judicial killing and forced labour

One of the most notorious cases was the Nanjing Massacre, also known as the Rape of Nanjing (December 1937)

The Rape of Nanjing

The Rape of Nanjing For six weeks after the occupation of the city:

between 40,000 to over 300,000 (estimates vary) Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army

There was also widespread rape and looting

And thousand of people were deliberately left do die of hunger

Several of the key perpetrators of the atrocities, were later tried and found guilty at the International Military Tribunal of the Far East and the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal, and were executed.