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Running head: PAPER FOR CROSS-CULTURAL 1

Paper for Cross-Cultural

Makayla D. Evans

Longwood University

PAPER FOR CROSS-CULTURAL 2

Throughout the book, Crazy Like Us: The Globalization of the American Psyche, written

by Ethan Watters describes how Western ideas and theories are moving through the world as a

deadly “disease”. In this book, this idea will be explained through four very different cultures

suffering from four vastly different disorders. They all have one thing in common, and that is the

globalization of one set of rules of Western standardized thinking.

The Rise of Anorexia in Hong Kong

The chapter in this book begins with the author passing through the subway and noticing

the many ads and posters being thrown to the public for their amusement. He notes that the

beauty industry has found its way to being one of the biggest spenders in advertising. This only

leaves the author to wonder what kind of impression this mass media portrayal of thin, beautiful

models is leaving on adolescent girls in Hong Kong. It is safe to say that the rise in bulimia and

anorexia in the past 15 years might have a connection with the push for more marketing from the

beauty industry.

The author finds himself at the office of Dr. Sing Lee, who was the first to publicize

anything regarding the rise of anorexia in Hong Kong. Lee discusses with him the possible

answers for the rise of anorexia and his work towards bringing awareness to the differences that

he has found in his atypical cases that are different from the West’s view of the disorder that has

become the norm. Lee recalls becoming interested in this subject when he found that the disorder

known as anorexia had not been documented outside of the United States until the mid-1980s,

and that cases were just starting to pop up in other countries like Russia and Europe. Lee found it

odd that there had not been any documented cases of anorexia up to that date, so he started the

search. He wanted to fully understand the cause and cultural differences around this disorder. He

first assumed that there had not been any cases because the Chinese accepted the larger body


shapes. However, he did find one case of a 31-year-old woman named Jiao. She had all of the

physical and biological symptoms of anorexia that was similar to the Western version; for

example, her strength was frail and her skin was ghostly pale. Jiao only weighed 48 pounds.

After digging into her background, Lee found that Jiao came from a rural village and her illness

started four years earlier when her boyfriend moved away. She began to deny food because she

had pain in her abdomen. Lee decided to give Jiao a few standardized test and her responses

were completely different from those of a person suffering from the Western form of anorexia.

When asked to draw herself she drew a small, stick figure, which in contrast someone in the

West would draw themselves as fatter than they actually were. Lee realized that he had found

something different that would motivate him to further his research for this strange illness.

Lee took notice that a lot of his patients were from small, rural villages where it was

difficult for mass media to reach. The type of person who would suffer from anorexia in the

West would often be adolescent girls from well-to-do families. He notes that in a situation like

doctors are often put in, it is very easy to try and make a patient fit within one set of rules and

guidelines. After the death of his patient, Jiao, Lee came to the conclusion that what he needed

was a personal view of this illness, not a globalized standard.

Lee decided to experiment by actually becoming an anorexic. He started to deny himself

food and he states that after three months he began to feel even better than he did before. He was

on a sort of runner’s high that keep him going throughout the day and by the time he decided to

end he had lost 12 percent of his body weight. During this time frame he could see the world

through the eyes of someone suffering from anorexia to further understand how to treat this

mysterious disorder.


The problem was that the researchers had trouble making a connection between the rise

of eating disorders and Western acculturation. So Lee begun his research into the history of

eating disorders to get a better understanding. In publications by Edward Shorter, Lee found that

the cases documented over 100 years ago were very close to the ones he was seeing today.

Shorter described one word that would be useful when trying to explain the cause of this, and

that was hysteria. This idea of hysteria included something along the lines of a “symptom pool,”

in which numerous different ailments were known for the illness of anorexia and it was not

uncommon in the past to see young girls all complaining of the same problem at the same time.

Once doctors officially named the disorder, cases began to rise. In attempts to add further

research on the topic they were only providing the mass media more information to promote the

spread of the disorder. Patients would consciously or unconsciously take notice of this and adopt

the symptoms in an effort to express the emotional conflicts they were exhibiting within

themselves. This is because in Chinese culture they often use physical ailments to explain their

emotional issues. However, there were still novel cases coming to the surface, like Lee’s

patients, but each disorder needs to be understood within a cultural context before any efforts

should be made to treat it.

The case of 14-year-old Charlene Hsu Chi-Ying was one that became famous after the

mass media found out about it. On her walk home from school Charlene collapses dead on a

busy Hong Kong street. She was almost unrecognizable from her picture because she was so

emaciated. This story became the headlines for many newspaper and magazines which propelled

many awareness that followed. Most of the time the media coverage only worsened the efforts of

doctors pushing for more culturally-driven understanding because they mainly relied on the

Westerner’s view of the ailment. This is when the shift began from a culturally diverse disorder


to one that revolved around the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).

This made eating disorders become the go-to solution for expressing their psychological

problems.

Lee points out that the popularity of the disorder will only wither unless it becomes

outdated as far as people being able to communicate their problems. Until then, doctors have to

walk a fine line between trying to warn their patients without glamorizing the disorder.

Furthermore, doctors will have to fight the fact that the DSM and its growing dominance has

become a world standard set by the Western culture.

Further Research

Pike, Hoek, and Dunne (2014) point out in their review entitled, “Cultural Trends and

Eating Disorders” that eating disorders are indeed changing due to the Westernization of the

disorders. They admit that for a while, the study of eating disorders were based on the Caucasian,

young adults that came from higher income families, but now, as they report, studies are starting

to include other countries and the effect of the influence of Western culture and eating disorders

(Pike et al., 2014).

One of the diverse cultures discussed in the text are those countries considered to be a

part of the ‘Arab region’. The researchers admit that the research here is limited, but studies

show there is an increase of eating disorders in this region. Eating disorders were first reported in

Egypt during the 1980s, mainly by neighboring Pakistan. The two countries from Pakistan,

Lahore and Mirpur, are said to have closer ties to Western culture which is said to have an

influence on the level and structure of this disorder. It is worth pointing out that the ideal

consistent throughout these two countries is an idealization of thinner figures. Also, body

misperception is common and it individuals to warp reality. These misconceptions are taking


their toll on school age children because they are adopting the same thought processes of their

older counterparts. In these countries men are reporting more cases compared to the

Westernized male population. In fact, the first case to be documented in Iraq was that of a 14-

year-old male who was similar to those cases found in the west (Pike et al., 2014).

Throughout this review, the researchers keep comparing the cases in the Arab region to

those found in the West which points out the spread of the westernized version of eating

disorders. As this way of thinking becomes more and more popular, culture specific and uniquely

diverse proponents are lost in translation. What is found in this article is what Dr. Lee and many

others are trying to prevent, and that is the loss of independent thinking when dealing with

deadly diseases, which could prevent one from finding an appropriate means of treatment. More

and more, the Western version of eating disorders is spreading throughout the world and this

standard of diagnosis is becoming the norm while removing the differences around the world.

The Wave That Brought PTSD to Sri Lanka

The author opens this chapter by introducing us to a women named Debra Wentz, who is

the director of the New Jersey Association of Mental Health Agencies. She traveled to Sri Lanka

to attend an event one day before the deadly tsunami tore through the coast in 2004. While

traveling throughout the small town, she saw that the roads were flooded, forcing her and another

guest to move to higher ground. Later that day she realized what had happened. A huge tsunami

wiped out not only sections of the town, but also killed a quarter million people. Wentz realized

that the people who suffered from this event would need serious psychological help, so she

contacted the office of the prime minister advising that he take immediate action to aid the

people who witnessed the event claiming that there would be serious mental health illnesses to

be addressed.


Wentz actions were genuine in her need to help, but it simply points out the assumption

that most Western mental health specialists hold is that illnesses, like Post-traumatic Stress

Disorder or PTSD, is universal. Soon, psychologist around the world were making assumptions

about the effect that the tsunami left on Sri Lankan citizens, and within a month, psychologist

and mental specialist alike from all over the world were all flocking to Sri Lanka in response to

this horrific freak of nature that was sure to leave behind some sort of helpless community.

Although, like the author points out, Westerners trained in the field of trauma believe that the

rules and guidelines that have been established should work for all cultures alike, but what works

in the Western culture may not work for other cultures because each culture follows their own

healing process and they react differently to disasters. Nevertheless, organizations recruited

volunteers much like the army would recruit soldiers.

In the days following the tsunami, some locals realized that a lot of the mental health

experts that had arrived to help were simply not trained in the local culture or language of the

community. One faculty member from a local university pleaded to counselors to take into

consideration that psychological problems are not universal but are embedded into the culture

surrounding the people. Then, when the locals did not respond in the way counselors expected

them to, the counselors reported to news and magazines that the people were simply in denial of

what has happened.

The longer counselors and psychologists stayed, it seemed as though they were making

things worse. Feuds broke out between counselors as to which set of people would receive which

type of treatment, and when people did receive treatment it was a world wind of questions that

was facilitated by a translator. Also, fewer than half of the mental health specialist who came to

help registered. Which meant that only few were actually working together, versus those who


were free-lancing. Not to mention, there were counseling training sessions set up that taught the

basics of how to spot and treat PTSD. Since the sessions were open to everyone, a lot of children

were given certificates saying that they were trained in the knowledge of Western ideas of PTSD.

One of the more ethical concerns regarding this situation was when psychologists started

to swarm refugee camps to collect blood samples, ask deeply personal questions, and hook the

people up to machines. None of the people knew that they could opt out of participating in these

experiments. It was almost if the researchers were using the people in the refugee camps as lab

rats in their experiments. Also, counselors were training teachers in the schools how to recognize

the signs of PTSD in students and complete a checklist for the purpose of collecting data for the

researchers not for the sake of helping the children.

Dr. Gaithri Fernando, an assistant professor of psychology at California State University,

pointed out that Sri Lankans react to trauma different than Americans in two different ways,

according to the scale of measurement she calls the Sri Lankan Index of Psychological Status,

which she created after conducting a large-scale survey. She says that after a serious event Sri

Lankans tend to experience physical pain, and that their social relationships tend to suffer.

Not only did psychologist overlook the local customs and beliefs, but they did not think

that even in the United States PTSD has changed so much within the past 100 years because of

the ever so changing Western culture. The author makes this point because psychologist should

realize that illnesses are not a set of rules or regulations, but rather something that is culturally

driven, and sometimes the label of PTSD cannot fully embody the real suffering of people.

Further Research

Tural et al. (2004) completed a study in Turkey after the 1999 earthquake to study the

prevalence rates of PTSD. The earthquake rated 7.4 on the Richter scale shook the citizens of


Kocaeli, Sakarya, Bursa, and Istanbul. That day, over 15,000 people died and over 23,000 people

were injured, not to mention the property damage. Soon after the quake, psychologist from

Kocaeli University Psychiatry Department rushed to camps set up counseling for those affected

(Tural et al., 2004).

There were 910 participants selected from those living in the refugee camps for the study.

Researchers selected their participants by whoever had the closest birthday to the day of the

earthquake. After receiving oral consent, the researchers then gave the participants a survey they

called the “earthquake inquiry” form. The survey consisted of an hour long paper and pencil

assessment that asked questions about the person background and demographics, along with their

risk factor for developing PTSD. Their study consisted of more women than men, and less than

half of all the participants had some sort of education (Tural et al., 2004).

After completing a Chi-square test, the researchers found that there was a prevalence rate

of 25% according to the DSM-IV guidelines. This rate was higher than in similar developing

countries. The authors point out that the PTSD they saw ranged in severity all depending on what

the participant encountered. They also pointed out that women were more likely to develop

PTSD than men, which made a difference since over half of their participants were female. Also,

other social factors came into play that depended on how bad the diagnosis of PTSD was; for

example, those who suffered a loss of income suffered much more than those who did not (Tural

et al., 2004).

As the chapter in the book Crazy Like Us points out, any psychologist during the 1990s

were into PTSD because that is where all the hype was during that time. At least in this study,

the researchers took time to follow every ethical guideline during their time spent with their

participants, and their participants were fully aware of what was going on. Also, the victims were


being cared for by mental health specialist from a local University who understood the cultural

background of each victim and how they reacted to disasters. This study shows the proper way of

how to handle victims of natural disasters, or any traumatic event, in a way that addresses the

issues culturally versus addressing it in a universal way.

The Shifting Mask of Schizophrenia in Zanzibar

This chapter begins in the setting of Zanzibar, Africa, where the author is studying with

his host, Dr. Juli McGruder, a retired teacher now living and studying the topic of schizophrenia

among three families in Zanzibar. Her research has brought her to Zanzibar to answer a question

that has long been pondered in the face of mental illnesses, and that is the question of how is it

that people diagnosed with this illness living in a developing country have a better chance at

recovery versus those who live in more industrialized nations.

Within the first few pages, McGruder shares some insight with the author that, as the

reader will find out later, is shared among all citizens of Zanzibar. She says that her business and

romantic partner received a phone call informing him that his daughter had passed away. When

the author asked how he was doing, McGruder simply said that men in Zanzibar did not tend to

show emotion compared to those in the West. This concept seems to be universal throughout the

attitudes and beliefs held and shared by people of Zanzibar and this is shown through the

families that McGruder has studied.

However, the question is still being raised throughout the text of how someone in

Zanzibar might find it easier to cope and overcome the illness of Schizophrenia compared to

those in the United States. One difference among these cultures is the symptoms. For example,

the hallucinations tend to embody the external forces surrounding an individual, and the type of

hallucinations differ also. Also, the prevalence rates differ from country to country along with


the severity. This shows that mental illnesses such as schizophrenia should not be thought of as a

cookie cutter mold that is always the same, but rather something that is influenced by the culture

and the ever changing times, and this concept is what drives McGruder in her research.

Being inspired by the results of two major studies by the World Health Organization

(WHO), which found that severity rates differed, McGruder wanted to find out the reason behind

this. She posed the questions of how the culture treated the mental illness of schizophrenia along

with how the caregivers and family handled this situation. She tried to answer these questions

through the families she studied, one of which consisted of a man named Hemed who was

diagnosed along the times of a shifting political front in Zanzibar. His caregiver was represented

by his ex-wife named Amina. Hemed was admitted into the local hospital where he was given

medication along with the western treatment of electroconvulsive therapy. Only years later, their

daughter Kimwana was diagnosed with schizophrenia. This raises the question that has long been

debated of whether metal illnesses are somewhat hereditary or is it something brought on by the

individual’s surroundings. Looking at it from the nature argument, which consist of mental

illnesses being inherited, someone could easily say that it was bound to happen considering

Hemed and Amina have six children together. However, someone who stands on the side of the

nurture argument believes that Kimwana’s disorder was brought on by the stress that was found

throughout her everyday life.

Amina, now caring for both an ex-husband and a daughter with the same mental illness,

could be seen as being emotionally distant, but this point of view was found to be normal. When

McGruder were ask her questions regarding the state of Hemed and Kimwana she would give

simple answers and would often say that she could not answer the questions because she was not

in their shoes. What surprised McGruder the most was the outlook Amina had regarding her


situation. She believed that God sent her these difficulties because he knew that she could handle

it, and that it was God’s will. Amina cared for both Hemed and Kimwana, but her attitude was

different from the extremists’ attitude some took when faced with this dilemma.

Psychiatrist have found that there is something called “expressed emotion” which some

family members and caregivers could have in response to their loved one being diagnosed with

an illness. Someone with high-expressed emotion are only trying to help but their good

intentions often make things worse because they can become over-involved in their patient’s life

and actually make the condition worse.

McGruder witnessed a case such as this in another family she was studying. Shazrin al-

Mitende was being cared for by her half-brother Abdulridha who had become over-involved in

her case. He was influenced by an American psychiatrist, Charles Swift, who felt the culture’s

need to explain mental illness through the act of spirit possession was outdated and that he need

to bring the concepts of western medicine to these uneducated people. The more Abdulridha

immersed himself in western knowledge the higher his expressed emotion became. He felt that

his sister could be cured simply by taking a pill. Not knowing, Abdulridha’s actions affecting

Shazrin’s condition drastically.

This biomedical view that Abdulridha took is slowly growing in popularity and our

outlook determines how we treat our mentally ill. In various studies across cultures, results are

showing that when we adopt the notion that the brain is broken the more we start to associate

negative attributes with those suffering from an illness and we begin to distance ourselves

because it carries the connotation that this is permanent. This exclusion competes with the idea

that treatment for mental illnesses is something that does not exclude the patient but rather

incorporates them in their progress. McGruder points out that this is a key difference in


determining the answer to the question of how people with schizophrenia can have a better

prognosis in some places versus others.

Further Research

A case study conducted by Takeuchi (2000) followed the progress of a 13-year-old

biracial girl, who will be called C, living in the United States who was diagnosed with

Schizophreniform disorder. Her parents, her Tongan mother and a Caucasian father, noticed a

change in her behavior around the time her grandfather passed away and her mother had to leave

for Tonga to care for him before his death. Tonga is a small cluster of islands much like Hawaii

but it is located to the east of Australia. Her symptoms included a shift in attitude, much often it

was the outbursts for need of attention from her mother, and it also included her complaining of

hearing voices and was often found talking to herself (Takeuchi, 2000).

It was believed that C’s condition was brought on by her mother’s absence considering

how close she was to her mother. They would often sleep in the same bed together which left the

father to sleep somewhere else. However, C’s family’s psychiatric history is interesting in the

fact that both her mother and her maternal grandmother suffered from something called

fakamahaki in there earlier adult life, which is a common in the Tonga culture and involves

hearing voices of dead relatives. Her mother states that both she and her grandmother have been

cured by herbal medicines that are a common remedy (Takeuchi, 2000).

With both parents concerned for their daughter’s well-being, they discussed the options

of her treatment whether it be traditional Tonga herbal remedies or a more westernized form of

treatment. Since their resources for Tonga medicine was limited being in the United States, they

agreed that they would try and treat C by taking her to see a psychiatrist. That psychiatrist then

put C on medication which they documented as stopping her hallucinations. It was not until a


short time later that C had worsened and her medication was not working anymore, so C and her

mother left for Tonga to see a witch doctor. Visiting with the traditional healer seemed to have

helped C because her whole demeanor had changed in her visit with her psychiatrists after the

trip (Takeuchi, 2000).

This case study shows how traumatic it can be to take away the cultural proponent in a

mental illness when trying to treat it. Even though C lived in the United States, her mother was

very traditional and tried to pass her knowledge down to her daughter by teaching her the

language and kept her in close contact with her family back in Tonga. C was very well

enculturated with both sides of her family, but she felt a closer bond to her mother’s culture. Just

like in Shazrin’s case, when her cultural surroundings were taken from her she only worsened.

The Mega-Marketing of Depression in Japan

This chapter begins in the office of Dr. Laurence Kirmayer, the director of the Division

of Social and Transcultural Psychiatry at McGill University and a psychiatrist at a private

practice, as he reflects on his run in with one of the leading pharmaceutical companies called

GlaxoSmithKline. It was in fall of 2000 that Kirmayer was invited to a conference on depression

and anxiety, which was sponsored by GlaxoSmithKline, and he found the accommodations

provided from the company was far beyond anything he had ever experienced before. He noted

that something was very different from the type of conference he was used to. In other

conferences sponsored by drug companies they would usually exchange lavish accommodations

for doctors to sit through a seminar about a recent drug; however, he found that they were only

interested how cultures affect different illnesses, particularly depression.

With the use of drugs such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) on the rise

in popularity, companies began to question why they had not been introduced into Japan. Further


looking into the topic most companies found that most citizens did not acknowledge the disorder

of depression. Even though, they did have the name for it in Japan, utsubyÔ, it was considered to

be as bad as schizophrenia and rare, compared to the subtle disorder Western culture believes it

to be. It was soon clear why Kirmayer and the other prominent individuals were there at the

conference. GlaxoSmithKline was learning how to change the face of the disorder and

effectively market the antidepressant Paxil to those in Japan.

When it came time for Kirmayer to speak, he explained that depression is experienced

differently throughout the world. For example, a lot of cultures experience depression as a

physical illness somewhere on the body, while other cultures experience it emotionally like those

in the west. Kirmayer called these differences “explanatory models,” and he pointed out that

understanding the cultural context is necessary before understanding the illness.

Sometime earlier in Japan’s history, neurasthenia was introduced into Japan as a disease

of the nerves. This disease soon became the answer to all of the ongoing problems in Japan, from

drug abuse to economic downfalls. Citizens were told to be cautious of various symptoms like

pains in the stomach, eye fatigue, and lack of concentration. Since people understood this disease

to be an illness of the brain, a stigma grew within the society and people began to think that only

the weak develop this mental disorder. This is why in later history there is no such a word in

Japanese that means the same as depression in the Western culture, only words that describe a

more serious state.

It was not long before pharmaceutical companies began introducing the slogan kokoro no

kaze, which translates to the catch phrase “a cold of the soul.” They wanted to expand the idea

that depression is nothing more than a simple cold and that everyone experiences a cold every


now and then. Psychiatrists that use to not see anyone other than those with extreme mental

illnesses, soon found themselves in high demand regarding more common emotional disorders.

Drug companies hit a brick wall when they found that their drugs needed to be retested in

Japan and on Japanese participants, and some of those tests failed to show significant

differences. Drug companies began to offer grants for those who were willing to conduct the

research on their drugs, and the ones that were lucky enough to find some type of favorable

results found themselves in a situation that was less than kosher. Companies would award further

research funding and even paying researchers for their contribution, while the majority of those

studies that did not support the drug was going unpublished. Some of the studies published put

people’s lives in danger, considering that in earlier papers researchers reported suicide rates and

nervous system problems were higher in some patients put on the drugs. These results would

have stayed tucked away if it had not been for the lawsuits being presented.

Despite all of the obstacles, GlaxoSmithKline was bringing in over one billion dollars in

Japan by the year 2008 from drug sales. Toward the end of the author’s interview with Kirmayer,

he tells about how he has seen a drastic change in the face of depression in Japan. It is his belief

that doctors are over prescribing various antidepressants and does not feel as though it is

necessary. He feels as though he can only watch as this new trend progresses and makes its way

through contemporary Japanese culture.

Within the chapter is an interesting study that testing how different cultures, Japanese and

Americans, viewed depression. Results showed that Japanese participants related more words to

depression that were considered external compared to the American participants who related

more internal terms. This is because of the difference in cultures. Japan is a collectivistic culture


in which they think of those around them as they navigate through life, while the United States

tends to be an individualistic culture geared towards the advancement of the individual.

Further Research

A study conducted by Fernández-Berrocal, Salovey, Vera, Extremera, and Ramos (2005)

tested if culture has an effect on how aware someone is of their emotional state, and in this

particular research they were using the emotion of depression. They assessed three different

countries: United States, Chile, and Spain. They also took into consideration where these

countries fell on Hofstede’s dimensions of Individualism-Collectivism and Masculinity-

Femininity (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2005).

Participants were tested using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale based on three different

qualities of attention, how aware they are of their emotions, clarity, how well they understand

their emotions, and repair, what steps they take in order to balance their emotions. They were

also tested using the Beck Depression Inventory to test their levels of depression. The test that

composed of questions from both tests were translated and back-translated to ensure that they

were similar across languages. Researchers found that individualistic and feminine cultures had

higher levels of depression or identified higher with depression than those in the collectivistic

and masculine cultures (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2005).

Out of the two countries that were tested in this study, Chile was the only one considered

to be a collectivistic culture. Chile was found to have the lowest level of attention, or awareness

of their emotions, and the lowest level of repair, or ability to fix any emotional problems

(Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2005). This leaves the question of whether or not these results could

potentially be generalizable to all collectivistic cultures.


Like Chile, Japan and all other Asian cultures are considered to be a collectivistic culture.

This means that they set the group’s needs before their own in every situation. The results from

the study could be generalized to Japanese culture because in the beginning of the chapter the

author points out that people of Japan did not seek help for their depression because it carried a

mental stigma and some even believed that it was not that serious of an issue. With that being

said, people of Japan could be said to have low levels of awareness because they simply ignored

the issue if there was one. However, the marketing of antidepressants by the drug companies

made it clear as to what to look out for as far as symptoms and where to seek help, so there was

not a problem with the repair of the emotions. This chapter leaves the reader to wonder how this

shift in thinking will forever change the face of depression in Japan.


References

Fernández-Berrocal, P., Salovey, P., Vera, A., Extremera, N., & Ramos, N. (2005). Cultural

influences on the relation between perceived emotional intelligence and depression.

Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 18(1), 91-107. Retrieved from

http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Cultural%20influences%20on%20the%20relation

%20between%20perceived%20emotional%20intelligence%20and%20depression.

Pike, K. M., Hoek, H. W., & Dunne, P. E. (2014). Cultural trends and eating disorders. Current

Opinion in Psychiatry, 27(6), 436-442. doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000100

Takeuchi, J. (2000). Treatment of a biracial child with schizophreniform disorder: cultural

formulation. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 6(1), 93-101. doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.6.1.93

Tural, U., Coskun, B., Onder, E., Corapcioglu, A., Yildiz, M., Kesepara, C., . . . Aybar, G.

(2004). Psychological consequences of the 1999 earthquake in turkey. Journal of

Traumatic Stress, 17(6), 451-459. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10960-004-5793-9

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