on

“Nutritional Technological Interventions for the Promotion of Livestock in NE Region of India”

Proceedings of the Workshop

3rd - 4th May, 2005

Edited by

J . J . Gupta P. B . Reddy

D . A . Murugkar

Organised by

Animal Nutrition Society of Indiaand

ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region Umroi Road, Umiam – 793 103, Meghalaya (India)

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on

“Nutritional Technological Interventions for the Promotion of Livestock in NE Region of India”

Proceedings of the Workshop

3rd - 4th May, 2005

Edited by

J . J . Gupta P. B . Reddy

D . A . Murugkar

Organised by

Animal Nutrition Society of Indiaand

ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region Umroi Road, Umiam – 793 103, Meghalaya (India)

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Dr. K.M. BujarbaruahDirectorICAR Research Complex For NEH Region

Message

Livestock Sub Sector in North East India is the most important agricultural sector for not only household food and nutritional security but also for the economic security of the rural tribal population. This is particularly so because of the monocropping system and subsistence agriculture which, leaves the land fallow for about 5-6 months in a year. Moreover, no tribal diet could be thought of without animal food component.

Although, the region, for example, has around 24% of the pig population in the country, the region paradoxically has to depend on outside sources for meeting its pork requirement. Same is the case with beef, chicken and eggs. This scenario has been found to be basically due to the non- availability of quality feed and fodder. The technological innovations like Urea molasses, mineral mixture block, by pass protein, probiotics etc. have not reached this part of the country.

Commercial production of the identified feed and fodder resources has not taken place for which, need based supportive feed formula for large-scale adoption could not be adopted by the resource poor farmers. If a suitable feeding strategy for both ruminant and non ruminant is developed based on local and cheaper to be borrowed feed ingredients from outside the region, the issue of addressing rural poverty through low cost animal husbandry production programme in the region could be achieved.

The Workshop on “ Nutritional Technological Interventions for the Promotion of Livestock in NE Region of India”, which is being held from 3rd –4th, May, 2005 is expected to come out with suitable technological livestock feed intervention packages as many of the distinguished scientists working on feed sector development are providing their inputs for achieving the same.

I am sure the identified issues covered in this Compendium shall help in knowledge up gradation and also in its application for developing suitable interventions in livestock feed sector not only for the region but also for the country.

I wish to compliment Dr. J.J. Gupta, Dr. Dipika Agrahar-Murugkar and Dr. P.B. Reddy for taking pain in compiling the information and bringing out this Compendium.

K.M. Bujarbaruah

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Different Sub-Committees for Eastern Zone Regional Workshop of ANSIheld at ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam on 3rd –4th May 2005

Organizing Committee:1. Dr. K.M. Bujarbaruah (Director

& President Workshop)2. Dr. Y.P. Sharma (Jt. Director)3. Dr. S.N. Rai (Sec. ANSI & Vice

President Workshop)4. Dr. J.J. Gupta (Org. Sec.

Workshop)5. Dr. S.C. Saxena (Prin. Scientist &

Head)6. Dr. A. Das (Prin. Scientist & In-

charge, NRC Pig))7. Dr. H. Rahman (Prin. Scientist &

Head)8. Dr. R.K. Bardoloi (Prin. Scientist

& Head)9. Dr. S. Bandyopadhyay (Sr.

Scientist & Head)

Food Committee:1. Dr. A. Das (Convenor)2. Dr. J.J. Gupta3. Dr. Ashok Kumar4. Dr. S.K. Naskar5. Dr. Sunil Doley6. Mr. S.K. Dewedi7. Mr. S.K. Sen8. Mr. G.N. Singh

Registration Committee:1. Dr. H. Rahman (Convenor)2. Dr. D.A. Murugkar3. Dr. R. Shome4. Dr. I. Shakuntala5. Dr. Sunil Doley6. Dr. Santosh Haunshi7. Mr. A.S. Shongwan8. Mr. T. Dkhar9. Ms. Minakshi Borah

Transport Committee:1. Dr. P.B. Reddy (Convenor)2. Er. K.K. Datta 3. Mr. S.K. Sen4. Mr. A. S. Shongwan

Accommodation Committee:1. Dr. H.V. Murugkar (Convenor)2. Dr. J.J. Gupta3. Dr. B.R. Shome4. Dr. S.K. Das5. Dr. P.B. Reddy6. Dr. Sunil Doley7. Mr. S.K. Sen8. Mr. G.N. Singh

Hall Arrangement & Program Execution Committee: 1. Dr. P.P. Pal (Convenor)2. Dr. D.A. Murugkar3. Dr. Sunil Doley4. Dr. Rajesh Kumar (Ext.)5. Mr. A.K. Acharya6. Mr. Ratnakar Patel7. Mr. Benjamin Kaman8. Mr. T. Dkhar

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Table of Contents

S.No Title Page NoTech. Session-I: Feeds and feeding system of dairy

1 Nutritional Technologies Intervention For the Promotion of Dairy - S.N. Rai

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2 Mineral Status in Feeds, Fodders and Animals and Their supplements - R.C.Chopra

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3 Approaches For Commercialization Of Dairy Feed Industries In NE India - K.K. Barua

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4 Environmental Issues Related To Animal Production - G P Singh 16Tech. Session-II: Feed technology and Commercialization

1 Protected Energy In Dairy Feed And Commercial Implications

- S.S.Thakur 20

2 Bypass Protein Feeding in Dairy Animals and its Commercial Implications - T.K.Walli

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3 Assured Quality Feed Manufacturing Through Ingredient Selection and Feed Mill Sanitation - J.P.Sehgal and Vimal K Tripathi

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4 Supplementation of Poor Quality Roughages With Urea Molasses MineralBlocks For Improved Health and Production Of Ruminants - Usha R.Mehra

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5 Perspectives of Feed Processing for Improving Animal Production In North East Hills - P. Singh

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Tech. Session-III: Swine production and feeding

1 Status and Scope of Piggery Development in Eastern India

- S. K. Singh 49

2 Feeds and Feeding System of Swine in North -East India -J.J.Gupta and P.B. Reddy

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3 Status of Swine Feeding System In Mizoram - A. Kumaresan , K.A. Pathak , K. M. Bujarbaruah and Anubrata Das

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4 Nutritional Technological Interventions for the Promotion of Swine Production in North Eastern Region of India - R.Bhuyan, B.N.Saikia and B.Phukan

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NUTRITIONAL TECHNOLOGIES INTERVENTION FOR THE PROMOTION OF DAIRY

S.N. RaiPrincipal Scientist

Dairy Cattle Nutrition Division,National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana

IntroductionIndia is predominantly an agrarian country with varied eco-climatic zones. Indian

agriculture has traditionally been associated with the livestock and there has been a symbiotic relationship between them since the date of civilization. Livestock sector not only contributes to the rural economy by providing milk, meat, wool, manure, urine energy etc. and provides an avenue for huge self-employment. This is to be evident by the fact that more than 50% of the rural population is engaged in rearing of livestock and its contribution in the total GDP is estimated to be about 9 %, which itself depicts its valuable contribution to socio-economic upliftment of the downtrodden section of the society.

Low livestock productivity is ascribed mainly due to poor nourishment of animal. Nutritious and balanced feeding of livestock is a major limiting factor in realizing optimum livestock production. Low productivity of livestock in our country is a matter of great concern, which is primarily due to poor quality fodder and feed resources. So there is an urgent need to develop grassland and fodder development policies and programmes as well as better utilization of natural resources to cater the nutritional requirements of livestock. The feed resources comprised of crop residues, fodder, agricultural by products, top feed and grazing on already dwindling pasture and wastelands. The feeding cost constitutes about 60-65% of total cost of animal production. The fodder production in the country is not sufficient to cater growing need of livestock population. Even a little improvement in the nutritional status as well as availability of fodder and grazing resources both in its quantity and quality to the livestock may result in further enhancement in milk, and meat production.

Ruminants have a unique evolutionary development by which they have an enormous capacity to utilize large quantities of herbage by using the symbiotic mechanism with the help of microorganisms inhabiting their complex stomach. Coupled with agriculture, the establishment of ruminants as partners in human society has resulted in an enduring and sustainable food production system in which the main produce become major food articles for humans while the by products for the ruminants without competing. Each other, however, explosion in human population and intensification of agriculture to meet the food demands of man has brought in unpredictable changes in which both the food and the feed have become increasingly scarce. With scientific advancement and technology development, various problems relating to livestock production systems are sought to be resolved, though the approaches to solving such issues range from narrow, specific locations to global level. The developing countries are expected to play a much larger role in livestock production than developed countries of the globe.

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Rationality of production strategyIndia supports approximately 15 % of global livestock population in the just 2 % of

world’s geographical areas, which is an alarming signal of tremendous pressure on its limited land resources. Urbanization and industrialization along with cumulative human pressure demands much more on natural land resources which jeopardizes the regional land use balance by accelerating competitive demands for fodder production for livestock and agricultural crop production for human age. The increasing population of livestock @ 2 million per year is also compounding the fodder availability problems.

In India about 40% of total geographical are available for livestock grazing. During monsoon, small ruminants along with large ruminants primarily thrive on the grazing resources. The grazing activity is mainly dependant upon the availability of grazing resources from the permanent pasture and grasslands, forests, wastelands, fallow lands and areas under miscellaneous tree crops. The fibrous crop residues like paddy and wheat straw are generally characterized by a low intake and digestibility. Improvement of the nutritional quality of these crop residues may be achieved through selection and breeding of varieties with relatively good straw quality and supplementation with deficient nutrients. The pretreatment of crop residues with suitable chemical such as urea - ammonia treatment may provide a solution to this problem. Ammoniation process improves microbial digestion of the cell wall fraction through disruption of ester bonds between hemi cellulose and lignin as well as adds additional nitrogen to treated material making highly palatable and nutritious.

In some states like Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh, it even account for about 75%. Grazing based animal husbandry plays a significant role in the up-liftment of rural economy, which warrants a proper planning and development programmes to be initiated in those areas.

The edible dry matter for the ruminant is constituted by a variety of feed components. For a fully developed ruminant, grass constitutes the natural feed. However, with the shrinkage of land for grazing and expansion of land utility for purposes other than grasslands, forests and agriculture, the availability of green grass is going to be a great limitation, especially in the developing, tropical countries. Traditionally, crop residues constitute the bulk of feed material for ruminants, but they are poor in nutritive value and need to be judiciously supplemented with other feed ingredients for better utilization. The best rationality for optimum ruminant production should make use of a mixture of the crop residues, coarse grains, oil meals and agricultural byproducts for various levels of production. With the climatic stress operating intensely under tropical environment, and resource constraints in terms of feed availability, optimum production levels have to be targeted for sustainable production since, high production may not be always economical or sustainable under such conditions.

Nutritional Technologies InterventionThe following nutritional technologies can be grouped into the following categories:

1. Those relating to fodder crop production, pasture grass land development and preservation of forages

2. Those related to crop residue improvement (physical, chemical, microbiological or biotechnological)

3. Those dealing with agro-industrial byproducts and unconventional feed ingredients

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4. Those dealing with feed technology and feed processing (compaction, densification, enrichment etc.)

5. By-pass nutrient technologies- protein and energy6. Feed balancing and economic ration formulation7. Those dealing with supplemental nutrition (UMMB licks, salt licks, chelated

minerals)8. Technologies relating to detoxification of adverse and anti-nutritional factors9. Genetic and non-genetic exploitation of rumen microbes10. Probiotics and enzymes11. Nutritive requirements for growth, milk production and reproduction12. Nutrition – environment interactions13. Technologies relating to delivery systems (powders, pellets, blocks, granules, TMRs)14. Feed processing and delivery machinery (Automation, mechanization,

computerization of field and farm operations including feed handling)15. Economic aspects of nutritional technologies, establishment of database for

computation of economic rations and feed resource management

Assessment and refinement of technologiesIn our country, the most practiced system of farming is crop-livestock integrated

farming system wherein the crops are the dominant component and livestock constitutes a subsidiary role. In this time tested and durable system of production, technologies relating to the main occupation, namely, the crop production are more readily adopted than those of livestock rearing. However, this system of rearing involving millions of small, marginal and medium farmers has resulted in highest production of milk in the world. The technologies which can be profitably introduced are related to land use for green fodder production, cropping patterns where fodders can form a component, fodder preservation measures, crop residue improvement and strategic supplementation. In our dairy production planning, at least 20% of our milk production should come from organized, intensive production where dairying must be the chief occupation. This amount is more than the combined production of Australia and New Zealand put together. Where, the chief occupation of the entrepreneur or farmer is dairying, the scope of adoption of nutritional technologies is far better. The chief determinants of dairy production include: good animal, good housing, good health care, good nutrition and good management practices. Over 45% of the milk produced in our country is converted to products even under the prevailing conditions of less than 14% of the milk being processed under the organized sector. With over 20 million tonnes of annual production of milk under intensive commercial farming, the adoption of innovative technologies in dairying, especially the feed related technologies can be substantially enhanced. The feed industry can play a great role in this regard. With the growing demand of compounded feeds (amounting to over 120 million tonnes), the present scenario of producing less than 8 million tones of compounded feeds under the organized sector needs to be improved drastically. The two viable commercial ventures of dairy production and commercial feed supply units need to be combined in a complementary manner to bring about substantial improvement in productivity. R&D efforts by the private sector has to come in a large way for technological revolution in promoting adoption of nutritional technologies. Intensive systems also enable effective sanitary and phyto-sanitary monitoring which is an essential requirement under global marketing. Support systems of transport,

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communication, marketing, processing and packaging will fall in place once a positive cycle of intensive production and S&T inputs is initiated as a large scale and wide-spread commercial operation.The following steps are essential for undertaking assessment and refinement of nutritional technologies:

1. Development of strong linkages with end users and entrepreneur groups for feed back

2. Institute – Industry interactive sessions for technology development and refinement3. Large scale revival of extension machinery of state developmental agencies,

voluntary organizations and self-help groups4. Role of agricultural universities in establishment of training and demonstration of

viable technologies5. Technology development as a part of system package6. A paradigm shift in the research and development scenario by undertaking research

and development in a partnership mode with the farmers and industry7. More consultancy and contractual research projects8. Use of electronic media in extension activities and availability of website

information from databases

Strategies for NEH Region:To bridge the gap between the demand and availability of feed and fodder following

areas need to be addressed: 1. Development of nutritious high yielding fodder varieties, their, introduction and

popularization for propagation (dual purpose, short duration)2. Development of intensive fodder production technologies for dairy animals3. Development of permanent pasture and grasslands4. Development of silvi-pasture system for livestock production5. Effective implementation of alternate land use system: 6. Rehabilitation of degraded lands and harnessing the eroded waste lands for edible biomass

production7. Conservation of surplus forages as silage and hay for feeding livestock during lean

periods.8. Densification and bailing of surplus fodder and grasses and making fodder banks.

Need to Restructure Ruminant Production SystemThe prime objectives of restructuring ruminant production systems:

1. Commercialized production of excellent quality animals germ plasm2. Develop animal –ago climatic zones3. Intensive and commercialized production of animal feed4. Augmentation of feed resources-from agro-industries, forest and marine products5. Use of better feed processing techniques6. Control of micro-environment by better housing system7. Better health care practices and phyto-sanitary monitoring.8. Necessity to conform to international standards of quality specifications

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The global contextThe global participation of India in trade is negligible, however, India provides one-

sixth of the global market It should be realized that hereafter only quality will sell and the technology development will be need based market-driven. India possessing the largest livestock population in the world and also being the producer of large quantities of livestock products, has a tremendous role to play in the international scene. Establishment of quality control infrastructure and introduction of trained professionals for sanitary and phyto-sanitary monitoring will ensure consumers’ confidence on Indian products. Higher productivity and organized production and processing systems will take this country a long way for contributing towards global participation in livestock sector and providing the much needed regional leadership for the developing countries in general and south eastAsiancountries in particular.

ConclusionResearch carried out in a laboratory or in an experimental station will be of

significance only if it is accepted by the farmers. A farmer will accept a new technology only if he is convinced that the method is suitable and profitable to him. The introduction of innovation to small holder farmers, even if they are “:appropriate” is one of the most difficult tasks of research and extension personnel. A technology that has been successful at Institute level/organized farm may not necessarily succeed at village level primarily because of small holding of farmers who rear livestock for supplementing income and are reluctant to change their traditional practices, especially when the innovations call for extra time and labour. The more likely application of new technologies could perhaps be with large-scale operations where benefits are clearer and sufficiently large to warrant the extra efforts. The technologies evolved with regard to the animal nutrition areas have far-reaching consequences in bringing socio-economic transformation of the rural and urban dairy owners of this country.

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MINERAL STATUS IN FEEDS, FODDERS AND ANIMALS AND THEIR SUPPLEMENTS

R.C.CHOPRANational Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001(Haryana)

Mineral deficiencies, imbalances and toxicities have long been held responsible for low production among cattle and buffaloes grazing over tropical agro-climatic condition (McDowell et al; 1984).Grazing livestock usually do not receive mineral supplementation except for common salt and must depend largely on forages to supply their mineral requirements. Mineral deficiencies limit production (McDowell et al, 1984 and Tejada et al, 1987) .There are ample reports to indicate border line to deficient levels of many essential elements in tropical feeds and fodders (McDowell et al; 1984, Tejada et al; 1987). Recommending supplemental mineral elements without considering the base level in feed stuffs may not be desirable (Hinders; 1990). Mineral concentration in serum or plasma provides an indication of mineral intake by the animal (Underwood; 1977). Studies on soil plant animal relationship in respect of minerals are important and have great implications on animal production (Biswas and Samanta; 2002). Hence mineral surveys are considered essential to determine the occurrence of mineral deficiencies in feeds and fodders to draw inference for practical application in feeding system of dairy animals keeping this in view many surveys have been conducted in different parts of this country. Desai et al (1984) analyzed 142 and 215 samples respectively of concentrates and roughages from Vadodra district including Chotaudepur and reported that most of the samples were deficient in zinc. Copper was deficient in fodder samples collected particularly in monsoon season. Iron and manganese were adequate in almost all the samples. Gupta and Chaturvedi (1984) analyzed 46 samples of available tree leaves, grasses, shrubs and creepers commonly fed to dairy cattle. The trace element content ranged from 3.33-22.21 ppm for Cu, 50.52--2941.30 ppm for Fe, 15.08-1483.69 ppm for Mn and 12.74-108.47 ppm for Zn. Thus 30%of the fodders were deficient in Cu and 52% in Zn. The iron content was more than adequate but for Mn was marginally deficient in 8% fodders, The trace element content of pooled hair ranged from 3.09-9.36for Cu, 5.25-248.81 ppm for Fe, 17.0-40.76 ppm for Mn and 104.73±167.0.6 ppm for Zn, thus out of 20 samples 13 were deficient in Cu, 6 in Fe and 14 in Mn and surprisingly all the samples were apparently adequate in Zn. Doraiswamy (1984) collected samples from 22 villages from Kacheempuram Taluka and reported average minerals in Paddy straw Cu 4.45 ± 0.21, Zn 38.37 ± 3.78, Mn 294.12 ± 34.54 and Fe 206.16 ± 10.20 ppm, These levels of paddy straw when compared with ARC (1981) requirements were found adequate with reference to Mn and Fe .In case of Zn paddy straw in 73% of villages contained adequate level to meet the requirement whereas there was deficiency in 27% of villages indicating need for supplementation. There seemed to be general deficiency of Cu in paddy straw of Kacheempuram Taluka .and called for supplementation.

Rangnekar and Joshi (1984) analyzed 639 blood, 163 fodder and 73 soil samples from Pune, Ahmadabad and Sholapur district of Maharashtra.Fe levels (22.7-25.4 mg/100

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ml) were within the normal range and low levels were observed only in 7 samples thus indicating in general normal Fe status in area .Zn blood levels varied between 304-515 ug/100 ml and about 3% showed subnormal Zn content’s, values for blood Cu showed wide variation and high proportion of samples (30%) were found to contain less than 50ug/100ml of blood. Large variations were observed in mineral content of various fodder crops. All the fodder crops analyzed had adequate Fe (more than 40 ppm).Zn content in fodder crops varied between 4-170 ppm. Large number of fodder samples showed (65%) Zn deficiency. Copper levels in fodder crops ranged between 1-48 ppm and 42% of the crops surveyed had less than 10 ppm Cu. DTPA enter actable Fe, Zn and Cu levels of soil were 1.2-42, traces to 15.6 and 0.6-13.8 ppm respectively. The number of soil samples showing subnormal levels of Fe, Zn and Cu were 6(4%), 22(14%) and 5(3%). respectively.

Varma et al (1984) analyzed soil ,tree leaves and pasture grasses and found that surprisingly P was adequate in almost all important tree leaves used in animal feeding Zn ,Cu ,Mn and Fe content of fodder trees and soil were within adequate limit .

Murugan et al (1987) analyzed mineral content of certain tree leaves of Tamilnadu and reported that tree leaves in general contained higher Ca content than common fodders. The P content was comparable to common fodders. Cu content varied between 6.22-11.64 ppm .The Mg content was very low (0.06-0.3%).The toxic mineral (Mo) was below toxic level in all the trees indicating that the mineral content in tree leaves of coastal states of India was adequate for livestock except for Mg content. Dudhilo (F. memoralis) tree leaves that are found abundantly in Himalayas from Hazara to Bhutan and Khasi and Jantia hills contained 2.24, 0.14 percent Ca and P and 12.8, 190.42, 248.7 and36.2 ppm Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn respectively. In addition it contained 3.88%0% Gallo tannic acid that makes it responsible for low palatability (Singh et al; 1987). Singh et al (1989) reported the mineral content of Gogun (Saurauia Napalesis) tree leaves that are found in Himalayas from Sutlaj to eastward in hills of Assam respectively total ash, Ca, P 10.65, 2.24 and 0.14 percent. Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn 12.8, 190.42, 248.70and 36.2 ppm .It also contained tannic acid 1.99% that makes the feed intake low.

Bedi and Khan(1989) analyzed soil fodder and blood samples for Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn in Bareilly district of U. P. and reported that in general soil samples were adequate in these minerals . Nearly 50% fodder samples were low in Cu and Fe, 40% in Mn and 90% in Zn. Berseem was richest source followed by leafy fodder. Rice straw and wheat straw were poor sources, Fifty percent of animals in the area had low Hb .Similarly 80 and 70% animals had low blood Cu and Zn respectively.

Singh and Chhabra (1994) studied the Co content in various animal feeds and reported that oil seed cakes had the highest concentration (0.421-0.560ppm) followed by cereal grains (0.051-0.311ppm) and straws(0.065-0.225)ppm. The lowest Co concentration was observed in maize grain and straws among fodders legumes (0.477-0.633 ppm) were richer in Co than non leguminous (0.151-390).There was a significant decline in concentration of Co as the plant gained maturity. Lall et al (1994) analyzed samples of soil, fodder and animal blood for minerals of nutritional significance ( Ca, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn and Cd ) and reported that content of Ca Zn Mn and Cu were sufficiently high, P was adequate, Cd was below toxicity limit and Fe level was marginal in soil . Plant analysis indicated that Ca, P and Fe contents were satisfactory, Cu was in excess, Cd below toxicity limit and Zn and Mn deficient. .The levels of Ca and P were within the normal range in the blood samples of lactating buffaloes fed these forages

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but Zn and Cu were low in spite the fact that Cu was adequate in soil and was excess in forages.

Prasad and Rao (1997) collected and analyzed whole blood samples from anestrous and repeat breeder crossbred cows ( KF ) for P, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn. Levels of P, Mg and Fe were in range of 11.0-25.0,1.88-2.5 and 22.5-35.5 mg/100ml respectively whereas the levels of Zn, Mn and Cu varied from31-150, 37-50 and 37-275 µg/100ml. In case of normal animal blood P, Mg, and Fe levels were 21, 2.38 and 30mg/100ml and levels of Zn, Mn and Cu were 185, 18 and 87 µg/100ml.In anestrous animals the P, Zn and Fe levels were lowest while the Mn was very high whereas Cu level was sub normal in whole blood. In repeat breeders blood mineral levels were lower than normal animal except Mg and Fe.

Garg et al (1999) conducted mineral survey of Mehsana district of Gujarat and reported low levels of Ca (0.28%) in straws and concentrates ingredients (0.1%). Leguminous fodders contained exceptionally high Ca content with more than 1.6% level. The P value in crop residue s was much less than Ca whereas grains contained 0.28% P, CSM contained exceptionally high P 0.58%.Mg quantity was adequate in most of the feeds and fodders (0.2%)same was true in case of Fe (216.4ppm).On the other hand Cu (6.63 ppm) and Zn (21.5 ppm)were deficient. The Mn was very deficient and Co contents were adequate. Mineral survey of Kaira district of Gujrat (Garg et al:2000) revealed that average Ca content in straw and Stover’s was 0.23%, whereas green legumes and fodders contained 1.45%Ca .The concentrate ingredients were particularly low in Ca (0.7%) . P content of crop residues was only 0.14%on the other hand leguminous fodders and local grasses contained 0.38%. Rice polish showed exceptionally high P 1.50%. The Mg levels in feeds and fodders was adequate with more than levels 0.23%Cu, content was consistently low in straws 5.52 ppm ,green fodders 4.63 ppm. Likewise Zn was also very low in all the feed ingredients its deficiency varied from 48-71%. The distribution of Mn indicated low levels in grains (22.5 ppm) whereas straw samples contained more than 53.91ppm. Co was adequate showing a range of 0.37 ppm-0.54 ppm .The area seemed to be quite rich in Fe because feeds and fodders sample were exceptionally high in Fe content.

Mann et al (2000}conducted mineral survey of Rohtak district of Haryana and reported that wheat straw ,the staple dry roughage of the district was highly deficient in Zn and Cu but marginally so in Mn .Green fodders (Berseem and Guli danda) were highly deficient in Zn and Cu but marginally so in Mn .Concentrates (CSC, wheat dalia ,feed pellets and mustard cake were also deficient in Zn, Cu and Mn .Serum mineral status indicated that 98, 46 and 29% buffalos were deficient in Mn, Cu and Ca respectively.. Eighty two, 67 and 50% of buffaloes showed concentration of Zn, Mn, Ca and Cu in hair below critical level Composition of milk also reflected deficiency of Mn, Zn, Cu, Ca and P. This indicated the need of dietary supplementation of Zn, Cu and Mn.

Mann et al (2000a) conducted extensive survey of Bhiwani district of Haryana and reported that majority of dry and green fodders were deficient in Zn, Cu and Mn. CSC and guar seed though supplied good amount of Zn but were deficient in Mn. Serum mineral status indicated deficiency of Ca (35%) of the animals surveyed Deficiency of Mn, Cu, Zn and Ca were also indicted from their respective concentrations in hair and milk. Chopra et al (2000) analyzed soil samples collected from Gorgarh ,Shekhupura Mahmadpur and Nabipur villages, Block No 5 and 7 of NDRI, Karnal district of Haryana and reported that available micro nutrient contents i.e. P, Fe, Cu Zn and Mn ranged between

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12.50-44.56, 6.2.00-10.38, 0.14-6.52, 0.12-2.89, 1.6-16.26 ppm respectively. The I content of soil of aforesaid area varied between 0.02-0.34 ppm being highest (0.16 ppm) in Block No 7 of NDRI, Karnal.Ca, P, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn and I contents in water of above area varied from 31.98-120.24,6.36-1865, 23.81-77.77, 05-2.34, 0.00-0.00,0.00-0.18,0.00-0.7.and0.001-0.87 ppm indicating that water could not be a major source of minerals as compared to total needs of the animals .Chopra et al (2002) analyzed samples of green fodders and dry roughages collected from NDRI, Karnal and farmers fields from Amargarh Gorgarh Shekhupura and Nabipura villages of Karnal district (Haryana) .Average Ca content (%DM basis) wheat straw was 0.14 , paddy straw as 0.24,berseem as 1.37, oats as 0.55, Jowar as 0.45 and maize as 0.36. Average Mg content (% DM basis)of wheat straw was 0.87, paddy straw as 0.49 ,berseem as 0.56, Oats as 0.62,Jowar as 1.27 and maize 1.01 . Average Fe Content(ppm DM basis ) of wheat straw as 250.35, paddy straw as 114.1, berseem as 453 .7, oats as 422.75, Jowar as 208.2and maize as 169.45 Average Cu content( ppm on DM basis) of wheat straw 26.80, paddy straw as 2.22 berseem as 17.91, oats as 18.51, Jowar as 13.0 and maize as 12.14 . Average Zn content (ppm, DM basis) of wheat straw as 17.08, paddy straw as 16.74, berseem as 36.56, oats as 32.61 Jowar as 17.53 and maize as 18.18. Average Mn content (ppm, DM basis) of wheat straw as 41.74, paddy straw as 128.21, berseem as 84.72, oats as 97.66, Jowar as 73.67 and maize as 55.91. Average I content (ppm, DM basis) of wheat straw was 1.25, paddy straw as 1.11, berseem 0.71 oats as 1.103.

Das et al (2003) surveyed parts of red laterite agro climatic zone of West Bengal and reported that maize grain was deficient in Ca (0.22±0.01%), Cu (6.3±0.05ppm), Zn (29.9±1.43) and Mn (15.41±1.17 ppm) .Severe P deficiency was observed in paddy straw (015±0.01% and 0.04±0.003%respectively) .None of the plasma samples were found deficient in Fe .Liver Cu indicated deficiency of Cu in this region..

Kalita et al (2003) conducted a mineral survey in Kamrup district of lower Brahmaputra valley and reported that soil P was well below the critical level which Ca was close to the critical level. The other elements like Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn were observed adequate and above the critical level. Out of the total fodders samples analyzed 33% were deficient for Ca, 67% for P, 56% for Mg, 61% for Zn 30% for Cu and 29% for Mn Moderate to high concentration of Fe was observed. The different ingredients used for preparation for ration contained adequate Ca, P, Fe, Zn and Mn. Serum cu and P concentration was below the critical level in crossbred and non descript indigenous cows respectively. Low P concentration in soil and fodders and low Cu concentration in fodders and feeds were reflected in blood of animals.

Garg et al (2003) conducted mineral survey in Kota district of Rajasthan and reported that the Ca content was low (0.27%) in concentrate ingredients whereas P content (0.45%) was higher. The average Ca content (0.39%) was higher in straws as compared to P (0.11) The Mg content in feed stuffs was adequate, to meet the requirement of animals. The survey area was rich in K content, whereas, Na and S contents was consistently low in all the feed stuffs and needed to be supplemented in ration. The average Cu content was low in straw (5.63 ppm) and moderate in green fodders (9.97 ppm), whereas, concentrate ingredients were better source of Cu (13.80ppm), except grains. Iron and Mn content was adequate in most of the feed. Co was inadequate ranging from 0.0 to 0.85 ppm in different samples. Likewise, Zn showed a deficiency trend in all the feed ingredients. Molybdenum

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content was within safe limit (<.0.40ppm) gave Cu:Mo ratio wider than 7. Selenium content in most of the feed samples was adequate (>0.3ppm).

Chaterjee (2004) collected 21 samples of locally available fodder trees of Sikkim and analyzed them for Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe and Co. The Cu concentration (mg/Kg DM ) varied from 12. 8 in Kabra to 232.6 ppm in Gayo. The Zn concentration (mg/kg DM) ranged from 19.7 in Kabra to1208 in Chiple. The Mn concentration varied widely. The lowest concentration (mg/kg DM was in Kabra (31.0) closely followed by rubber (32.2) .The highest Mn concentration was obtained in Jhingani the value being 758.0. The Fe concentration ranged from 39.8 ppm in Lali to 901 ppm in Khasre. The Co was not detectable in six samples out of twenty one. The highest Co concentration was in chiple the value being 6.6 ppm .The mean concentration (mg/kg DM) of different trace element reported in tree fodders analyzed in this study were 58.33±10.64, 39.13±3.47, 227.9±47.0, 0.396.8, ±46.7 and 3.06±0.56 respectively for Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe and Co.

It is clearly revealed from the above reports that many feeds and fodders have the deficiency of Ca, P, Cu, Zn and Mn. Supplementation of these is needed to enhance the productivity of animals. The most efficient method of providing supplemental minerals is through use of mineral supplements combined with concentrate mixture. The BIS ( 2004) has recommended many mineral supplements ( their status in parenthesis ) for compounding mineral mixture i.e. Calcium carbonate (40% Ca), ground lime stone powder (38.5%Ca), calcite powder (39%Ca), Dolomite stone (22.3%Ca &12.8%Mg), dicalcium phosphate (23.3%Ca&18.5%P), Magnesium carbonate (21-28% Mg), Magnesium oxide (54-60%Mg), Magnesium sulphate (9.8-17%Mn), Zinc carbonate (52%Zn), Zinc chloride (48%Zn), zinc sulphate (22-36%Zn) Potassium iodide (69% I), Calcium iodate (63.5%I), Copper sulphate (25%Cu), Cupric chloride (37.25Cu), Cobalt sulphate (21%Co),Cobalt chloride (24.7%Co), Ferrous sulphate (26-30%Fe) and Sodium chloride 39%Na&51%Cl).

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APPROACHES FOR COMMERCIALIZATION OF DAIRY FEED INDUSTRIES IN NE INDIA

K.K. BaruahDepartment of Animal NutritionCollege of Veterinary Science

Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati – 781022

The NE Region of India possesses 11.343 million cattle and 0.911 million buffaloes which account for 5.73 and 1.03 per cent respectively of the total cattle 197.708 million and buffaloes 8.832 million of the country. The region has the highest man and cattle ratio. For hundred men, the number of heads of cattle is 29.47, whereas the corresponding figure for the country is 19.25. Although NE Region is endowed with large bovine population, yet its milk production is 1023 thousand tonnes against 92 million tonnes in India. The per capita availability of milk in NE Region and India are 73 and 237 g/day. The reasons ascribed to such low production are breeds of cattle and buffaloes, inadequate feed resources, traditional husbandry practices, inadequate health coverage and above all lack of remunerative prices due to unorganized marketing structure.

Present feeding system:

Chronic feed deficit (82.62% concentrate and 53.94% green fodder) is the major constraint to animal production in this region of the country. The concept of dairying in this region is entirely different than that of other parts of the country. Most of the dairy farmers are small holders having one or two local milch animals, which are raised on crop residues, forestland and natural pastures with under-employed family labour. Feeding grains, oil cakes and green nutritious fodder are generally restricted to some crossbred cattle. Generally, the roughage part consists of mixed pasture grasses, mixed fodder tree leaves, limited cultivated fodder along with ad libitum paddy straw. Limited populations of high-yielding crossbred cows are stall-fed and are offered boiled concentrate mixture prepared by the farmers themselves. In practice, feeding systems are not scientific, since the diet usually remains deficient in one nutrient or the other.Feed resources.

The annual requirements of feeds and fodder are estimated to be 5127.58 thousand tonnes of concentrates, 74615.78 thousand tonnes of green fodder and 12028.65 thousand tonnes of dry fodder. However, only 891.37 thousand tonnes of concentrates, 34365.51 thousand tonnes of green fodder and 12028.65 thousand tonnes of dry fodder are available. The gap between the availability and requirements of concentrates and green fodder are very wide and there are shortfalls of – 82.62 per cent for concentrates and – 53.94 per cent green fodder. However, dry fodder is in surplus by + 12.92 per cent.

Technological interventions for enhancing livestock productivity:

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A large number of cattle and buffaloes generally suffer from feed shortage in terms of energy, protein and minerals. The feed and fodder deficiencies, in fact, have been the main limiting factors in raising livestock productivity. However, due to availability of cereal crop residues, it continued to be the major feed resources even though they are deficient in nitrogen and mineral content along with the high lignin and silica contents. These roughages influence their low digestibility and cannot meet even the maintenance requirements. Studies have indicated that one percent increase in the digestibility of cereal straws increases milk yield in dairy cattle by 5-6 per cent. Apart from conventional techniques of feed grinding, fodder chopping and conservation, adoption of technologies such as urea-ammoniation technique has been reported to reduce green fodder requirements by 20-40 per cent and increases milk yield of cattle by 10-20 per cent. Some of the research reports indicate that bypass protein technology has been found to reduce dependence on compound feeds by 40 per cent and DM requirement by 24 per cent (Pradhan, 2003). Despite such benefits, its application is limited because of supply constraints and lack of concerted efforts to transfer the technology and demonstrate their cost-benefit ratio to the farming community.

Presently, we have 567 thousand crossbred cattle besides 10.7 million indigenous non-descript cattle and 911 thousand indigenous buffaloes in the NE region. Majority of the animals are not presently fed on compounded feeds. In compounded feed, all nutritional properties as required for different productive functions of livestock are included at appropriate levels and therefore, even the unproductive and low-yielding cows and buffaloes can be made to yield more milk. Moreover, the young stock of these non-descript animals can be turned to better yielders (30-50% improvement).

Hence, in order to achieve optimum production, concentrates/green fodders have to be fed along with these straws. The availability of concentrate supplements is not only inadequate but also expensive so any improvement in the nutritional quality of straws will enhance nutrient supplied to the livestock. In this regard, complete diet system is a promising method for improving the utilization of the poor quality crop residues. This system not only ensures improved utilization of nutrients from the agricultural residues but also helps in formulating and processing low-cost readymade balanced diet for ruminants. This system also helps in utilizing locally available agricultural residues, agro-industrial byproducts, animal waste and also facilitates in the formulation of balanced rations for cattle and buffaloes. It also ensures the supply of balanced rations to the landless labourer, marginal and small farmers. The advantages of formulating a complete diet are associated with reduced feed and labour cost, and optimum utilization of locally available byproducts and fibrous agricultural residues. Concentrate to roughage ratios may vary from diet to diet, so as to meet the optimum nutrient requirement for production. Many workers reported increased dry matter intake on complete diet system compared to conventional feeding (Reddy and Reddy, 1983a; Martz and Belyea, 1986; Uden, 1987; Sharma and Singhal, 1988; Reddy, 1990; Rai and Sirohi, 1999).

In complete ration, roughages and different feed ingredients are proportioned, processed and mixed into a uniform blend, which is freely available to the animals to supply adequate nutrients. This system ensures the supply of balanced nutrients, controls the ratio of concentrate to roughage, helps in improved utilization of low-grade fibrous agricultural residues, reduces feed wastage, prevent selection and also feeding costs. It also promotes better consumption and avoids refusal of the unpalatable portions and reduce eating and

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rumination time and increasing resting time. More frequent feeding is advantageous to the ruminant because the load on the rumen is reduced, avoiding particularly changes in the acidity of the rumen fluid. A more even intake of feed is also associated with less fluctuation in the release of ammonia so that non-protein nitrogen is efficiently utilized. Agro-industrial byproducts, viz. baggase, cottonseed hulls (Marshall, 1972), waste paper (Kesler et al., 1967), poultry droppings (Kandandarami and Reddy, 1989) were used successfully in complete feed.

Several studies conducted on the effect of complete feed on growth and milk production revealed that feeding complete ration (CR) utilizing wheat straw, agro-industrial byproducts and wastes resulted significantly higher growth rate and feed: gain ratio, and considerably lower feed cost per kg live weight gain in animals given CR with 50 per cent wheat straw. Except crude fibre, digestibility of all the organic nutrients and balances of N, Ca and P were higher (Reddy and Reddy, 1988). CR containing 68 per cent dry mixed grams supported 500-600 g/day growth (Reddy and Reddy, 1983a).

Feeding complete feeds significantly increased (P < 0.05) with production in crossbred cows (Reddy and Reddy, 1983b; Reddy, 1996) and buffaloes (Reddy et al., 2003) as compared to conventional rations.

Prospect of commercialization of compounded feed:

There is tremendous scope to develop organized feed industry in this region. Fibrous crop residues (viz. paddy straw, barley straw, mustard etc.) and agro-industrial byproducts (viz. factory tea waste, Ajar seed, Nahar seed, silkworm pupae, Muga pupae and Eri pupae etc.) are abundantly available. Hence, technological alternatives to improve quantity and quality of feed require more emphasis. Appropriate feed processing technologies improve the nutrient utilization resulting in increased nutrient input per unit of feedstuff. Many feed technologies like grinding, pelletting, expander-extruder processing and extrusion cooking etc. can be applied for improving the efficiency of production of livestock. These processing techniques also help in the incorporation of these materials into complete diet system through which low cost ration can be formulated for economic milk production apart from ease in transporting these materials in a densified form to areas of requirement at times of natural calamities.

In NE region of India, the feed industry is very poorly developed. Most of these feed industries do not engage qualified nutritionists for ensuring quality assessment of the feed produced. The feed sold by these feed companies are doubtful in respect of their nutritional quality. The farmers who generally use these compounded feeds are not getting the desired result and hence they do not have faith on these feeds. As a result, the farmers procured different ingredients available in the market and prepared rations without considering their nutrient density in the ration.

Therefore, to make the compounded feed popular amongst the farmers and to increase sale of compounded feed, the following measures are suggested:

(i) An environment should be created so as to realize the need of compound feed. The same may be evolved through highlighting the fact that in our situation, the farmers who have abundance of feed go for vigorous feeding and the scanty

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holders deprive their animals from balance feed – both of these are equally harmful resulting poor performance.

(ii) The nutritionists, extension workers and field veterinary surgeons should initiate concerted efforts to make the farmers aware about the importance of feeding compounded feed.

(iii) To popularize compounded feed, different training programmes are to be conducted among self-help groups, village leaders and livestock farmers. In all the government, semi-government and organized private farms as well as in farms belonging to Milk Cooperatives result demonstrations should be organized to convince the farmers about the beneficial effect of compounded feed.

(iv) With the help of audio-visual aids, print as well as electronic media, all efforts should be made to motivate the farmers for using compounded feed for enhancing milk production in dairy cattle and buffaloes.

(v) Trans-border exchange of feed ingredients or raw materials to and from different states of the region including edible forest byproducts has to be facilitated in order to meet the nutritional requirement in deficient areas at cheaper rates.

(vi) Supply of feed ingredients to the right person at right time at minimum cost should be properly planned and executed so that the entire feed industry always has a uprising trend.

(vii) Well-organized marketing network should be set up so as to assist the farmers to obtain remunerative prices for their produce.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the feed industry in NE region of India is an emerging industry. It has tremendous scope for growth. The need of the hour is to improve the manufacturing technology. There is also a need to improve the quality of the product that is manufactured.

References:

Keslar, E.M.; Chander, P.T. and Branding, A.E. (1967). Dry molasses product using waste paper as a base for a possible feed for cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 50: 1994-95.

Kondandarami Reddy, S. and Raj Reddy, M. (1989). Utilization of wheat straw/berseem hay and poultry dropping in the development of complete feed for crossbred bulls. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 59: 981-86.

Maltz, B.; Devis, S.; Kroll, O.; Zur, B.; Sphar, S.L. and Shanks, R.D. (1992). Comparative responses of lactating cows to total mixed rations or computerized individual concentrate feeding. J. Dairy Sci. 75: 1588-1603.

Marshal, S.P. (1972). Sugarcane bagasse pellets and cotton seed hulls as roughage sources in complete rations. J. Dairy Sci. 55: 398.

NEC (2002). Basic Statistics, North Eastern Council, Shillong.Pradhan (2003). Feed resources and technological interventions for enhanced livestock

productivity. Proceedings of the Workshop held at ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, India, 22-23 July, 2003.

Rai, S.N. and Sirohi, S.K. (1999). Processing technologies including production of complete feeds utilizing crop residues for improved production. Proceedings of the IX

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Animal Nutrition Conference on Emerging Trends for Livestock and Poultry Feeding beyond 2000 A.D., Hyderabad, India, Dec. 2-4.

Reddy, D.N. and Reddy, M.R. (1983a). Effect of feeding complete rations on growth performance and nutrient utilization in growing crossbred calves. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 53: 697-700.

Reddy, D.N. and Reddy, M.R. (1983b). The effect of feeding complete feeds on nutrient utilization and milk production of crossbred cows. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 36: 421-23.

Reddy, G.V.N.; Reddy, M.R. and Dass, T.C. (1996). Effect of feeding fodder based complete diets on the performance of crossbred cows. Indian J. Anim. Nutr. 6: 63.

Reddy, M.R. (1990). Complete diets based on fibrous crop residues for dairy cattle. Indian Dairyman. 42 (4): 180-85.

Sharma, D.D. and Singhal, K.K. (1988). Processing of complete feeds for ruminants. Proceedings of the National Seminar cum Workshop and Exhibition on Dairy products and Equipments. IDA, Delhi, March 19-20.

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19

Environmental Issues Related To Animal ProductionG.P.SINGH

National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner-334001 (Rajasthan)

This paper is intended to contribute towards solving one of today’s most crucial agricultural dilemmas: how to find a balance between a fast growing global demand for food and necessary to sustain the natural resource base of land water, air and bio-diversity. It is a direct response to the concern of food security and to the concern expressed for the environment through several international conventions, such as the International Convention on Biological Diversity, the Montreal Protocol on the emission of green house gases and the convention to combat desertification. Livestock role in environmental degradation can be grouped as:

1. Livestock production system and environmental degradation.2. Emission of green house gases causing global warming and depletion of ozone layer.

Based on the degree of integration with crop and its relation to land, the livestock sector has been classified into three broad based livestock production systems (Sere and Steinfeld, 1996) i.e. grazing, mixed farming and industrial/commercial system. For land based production systems, i.e. grazing and mixed farming systems, a sub division is then required to allow for differences caused by agro-ecological conditions and the ways in which livestock affect the natural resource base and environment. (Fig. I).

Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases have led to increasing amounts of the radiative solar energy being trapped in the Earth's atmosphere. If the current trend in growth of these emissions is allowed to continue, scientists predict that average world temperatures will increase by 1.0 to 3.0 degrees Celsius during the 21 st century due to global warming which would lead to rise in sea level due to melting of glaciers and ice sheets (IPCC, 1995). After carbon dioxide which is emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels, methane is the second major green house gas contributing to global warming. Though its contribution to the atmospheric budget is about 18%, it is twenty times more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide on a kilogram per kilogram basis (Dhiman etal, 1998). Methane is produced naturally by ruminants during the normal digestion process in the rumen. Microbes ferment the feed consumed by the animal and produce fermentation products that are used to support the animal's maintenance, growth and production requirements. Methane, produced during fermentation process, is wastefully exhaled into the air, representing a loss of 5 to 15% of the animal's feed energy. Production of methane in the rumen is correlated with feed quality, feed digestibility, type and size of the animal and production level of the animal.

Methane production per kg milk varies between 186.0 and 130.4 g/kg milk based on milk production and methane production estimated of last 10 years. However, it is far less than the reported figures of240 g/kg milk (Aneja, 1992). Earlier, Singh and Mohini, 1996 reported that methane production per kg milk between 148-183 g/kg. It is very interesting that as the country's total milk production increased total methane production also increased but methane production per unit milk production reduced. Therefore, methane production reduced from 186.0g in 1988 to 130.4 g/kg milk in 1997.

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It has been observed that the methane production varied from 33.6 to 44.6 with the average of 40±1.6 l/Kg DDM in eastern region, from 33 to 42 lit with average of 36.2±2.2I/Kg DDM in northern region, from 36 to 45 lit with average of38.0±1.21/kg DDM in southern region and 35 to 43 lit. with average of 37.5±1.8 l/Kg DDM in western region (Singh, 1998). In most of the area, animals are normally fed crop residues based ration like, wheat, paddy, raggj straw and stovers supplemented with little cake or house left over or kitchen waste. In certain pocket/farmers are having higher yielders and feeding good amount of concentrate and green fodder. These types of situations are more prevalent in northern and western region. This is the reason that the methane production in northern and western feed combinations is comparatively lower than eastern and southern region.

It has been observed that the feeding of 50 and 100 mg rumensin/day/animal increased the propionate production significantly and decreased the methane percent in gas as well as methane produced per unit digestible dry matter. The methane production was reduced by 14-23% on maintenance, 30-35% on medium milk production and 22-32% on high milk production ration consisting of concentrate and wheat straw due to rumensin feeding. Similarly on three type of rations. consisting of concentrate and paddy straw, propionate production increased and methane percent in gas and methane produced per unit of digestible dry matter decreased. Reduction in methane production were 15-22% on maintenance, 23-32% on medium production and 14-25% on high milk production ration due to feeding of 50 and 100 mg rumensin per day. Based on digestibility and methane production per kg digestible dry matter, methane production by 400 kg cow was calculated at maintenance, medium and high production rations and observed that the methane production was reduced from 153.1-162.0 to 112.8-129.0 lit/day at maintenance level of feeding (concentrate-25 : straw75), from 178.0-183.3 to 119.0-127.91/day at medium level of production ration feeding (concentrate-50: straw-50) and from 202.8-206.8 to 146.3-157.60 l/day on high production ration (concentrate- 7 5: straw 25) feeding due to rumensin in the diet. On basis of above results and discussion, it is quite clear from the data in that the methane production by Indian ruminants is lower than the reported and the measures suggested above could reduce methane production by 20-30% or 2-3 million tonnes less per year by Indian ruminants. Therefore, Indian livestock contribution to green house pool is 8-11 % and not 13.2% of total methane produced by world animals (WRI, 1990). This will increase the energy utilization efficiency of animals and decrease the methane level in green house gas pool which is responsible for gradual depletion of ozone layer and global warming.

Methane emission by Indian ruminant livestock was calculated in 1995 based on animal population available in 1993. Total methane emission was 9.023 Tg/year. In the mean time, large number of samples were analysed for methane production and collected more information about feeding system. Since animal population is changing with time, revised estimate of methane emission by ruminant livestock was also prepared.

Methane production by cattle was 76.74 g/day/animal and total methane production was 5.589 Tg per year. Similarly, buffalo produced 97.01 g/day/animal and total production was 2.804 Tg per year. Sheep and goat produced 11.63 and 10.14 g/day/ head, respectively, and total production was 0.194 and 0.408 Tg/year respectively in sheep and goat. Total methane production was 8.995 Tg/year which is 0.028 Tg/year-less than earlier estimate. The present estimate is comparatively much more precise than earlier as explained above (Singh and Mohini, 1996). The contribution of cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat to total

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methane emission is 62.13, 31.17, 2.16 and 4.54 percent, respectively.Overall results of reduction of methane production obtained in this study were

(Singh, 1997)1. By increasing the concentrate (Starch) in crop residue diet 20-32%2. By supplementation of deficient nutrients 8-23%3. Feeding reumensin

a) Maintenance diet 14-23%b) Medium production ration 23-32%c) High production diet 14-25%

4. Supplementation of UMM lick 10-11%5. Supplementation of green fodder 11-27%

Indian ruminant livestock losses 739.30 x 108 moles of ATP per day and in term of Kcal it is 405.75 x 108 or 0.406 Mcal per day. However, cattle contribution is major because of their number, followed by buffalo, goat and sheep. This 405.75 x 108 Kcal or 0.406 Mcal of energy will be sufficient to meet energy requirement of (1) 5635417 growing calves of 100 Kg. body weight with 500g growth rate or (II) 1334912 lactating cows of 400 Kg, body weight yielding 10 Kg. milk/ day with,4.5% fat or (III) 2101243 mature bulls of 500 Kg. (NRC, 1989). Thus country loosing energy worth 2.27 crores per day in methane. Since methanogenesis is the integral part of rumen fermentation and issential but waste full process. Therefore, it is not possible to completelity stop methanogenesis. However, if methanogenesis is reduced by 20% percent, which is possible, energy worth Rs. 45.38 lakhs per day can be saved.

It is, therefore, recommended that animals in different regions may be fed crop residues supplemented with deficient nutrients from locally available feed resources to change the rumen fermentation towards propionate. This will improve the energy utilization/production performance and reduce the methane production which will protect the environment by reducing global warming and depletion of ozone layer.

Supplementation of 20-30 mg rumensin per day/animal will decrease the methane production by 15-30% depending on the nature of feed. However, feeding of rumens in will involve cost. Thus, Government has to come forward to solve this problem. Our experience during this study as well as from literature indicate that cost of rumens in will be compensated by improved productivity.

Finally our aim is to meet twin objectives of increasing productivity and protect environment

by reducing methanogenesis.

REFERENCE

Aneja, RP. (1992). Dairying and its impact on environment. Indian Dairyman 44 : 117-120.

Dhiman, T.R., Singh, G.P., Ribeiro, S., Sharma, S.K. and Orlic, M. (1998). Protecting environment through improved livestock productivity. IndianDairyman, 50: 63-66.

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IPCC (1995). Climate change, the science of climate change, contribution of working group I to second assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on climate change.

Menke, K.H., Raap, L., Salawski, A., Steingaso, E., Fritz, D. and Scheneider, W. (1979). The estimation of the digestibility and metabolizable energy content of ruminant feeding stuffs from the gas production when they are incubated with rumen liquor in vitro.J. Agric. Sci., Camb. 93-217.

NRC (1989). Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle 6th Revised Edition, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

OECD (1996). Developing OEDC Agni-Environmental indicators. Mimeograph, July 30, 1996. Organization for economic cooperation and development, Paris, France.

SERE, C. and STEINFELD, H. (1996). World Livestock Production system. Current status, issues and trend. Animal Production and Health paper No. 127 F.A.O.

Singh, G.P., Gupta, B.N. and Madhu Mohini 1995). Effect of supplementation of urea-molasses-mineral lick to straw diet on dry matter intake, volatile fatty acids and methane production.Indian J. Dairy Sci., 48 : 290-294.

Singh, G.P. and Leng, R.A. (1989). Methane and volatile fatty acids production rates in sheep fed diet containing different level of salt.Indian J. Anim. Nutr., 6, 114.

Singh, G.P. (1997). Effect of green house gases on climate change and Indian ruminant livestock. Current Sci., 72: 441-446.

Singh, G.P. (1998). Methanogenesis and production of green house gases under animal husbandry system. Final report of AP cess Funded project N.D.R.I., Kamal.

Singh, G.P. and Mohini, M. (1996). Methane production by Indian ruminant livestock. Current Sci., 11 : 580-582.

Singh, G.P. and Zmmerman, P. (1997). New method for estimation methane from ruminant using sulphure hexafluoride tracer technique. Pashudhan, 12, 1 & 4.

Tilley, J .M.A. and Terry, RA. (1963). A two stage technique for the invitro digestion of forage crops.J. Brit. Grossland Soc. 18, 104.

WRI, (1990). World Resource Institute, Washington, D. C.

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Protected Energy in Dairy Feed and Commercial Implications

S.S.Thakur Dairy Cattle Nutrition Division, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001

The progressive dairy farmers and entrepreneurs all over the country are now realizing that it is no more economically feasible to maintain higher number of low yielding dairy animals but to keep optimum number of elite dairy animals and manage them scientifically to extract maximum output. This can only be achieved by specializing as an entrepreneur who would prefer to have herd of livestock with high milk production whilst maintaining optimum reproduction and health status.However, medium and high yielding animals present characteristic nutritional challenges before us. Requirements of protein and other nutrients except energy can be met through dietary manipulation in case of high producing dairy animals. But the dietary energy supply becomes limiting in such animals. In early lactation, particularly during first hundred days of lactation, animals must generate an increasing amount of milk but the diminished capacity to consume enough feed to support that output leads to loss in body weight. This energy deficient condition during early lactation leads to late outset of estrous, longer inter calving interval and shorter lactation length.

As it is evident from the following figure, low feed intake coincides with the peak milk production, as the animal is unable to eat enough to meet its enormous nutrient requirements during this period.

Fig 1 Challenge of nutrition during first 100 days of lactation in high yielding dairy animals

Error: Reference source not found

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Milk yield Ingestion capacityLive weight

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Months after calving

An excessive loss of body weight during 100 days of lactation gives rise to several serious problems, particularly:

Steeper decline in milk production after the lactation peak leading to reduced lactation persistency

Fertility disorders, because maximum milk production coincides with the involution of the reproductive system after birth. While both reproduction and lactation require large quantities of nutrients, the mammary gland prevails over the reproductive system, which recovers more slowly so that the animal take longer period to return to estrus and to conceive

Higher risk of suffering from metabolic disorder i.e. ketosis – due to the mobilization of fat from tissue reserves

There are three common strategies to increase dietary energy intake, each with its plus and negative points.

1) Increasing the dry matter intake (DMI)2) Increasing the proportion of concentrate in ration3) Increasing the energy density of total ration or concentrates

Increasing the DMI:Increasing the DMI may be the most appropriate option to fulfill the elevated energy

demands of the animal. On the contrary decreased appetite and ingestion capacity of the animal leads to the decline in dry matter intake. The main reasons for the depression in DMI may be:

Rumen and other parts of digestion system take some time to recover the space which was hitherto occupied by the fetus and the engorged reproduction system

The hormonal changes associated with the parturition The micro flora and fauna of rumen, which had become adapted to the

gestation ration must adapt to the production ration.

Increasing the proportion of concentrates in the ration:Another option would be to increase the proportion of concentrate in ration.

Generally, concentrates of high milk producing animals are formulated using higher proportion of cereals, which are rich in starch. Starch is easily fermented in rumen and provides volatile fatty acids (VFAs) especially higher proportion of propionic acid, which is used as source of energy by the animals.

However, rapid fermentation of starch rich rations generates high concentration of lactic acid in rumen, which causes a rapid reduction in the rumen pH, which adversely affects activity of the cellulolytic microbes thereby, reducting fibre digestion leading to a decreased acetic acid production.

Besides, predominance of starch rich concentrates in ruminants ration can cause a variety of problems, such as:

Ruminal acidosis Reduced acetate: propionate ratio, and

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Milk fat depression syndrome

Increasing the energy density of the ration:As it is clear from following table, fat has the highest energy density among all the

nutrients. Hence, fat is added in the ration of livestock to increase the energy density to meet the higher energy demand in high milk producing animals and during the hot and humid weather when the animals DMI is depressed due to severe environmental stress. However, rumen microorganisms are very sensitive to the level and type of supplemental fat, which can negatively affect the rumen functioning.

Food constituents Gross energy values (MJ/kg DM)Glucose 15.6Starch 17.7

Cellulose 17.5Casein 24.5Butter fat 38.5Fat (oil from seeds) 39.0

Addition of fat to dairy ration can improve the productive efficiency of dairy animals through a combination of calorific and non-calorific effects. Calorific effects include greater energy content and energetic efficiency of the ration. Non-calorific effects may be seen indirectly through improved reproductive performance of animals and altered fatty acid profile of produced milk.

Fat sources and their characteristics:Classification of fat sources:

Regarding ruminant nutrition, fat supplements for dairy ration may be classified on the basis of their expected ruminal response into two categories:

(a) Rumen active fat(b) Rumen inert/ protected/ bypass fat

Rumen active fat: The rumen active fats have the potential to interfere with microbial fermentation in

the rumen and reduce feed digestibility to varying degrees depending upon the level of incorporation. Digestibility of the fibrous carbohydrate fraction is especially susceptible to antimicrobial effects of rumen active fats. Devendra and Lewis (1974) summarized four theories to explain this effect: 1) physical coating of the fibre with fat preventing microbial attack; 2) modification of the rumen microbial population due to possible toxic effects of fat on certain microorganisms; 3) inhibition of microbial activity from surface active effects of fatty acids on cell membranes, and 4) reduced cation availability from formation of insoluble complexes with long chain fatty acids, which could be directly responsible for decreased availability of cations for microbial function or indirectly by affecting rumen pH. Rumen active fats include fat of animal origin (tallow, grease etc.), plant oils, oil seeds and high fat byproducts such as residues from edible oil processing plants.

Rumen active fats are hydrolyzed rapidly in the rumen by microbial lipases The end products of fat hydrolysis are free fatty acids (FFAs) and glycerolThe extent of hydrolysis is very high( 85-95 per cent) for rumen active fats (Bauchart et al., 1990a).

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Rumen inert/ protected/ bypass fat:The term rumen inert has been assigned to fats that do not undergo hydrolysis in

rumen and have very little negative effects on feed digestibility when fed to dairy animals at higher levels of supplementation. Rumen inert fats often have the added advantage of being dry at room temperature, are easily transportable and can be mixed into the diets without the need for specialized equipment. The rumen bypass fat may be in the form of calcium salts of fatty acids, saturated fatty acids or hydrogenated fat.

The term protected/ bypass fat is most applicable to fat sources especially designed to resist hydrolysis and biohydrogenation by ruminal microbes and which on absorption in the lower gastro intestinal tract of the animal, modify fatty acid profile of body tissues and milk. Protection of fats can be done by following methods:

(a) Surrounding unsaturated fatty acids by a protective capsule, such as formaldehyde treated proteins, that act to shield the internal fatty acids from biohydrogenation

(b) Chemical modification of unsaturated fatty acids to chemical forms that resist biohydrogenation, such as calcium salts of fatty acids or fatty amides. The degree of biohydrogenation of fatty acids of mustard oil, when supplemented in various forms is presented in following table.

Table 1 Ruminal biohydrogenation (%) of unsaturated fatty acids (Mishra, 1999)

Fatty acids Experimental groups Significance I II III IV

C 18:1 63.50 3.59 57.58 2.62 55.63 2.43 48.60 2.46 NSC 18:2 93.63 1.15 91.05 1.66 90.90 0.72 84.83 0.68 NS

C 18:3 75.00 4.65 77.05 2.28 72.70 3.05 67.58 1.43 NSTotal C 18 76.43a 2.76 73.73a 1.38 71.75ab

1.4465.35b 1.16 6.58*

I Supplemented with mustard oil @ 4% dietary DMII Supplemented with crushed mustard seeds @ 4% dietary DMIII Supplemented with heat treated mustard seed @ 4% dietary DMIV Supplemented with calcium salts of mustard oil @ 4% of dietary DM

The efficiency of protection depends on the nature of process employed for

manufacturing of bypass fat.Protected/ bypass fats may be of following kinds:

1. Oilseeds: Offering oilseeds to ruminants instead of oils gives a natural partial protectionof lipids against biohydrogenation (Ekeren et al., 1992)

2. Crystalline fat: It is generally made of saturated fatty acids. Due to high melting point, these do not melt at ruminal temperature, thereby resisting rumen hydrolysis.

3. Direct formaldehyde treatment of oilseeds: Oilseeds can be directly treated with formaldehyde. But the difficulty in providing a high level of protection for lipids against hydrogenation by this method does not occur due to physical

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breakdown of the product during mastication releasing unprotected oil and sometimes due to improper treatment during manufacturing process.

4. Calcium salts of fatty acids: Calcium salts of fatty acids are not soluble in rumen and therefore do not disturb organic matter digestibility in rumen (Elmeddah et al., 1991) that is due to specific effect of ionized calcium (Ferlay and Doreau, 1993).

5. Fatty acyl amides: These were found resistant to hydrogenation in rumen (Fotouhi and Jenkins, 1992)

6. Prilled fatty acids: Liquifying a mixture of fatty acids high in saturated fatty acids content and spraying the mixture of fatty acids under pressure into a cooled atmosphere results in a dried prilled fatty acid supplement that is inert in rumen

(Grummer, 1988)

EFFECT OF BYPASS FAT FEEDING ON ANIMAL PERFORMANCE

a) Protected fat and rumen fermentation pattern: Feeding bypass fat minimizes the detrimental effects of supplementing large

amounts of fat in the diet of dairy cows on rumen fermentation pattern because of their insolubility in rumen (Chalupa et al., 1986), provided the pH of rumen is maintained above 6.0 (Palmquist et al., 1986). Feeding rumen-protected fat (Ca salts of fatty acids and prilled fatty acids) to lactating Holstein cows resulted in no change in rumen environmental parameters such as pH, total VFA, and NH3N concentration, and molar proportions of acetate, propionate and butyrate as well as the acetate to propionate ratio ((Schauff and Clark, 1989)).b) Protected fat and nutrient digestibility: Supplementation of rumen inert fat even at higher levels, has not been found to adversely affect, DM and crude fibre digestibility as is observed when fat as such was supplemented (Mishra, 1999).c) Protected fat and milk production:

Gulati et al. (2000) offered bypass fat (protected) as per to lactating cows and buffaloes with details: total fat 323g, rumen undegradable fat 255.17g, rumen degradable fat 67.83g, fatty acids available for absorption at abomasum- Oleic acid(C 18:1 cis) 133.2 g, Linoleic acid(C18: 2) 66.3g and Linolenic acid(C18: 2) 219g/kg fat. They observed significant enhancement in milk yield, fat content and yield, protein content and yield on feeding protected fat to cows and buffaloes

In crossbred cows (HF x Jersey), producing 10-12 kg milk per day, supplemented with 1kg of protected fat/protein, exhibited significant (p<0.05) increase in milk yield. Fat and protein content increased by 0.6 (p<0.01) and 0.4 per cent(p<0.05), respectively. (Table 6)

Table 2.Average milk yield and composition of CB cows fed bypass fat/protein supplement

Parameter Control group Test group

Av. daily milk yield, kg 11.2 ±0.32 12.3 ±0.34

Fat content, % 4.0 ±0.1 4.6 ±0.12

Protein content, % 3.1 ±0.0 3.5 ±0.0

(Garg et al., 2002)

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At National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Mishra et al. (2004) also observed significant increase in milk and fat corrected milk (FCM) yield in cross bred cows fed Ca salts of mustard oil @ 4 per cent of dietary dry matter (Table 3).

Table 3 Effect of feeding protected mustard oil on milk yield and composition in dairy cattle

Particulars Experimental groupsI II III

Milk yield, kg/d 6.36b ±0.16 6.81a ±0.2 6.22b ±0.19FCM yield, kg/d 6.13b ±0.17 6.92a ±0.28 6.84a ±0.23Milk composition (%)Fat 3.77c ±0.10 4.06b ±0.10 4.65a ±0.06Total solids 11.71b ±0.11 12.56a ±0.14 12.72a ±0.12SNF 7.93b ±0.07 8.5a ±0.08 8.07b ±0.14Protein 3.33a ±0.04 3.29ab ±0.04 3.19b ±0.06

I Control with no added fatII Supplemented with calcium salts of mustard oil @ 4% of dietary DMIII Supplemented with heat treated mustard seed @ 4% dietary DMIn a recently conducted experiment at NDRI, Karnal, calcium salts of acid oil have

been fed to early lactating Murrah buffaloes @ 4 per cent of dietary dry matter and the average milk yield(Kg/d) was increased by 12.6 percent in bypass fat fed buffaloes in a 90 days lactation trial.d) Protected fat and milk fat quality:

Non-calorific effects of bypass fat may be seen indirectly through altered fatty acid profile of milk produced from animals. There is increase in the mono and polyunsaturated fatty acid in milk fat, which is highly desirable from human health point of view as these have been found to prevent the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases. The percentage of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in milk fat were reported higher in goats fed the diet supplemented with Ca soap of fatty acids (Perez et al., 1998).e) Protected fat and reproduction:

Several hypotheses have been suggested to explain the positive effect of protected fat on reproductive performance. One theory proposed that improved energy balance results in an earlier return of postpartum ovarian cycling (Butler and Smith, 1989). A second theory proposed that increased linoleic acid might provide increased PGF2α and stimulates the return to ovarian cycling and improved follicular conscription (Lucy et al., 1991). Third hypothesis suggested that progesterone secretion increased either from improved energy balance (Villa-Godoy et al., 1988) or from altered lipoprotein composition from dietary fat, which stimulates progesterone synthesis (Carrol et al., 1992), thus improving fertility. Some results related to the effect of calcium salts of fatty acids on reproduction in dairy animals have been summarized in Table10.

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Table 4 Effect of calcium salts on reproduction and milk productionParameters No. of

cowsResults (control) Results (+500g

Ca salts per day)Reference

CR (1st Service)Days openMilk yield

115 24.5%193

56.6%123+2.4 l /h /d

Nelson, 1989

PRDays openMilk yield

108 58%86

76%74+1.7 l/ h/ d

Schneider, 1988

CR (1st service) 108 43% 60% Sklan, 1989

CR (1st service) 99 41.6% 39.3% Sklan, 1990

CR (2 – 4 service) 25.0% 42.6%

Days open 149 115

Cows pregnant at 150 day

62.5% 82.4%

Milk yield +3 l / h/ d

PR – Pregnancy rate (3 services)L/h/d – liters/head/dayCR (1st Ser) – Conception to first service

Commercial Implications The work conducted on supplementation of protected fat establishes the beneficial

effects of its feeding on rumen fermentation pattern, milk yield, fat yield and reproductive performance of the animal. The therapeutic value of the milk produced on feeding of protected fat from human health point of view will make these supplements popular due to higher market price. However, the cost of the supplement and its suitability in feeding system of Indian dairy farmers has to be kept in mind. Presently, three firms are marketing bypass fat in India which is imported from developed countries. The cost of imported bypass fat is high and there is a need to indiginise the manufacturing of the same and use cheaper byproducts of edible oil industry as the source of fat so that bypass fat is available at affordable prices in Indian market. Thereafter, the compound feed industry will be in a position to use the cheap bypass fat in feed of medium and high yielders.

References:

1. Bauchart, D; Legay-Carmier, F. and Doreau, M. 1990a. Ruminal hydrolysis of dietary triglycerides in dairy cows fed lipid supplemented diets. Reprod. Nutr. Dev., 30 (Suppl.2): 187s

2. Butler, W.R. and Smith, R.D. 1989. Inter relationship between energy balance, milk production and ovulation in post partum Holstein cows. J. Anim. Sci., 72: 767-783.

3. Chalupa, W.; Vecchiarelli, B.; Elser, A.E.; Kronfeld, D.S. and Sklan, D. 1986.Rumen fermentation in vivo as induced by long chain fatty acids. J. Dairy Sci. 69: 1293.

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4. Devendra, C. and Lewis, D. 1974. The interaction between dietary lipids and fibre in sheep. Anim. Prod., 19:167.

5. Ekeren, P.A.; Smith, D.R.; Lunt, D.K. and Smith, S.B. 1992. Ruminal biohydrogenation of fatty acids from high oleate sunflower seeds. J. Anim. Sci., 70: 2574-2580.

6. Elmeddah, Y.; Doreau, M. and Michalet – Doreau, B. 1991. Interaction of lipid supply and carbohydrate in the diet of sheep with digestibility and ruminal digestion. J. Agric. Sci., 116: 437-445.

7. Ferley, A. and Doreau, M. 1993. Effect of lipid supply in the diet of cows on calcium and magnesium pools in the rumen. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 52:151A.

8. Fotuhi, N. and Jenkins, T.C. 1992. Resistance of fatty acyl amides to degradation and hydrogenation by ruminal microorganisms. J. Dairy Sci., 75: 1527-1532.

9. Garg, M.R.; Sherasia, P.L.; Bhanderi, B.M.; Gulati, S.K. and Scott, T.W. 2002. Effect of feeding rumen protected nutrients on milk production in crossbred cows. Indian J. Anim. Nutr., 19(3): 191-198.

10. Grummer, R.R. 1988. Influence of prilled fat and calcium salts of palm oil fatty acids on ruminal fermentation, and nutrient digestibility. J. Dairy Sci., 71:117

11. Gulati, S.K.; Ashes, J. and Scott, T. 2000. Healthier butterfat spreads butter. Feed Mix, 8(6): 20-22.

12. Lucy, M.C.; Staples, C.R.; Michel, F.M. and Thatcher, W.W. 1991. Effect of feeding Ca soaps to early postpartum dairy cows on plasma prostaglandin F2, LH and follicular growth. J. Dairy Sci., 74: 483-489.

13. Mishra, S. 1999. Effect of feeding protected mustard oil on rumen fermentation, milk production and milk composition in dairy cattle. Ph.D. Thesis, NDRI (Deemed University), Karnal, India.

14. Mishra, S, Thakur, S.S. and Raikwar, Rakesh 2004.Milk production and composition in crossbred cows fed calcium salts of mustard oil fatty acids. Indian.J. Anim. Nutrition, 21(3):22-25.

15. Nelson, A.J. 1989. Dairy Production Services, Cortland, NY; Pers. Comm.16. Palmquist, D.L.; Jenkins, T.C. and Joyner, Jr. A.E. 1986. Effect of dietary fat and

calcium source on insoluble soap formation in the rumen. J. Dairy Sci. 69:1020. 17. Perez, L.; Sanz Sampelayo, M.R.; Gil Extremera, F. and Boza, J.1998. Effect of soap

supplies on goat milk production and composition. http://www.inra.fr18. Schauff, D.J. and Clark, J.H. 1989. Effects of prilled fatty acids and calcium salts of

fatty acids on rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility, milk production and milk composition. J. Dairy Sci. 72: 917-927.

19. Schneider, P.; Sklan, D.; Chalupa, W. and Kronfled, D.1988. Feeding calcium salts of fatty acids to lactating cows. J. Dairy Sci., 71: 2143.

20. Sklan, D.; Bogin, E.; Avidar, Y. and Gur-Arie, S. 1989. Feeding calcium soaps of fatty acids to lactating cows: effect on production, body composition and blood lipids. J. Dairy Res. 56: 675.

21. Sklan, D.; Moallem, U. and Folman, Y.1991. Effect of feeding calcium soaps of fatty acids on production and reproductive responses in high yielding lactating cows. J. Dairy Sci., 74: 510-517.

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Bypass Protein Feeding in Dairy Animals and its Commercial Implications

T. K. WALLINational Dairy Research Institute, Karnal –132001

INTRODUCTION Feed shortage is quite acute in India, where the bovine population is increasing at the rate of more than 1 % annually. This constant increase in the bovine population nullifies to some extent the efforts which we have been making towards increasing the feed resources for these animals. India has done remarkably well in increasing its anunual milk production from 30 million tonnes in 1970 to 87 million tonnes in 2003, thereby, emerging as the largest milk producer in the world. Nevertheless, there is still a vast scope for increasing our milk production, provided we supply optimum nutrients to the animals as per their requirements. While the crop residues, especially the cereal straws form the major roughage source, agro-industrial by-products and non- conventional feeds are the main concentrate feeds available for animal feeding. There is hardly any scope for expansion of the area under fodder cultivation. Apart from increasing feed resources, we have also to look for alternative ways of increasing nutrient supply to bovines, from existing as well as newer feeds. This can be achieved by modifying the feeds and the feeding conditions, and by manipulating the digestive tract, especially rumen, through active as well as passive manipulations. Bypass nutrients technology is one such passive manipulation of the ruminant digestive tract, aimed at increasing the nutrient utilization within the ruminant system for higher productivity. BYPASS PROTEIN TECHNOLOGY : While some protein supplements are resistant to proteolytic attack in rumen, some of the oil cake protein are highly degradable and need protection. Chemical as well as physical treatments can be used to protect these proteins, thus, allowing these proteins to bypass rumen and get digested in the lower tract. By this passive manipulation of the ruminal activity, the efficiency of protein utilization from oilcakes can be optimized within the ruminant system, to make these oilcakes more beneficial to the animals, in terms of increased growth and milk production. In most of the feeds, major part of the protein is degraded in rumen called “Rumen degradable protein”(RDP) and small but variable amount of dietary protein escapes rumen degradation called” Undegraded dietary protein” (UDP) or the bypass protein, which enters the lower tract and is absorbed mostly as amino acids. Bypass protein technology aims at precisely decreasing the wasteful ammonia production in rumen as well as enhancing the total availability of amino acid in the intestine of the host ruminants (Chaturvedi and Walli, 1999). The relevance of bypass protein feeding under Indian context has been reviewed by: Walli (1998, 2000, 2004, 2005) and Walli and Sirohi (2002). Bypass protein technology has two important aspects. One is the determination of protein degradability of feeds in rumen, to know the relative proportion of RDP and UDP or the bypass protein value of the feeds. The other important aspect of this technology is the commercial manufacture of bypass protein. Oil cakes, whose proteins are

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highly degradable in rumen, need to be protected from microbial proteolytic activity, through treatments, to make these as bypass proteins. Two main methods have been suggested for protein protection, the heat treatment or the low levels of formaldehyde treatment. Walli et al (2000) fine tuned the heat treatment of GN cake and soybean cake and found 150oc for 2 h as the optimum temperature time combination for their protein protection. Chatterjee & Walli (2003c) also optimized the level of formaldehyde (1.2 g/100g CP) for the treatment of mustard cake and groundnut cake, without having any adverse effect on post ruminal digestibility of the cake. Heat treatment may be less feasible and may not be cost effective, except for the roasting of soybean meal, which can be used as a physical method of protection. Formaldehyde treatment however, appears to be an ideal way of protecting the highly degradable cakes, as the chemical is cheap and is required in low concentration.FEEDING OF BYPASS PROTEIN AND GROWTH PERFORMANCE Feeding of formaldehyde treated oil meals generally increases the growth rate of animals and the increase is often significant. A significant increase in growth rate was observed in goat kids, on feeding formaldehyde treated GN cake (Gupta & Walli 1987; Pratihar and Walli , 1995), and on feeding of formaldehyde treated mustard cake(Pratihar and Walli, 1995, Sahoo & Walli,2001). Feeding of formaldehyde treated GN cake resulted in increase in the growth rate of crossbred calves (Kumar & Walli 1994). Similarly, the feeding of formaldehyde treated mustard cake gave significant increase in growth performance of buffalo calves (Tiwari & Yadav, 1994). Chatterjee & Walli (2003a) registered 30-40 % higher growth rate in buffalo calves fed formaline treated mustard cake, compared to calves fed untreated cake. Sahoo, (2002) found that formaldehyde treatment not only protected proteins, but also protected the glucosinolate present in mustard cake, which otherwise gets degraded to thiocynate in rumen and then disturbs the animal’s thyroid metabolism, as higher Thyroxin (T3& T4 ) levels in plasma of kids fed treated mustard cake. These results were further backed by the histopathological examination of the slaughtered kids, which showed that the tissues of the animals fed formaldehyde treated mustard cake were quite normal, compared to some cellular degeneration found in the tissues of animals fed untreated cake. FEEDING OF BYPASS PROTEIN AND MILK PRODUCTION : Feeding of naturally occurring bypass protein to cross bred cows (Walli,1996; Chaturvedi and Walli, 2000) and feeding of formaldehyde treated GN cake to crossbred cows (Sampath et al 1997, Garg et al 2003) resulted in significant increase in milk production. Similar results were obtained in lactating buffaloes (Chatterjee & Walli, 2003b) and lactating goats (Sahoo and Walli, 2002). Recently a trial conducted at NDRI, Karnal under NDRI/NDDB Collaborative project on feeding of formaldehyde treated rape seed cake to cross bred cows, showed a 15% increase in milk yield of animals fed treated cake, over control ( Walli and Sirohi, 2004a). In another recent trial on feeding of roasted soybean meal to cross bred cows, the increase in milk production was to the tune of about 10 % ( Walli and Sirohi, 2004b). The protection of glucosinolates in rumen by formaline treatment was further proved as the thiocynate level in the milk of goats fed formaldehyde treated mustard cake was much lower than the group fed untreated cake. Formaline could’t also be detected in the milk from animals fed formalin treated cake, suggesting that milk from treated cows was safe for human consumption. Formaldehyde treatment of groundnut cake also also destroys

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fungs and in the process, prevents further production of aflatoxin in the cake ( Pratihar and Walli, 1995), which could reduce aflatoxin level in milk.COMMERCIAL IMPLICATIONS : Most of these above studies were conducted on medium producing animals, thus proving that bypass protein feeding can be benificial even to medium producing animals. NDDB is not only popularizing the technology among the farmers, but is also planning to set up more such plants in other states. There is an ample scope for the commercialization of this technology in the tropical countries, to boost up milk production from cows and buffaloes, using formaline treatment of highly degradable cakes.REFERENCES-Chatterjee, A. and Walli, T.K. (2003a). Effect of formaldehyde treatment on effective protein degradability and in vitro post ruminal digestibility of mustard cake. Indian J. of Anim. Nutr. 20(2) : 143-148.-Chatterjee, A. and Walli, T. K. (2003b). Economics of feeding formaldehyde treated mustard cake as bypass protein to growing buffalo calves. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 56(4) : 241-244.-Chatterjee, A. and Walli, T. K. (2003c). Effect of feeding formaldehyde treated mustard cake as bypass protein on milk yield and milk composition of murrah buffaloes. Indian J. of Dairy Sci. 56(5) 301-310.-Chaturvedi,O.H. and Walli, T. K.(1999).Effect of feeding graded levels of UDP on the flow rate of microbial N, dietary NAN and A-amino acid N at abomasums in crossbred calves. Indian J.Anim.Sci.69 (12): 1048-1052.-Chaturvedi, O.H. and Walli, T. K. (2000). Effect of feeding graded levels of bypass protein on nutrient utilization, nutrient partitioning and on performance of lactating cross bred cows. Indian J. Dairy Sci. .53 : 1-10.-Chaturvedi, O.H. and Walli, T. K. (2001). Effect of feeding graded levels of Udp on voluntary intake, milk production and economic returns in early lactating crossbreds. Asian-Australian J. Anim. Sci. 14 (8) : 1118-1124. -Garg, M. R.; Sherasia, P.L.; Bhanderi, B.M.; Gulati; S.K. and Scott, W. T. (2003). Effect of feeding rumen protected protein on milk production in lactating cows. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 56(4) ; 218-222. -Gupta, H.K. and Walli, T.K. (1987). Growth rate, feed conversion efficiency and feed utilization in crossbred kids fed HCHO treated cake as such and partly replaced by urea. Indian J.Anim.Nutr. 4:94-99.-Kumar, V. and Walli, T.K. (1994). Effect of feeding urea treated wheat straw supplemented with HCHO treated GN cakes on growth performance of crossbred calves. Indian J. Anim. Nutr. 4:29-33.-Pratihar,S. and Walli,T.K.(1995). Comparative effect of formaldehyde treatment of GN cake and mustard cake on growth performance of goat kids.Proc.VII Anim. Nutr.Res.Workers’ Conf Bombay No 88,pp.95.-Sahoo, B. and Walli, T.K. (2001). Nutrient utilization and growth performance of crossbred goats fed on low and high bypass protein supplemented with molasses as energy source.Abstr. Proc. of X Anim Nutr Conf, ANSI, Karnal, India, pp 132.-Sahoo, B. (2002). Productive performance of crossbred goats fed on low and high bypass protein supplemented with molasses as energy source. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to NDRI Deemed University, Karnal.

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-Sahoo, B. and Walli, T. K. (2002). Comparative nutrient utilization , productive performance and feed conversion efficiency of lactating goats fed on low and high bypass protein supplemented with or without molasses as energy source. Proc. of IV Biennal ANA conf. At WBUA& F Sci. , Kolkata, Nov. 22-24, 2002. pp. 169. -Sampath K.T., Prasad, C. S., Ramachandra, K. S. Sundareshan, K. and Subbarao A.(1997).Effect of feeding undegraded dietary protein on milk production of crossbred cows. Indian J.Anim.Sci.67 (8): 706.-Tiwari D.P. and Yadav,I.S. (1994). Effect on growth, nutrient utilization and blood metabolites in buffalo calves fed rations containing HCHO treated mustard cake. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 64(6):625.-Walli T. K. Rai, S. N. Mishra, S. and garg, M.R. (1995). Milk yield and milk composition of crossbred cows fed concentrate of varying RDp/UDP ratios. Compendium II, Proc. of VII ANC, Mumbai, No. 95, pp. 49. -Walli T.K. (1996) Bypass protein value of some feed ingredients and the optimum level of RDP/UDP ratio in the diet for optimization of milk production in dairy cattle. Final Report NDRI-NDDB Technology Mission Collaborative Project. NDRI, karnal.-Walli T. K. (1998). Relevance of protein evaluation in ruminants on the basis of RDP and UDP under Indian conditions. Proc. Natl Symposium on “Feeding strategies for sustainable livestock production with emphasis on non-conventional feeds and systems for protein evaluation in ruminants. Palampur (H.P), pp.26-31.-Walli T. K., Dass, M. M., Rai, S. N. and Garg, M. R.(2000).Effect of heat treatment on protein degradability solubility and ammonia release of groundnut cake and soybean meal. Indian J. Dairy Sci.57 (5): 361-368 -Walli T. K.(2000). RDP and UDP system and its relevance in increasing the productivity of ruminants in India. Proc.III Biennial Conf of ANA, HAU, Hisar, India, pp.1-9.-Walli T. K. and Sirohi, S. K. (2002). Relevance of feeding rumen protected proteins and amino acids to dairy animals. Proc. IV Biennal Conf. of ANA, WBUA& F Sci, Kolkata Nov. 20-22, pp151-159.-Walli T. K. and Sirohi, S. K. (2004a). Evaluation of formaldehyde treated protein meal with respect to enhancement in milk production in crossbred cows. Project Report. NDDB/ NDRI Collaborative Research Project -Walli T. K. and Sirohi, S. K. (2004b). Evaluation of heat treated ( roasted) soybean on lactating crossbred cows. Project Report. NDRI/ American Soybean Association Collaborative Research Rroject.-Walli T. K. (2005 ). Bypass protein technology and the impact of feeding bypass protein to dairy animals in tropics : A review. An invited review paper published in Ind. J Anim. Sci. ( 75th Year), 75 (1) : 135-142.

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Assured Quality Feed Manufacturing Through Ingredient Selection and Feed Mill Sanitation

J.P.Sehgal and Vimal K TripathiDairy cattle nutrition division

N.D.R.I Karnal -132001

Quality and quantity of cattle compounded feed is very essential for economical livestock production in terms of milk. Based on past experience of the scientist many modification and alternation have been made in cattle feed formulation from time to time to exploit the full genetic potential of live stock productivity. This is by incorporation of bold size grains., vegetable protein and oils seed cake., bran and chunnies all having optimum chemical composition., antibiotic and growth promoters etc. those enhance the quality of feed by acting as catalyst . Simultaneously least cost feed formula have also been designed so that the cost of milk production does not increase. Bureau of Indian standard (BIS) have given the specification for the compound feed for cattle based on the recommendation of the Animal feeds sectional committee AFDC IJ: (Table 1). The feed formulas were given based on the requirement of the compounded feeds for cattle. These have been so computed that each feed formula is by and large expected to provide 20-22% CP or 15% of DCP and 68 to 74 percent of total digestible nutrients (TDN). Traditionally feed mills successfully implemented good manufacturing. Practices to produce feed clean of contaminants thus protecting raw feed of animal protein and vegetable protein from spoilage due to growth of fungi etc. To increase the safety margin and to regain the consumer trust in the feed., Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) has become an integral part of the new feed safety laws. To start a HACCP program it is necessary to form a committee of persons having professional background experience and involvement in the animal feed production. They are feed mill manager; feed mill inspector, quality control incharge production manager; animal feed technologist Veterinarian and animal nutritionist. The role of animal nutritionist in all these events are remarkable but ultimately they have to develop on the milling and mixing technology. The mill parts are prone for contamination because the vegetable proteins and animal proteins help in multiplication of pathogen i.e. microorganism; moulds and fungi in feed mill. The objective of quality control of feed stuffs is to ensure that a consumers obtain feeds that are unadulterated, trueto their nature and must give desired results. A good system of quality control of animal feeds may be defined as the maintenance of quality of feed ingredients at levels and tolerance acceptable to the buyer while minimizing the cost of processing of the feed. The following points are kept in mind for the maintenance of feed quality. Physical examination of the raw material for Quality control: A through ‘physical inspection’ for the following is to be done when the raw material is received in the mill/ or at a place where the compounded feed is to be prepared for the animals.1. Colour, odour, texture and density of feed material2. Evidence of wetting/ moisture level. Particularly in grain and bran

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3. Presence of adulterants such as stores dust or other foreign material4. Weevils and pest infestation5 .Evidence of broken or damaged seeds6. Evidence of presence of rat feacel matter etc. If the raw material is free from the above mentioned points., than sample should be taken for chemical analysis (Proximate principles) The analysis indicates possible constraints on the usage of ingredients due the presence of high content of crude fibre, less fat or excessive quantity of AI ash . Raw materials to be having high incidence of salmonella should be treated with bactericidal organic acids.Table 1: Requiremennts for compounded feed for Cattle (BIS) / NDRI Characteristics

Requirement (BIS) Type I Type II NDRI1.Moisture, 11 11 10 percent by mass (Max)2.Crude protein (N x 6.25) 22 20 20 Min.3.Crude fat (Min) 3.0 2.5 4.5

4.Crude fiber (Max) 7.0 12.0 11.0

5.Acid insoluble ash (Max) 3.0 4.0 2.5

Further the raw material should be stored in bulk bins . and it is essential to construct these bins with moisture exhaustion and proper ventilation facility. In godown the gunny bags containing feed materials should be stored one foot away from the walls to allow adequate room for for cleaning and pest control. The operating machinery of the feed mill should be enclosed to avoid contaminants in feed. In the feed mill machinery the contaminants include human hairs, rodents hair , faeces, insects mites and toxic prodents. Recycling of all these deteriorate the quality of feed.

Toxicological analysis of the feed ingredients:Toxicological test should also be performed so that excessive antimetabolites should not present in compound feed. Some of the feed ingredients contain antimetabolites which may adversely affect feed conversion and palatability of the feed ingredients and at high concentration, even result in the death of animals. e.g. Gossypol in Cottonseed cake Glucosinolates in mustered cake Cyanogenetic glycosides in Linseed and cassavaMycotoxins, Primary aflatoxin in maize, groundnut cake etc.Mimosine and tannin in Leucenia leucocephala and tree leavesIt is not possible to estimate the toxicity/ antimetabolites in routine basis so the material should be purchased from the best source of supply. Trypsin inhibitors are present in raw soyabean, but it is a heat labile so soybeans cake is free of the Trypsin inhibitors.

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Common Adulterants in Feeds and fodders: Adulteration is defined as the intentional mixing of a quality substance with some cheaper and low quality substance to make money. Costly feed ingredients like oil cake and feed products from animal origin like fish meal are adulterated. However some item even bran like wheat bran and rice bran and molasses are also adulterated. Adulterant of Different Feed Ingredients Feed Ingredient Adulterant 1. Groundnut cake (deoiled) a) Groundnut husk b) Urea c) non edible oil cake2. Mustard cake a) Argimone maxicana seeds, b) fibrous feed ingredients urea3. Soyabean meal urea4.Deoiled rice bran, wheat bran ground rice hulls, saw dust5.Fish meal Common salt, urea6. Mineral mixture Calcite powder, Lime stone, Common salt, Marble powder7. Molasses WaterAdulteration can be checked in the laboratory by the following methods:1.Chemical analysis2. Bioassay technique3. Feed microscopy1. Oilseed cake are rich in protein and less fibrous. Lower crude protein and high fibre content estimation of a oil seed cake than its specification indicate the presence of some fibrous feeds such as hulls2.If the fibre remains higher than the specified limits but CP within normal range, it may be inferred that the cake is adulterated with urea and or some inferior quality of oil cake eg. Mahua cake, castor cake, karanj cake

The presence of adulterant viz mahua cake argimone seeds or urea can be checked in the feed sample or compound feed as follow:a) Mahua cake in compound feed water extract of the test feed + conc H2So4 ( violet or pink colour indicate the presence of mahua cake) b) Presence of argimona seeds water extract of the in mustard cake test feed + conc HNO3 ( Brown – reddish colour indicate the presence of argimona seeds)c) Presence of urea

one part of test feed + 3 parts of water and mix well. Filterate to get supernatant and add few drops of DMAB (2 g dimethylamine benzaldehyde dissolved in 90 ml methyl alcohol + 10 ml Hcl) deeping of yellow colour indicate the presence of urea

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Feed microscopy: This is also used to confirm the adulteration and identifying the adulterants in the feed material. Under feed microscopy the structure of different feed stuffs are seen under the microscope for which slide is prepared on a clean dry glass by spreading the feed material and it is viewed under 50x bright field. The physical charectristicss like shape, colour, particle size, softness, texture etc. are examined. For this purpose Microscopist must be familier with all type of feed ingredients and adulterants. He should have a collection of structures and textures of

a) pure feed ingredients, b) adulterants and c) contaminantsStorage of Ingredients After the quality test of the feed materials the storage is very important to keep the material for long duration without loss of quality during storage. If the feed ingredients are stored in gunny bags and stalked in lot without any proper ventilation , they get infested with pests including mice and rats. So the feed ingredients should be stored in bulk bins with moisture exhaustation and proper ventilation facility. In godowns the gunny bags containing feed materials should be stored one foot away from the walls for cleaning and pest control.Feed mill Sanitation: For the preparation of clean and quality compound feed the following points should be considered for feed mill sanitation or biosecurity1. Maintain proper records for the purchase of feed ingredients and feed additives2. Keep each area of the feed mill dust free and all entry points of the rodents and bird

must the closed3. Check the ceiling area for any leakage during rainy season4. Used gunny bags should not be stored in mill premises5. When the feed material stock has been used the remaining used ingredients should be

removed from the storage shed and broom down all the walls and the floor. The area must be cleaned with bactericidal , vermicidal and fungicidal solution containing 7.5% formaldehyde, 7.5% glutraldehyde and 5% Benzalkonim chloride.

6. A bank of feed samples should be sealed in a clean, dry location7. Dust control in the feed milling faculty is essential for controlling Major source of

salmonella contamination in feed mills.. This is a major source of salmonella contamination in feed mills.

8. Feed spills should be cleaned up immediately 9. Separate storage bins and trucks must assigned for mash and pelleted feeds. These bins

and trucks must be inspected and clean regularlity.

If all the points discussed will be considered by the feed manufactures the feed mill produce a quality feed with assured nutritive value to livestock and thereby assured production of quality milk for human beings.

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Supplementation of poor quality roughages with urea molasses mineral blocks for improved health and production of ruminants

USHA R. MEHRAAnimal Nutrition Division

IVRI, Izatnagar-243 122 (U.P.)

Ruminants in third world countries including India are fed on poor quality crop residues, which are not only deficient in nitrogen, minerals and vitamins, but also have poor digestibility due to presence of lignin in them (Jayasuriya, 1987; Van Soest, 1994).Ruminants have the unique ability to convert NPN compounds in their diet to a microbial protein of high biological value. Keeping this fact in mind urea containing blocks known as urea molasses mineral block (UMMB) were developed to supplement the diet of ruminants fed on poor quality roughages (Thu and Uden, 2000, 2001, Hosamani, 2004). The main problem with the supplementation of block lick is great diurual variation in its lick by the animals (Singh and Mehra 1980; Mehra et al., 1993). The variation may be due to the composition and degree of hardness of the block (Leng 1984, Hande, 1989). It is not only the texture of the block but also the energy and protein content of the basal diet may also influence the daily block intake (Ali and Mirja, 1986). The block intake was significantly reduced when concentrate was given to cattle (Mangal Ram et al., 1986) and Buffalo (Mehra et al., 1991) and when berseem was given to cattle along with wheat straw (Srinivas, 1991).

Effect of urea-molasses lick on total DM intake:There was significant increase in DM intake due to block feeding on straw based

ration in buffaloes (Tiwari et al., 1990 and Madhu Mohini and Gupta 1991). Prevailing practices in the rural areas of developing countries of keeping growing calves solely on wheat bhoosa and a small amount of poor grade concentrate is not satisfactory. The improvement in the feeding value of wheat straw through supplementation with UMMB and fish meal was demonstrated (Tiwari et al., 1990). Finding also suggested that in respect of nutrient digestibility and utilization the animals of group supplemented with UMMB ad libitum and fish meal at the rate of 100 g per day provided to be better converters of wheat straw into biomass. This feed can be economically supplemented with UMMB and 100 g fish meal to maintain a fairly good growth rate for the calves.

Effect of urea molasses block supplementation on animal performance:Various reports indicated that there was improvement in growth and production of

animals due to urea molasses feeding. It was reported that the daily weight gain was not significant in buffalo calves, but attained the early age maturity and the cost per kg gain was significantly different in buffalo calves fed block along with ammoniated paddy straw over untreated straw (Mangat Ram, 1991). Effect of different planes of nutrition on urea molasses mineral block intake, nutrient utilization on urea molasses, mineral block intake, nutrient utilization, rumen fermentation pattern and blood profile was studied in Murrah buffaloes (Hosamani et al., 1998). Results indicated that additional energy supplied through concentrate resulted in higher intake of protein and energy than the maintenance requirement, whereas wheat straw supplemented with UMMB was sufficient to meet the

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maintenance requirement of adult buffaloes (Table-I). Higher plane of nutrition did not have any positive effect on intake of wheat straw and UMMB. Experiments conducted on adult crossbred cattle (Toppo, 1997) indicted that supplementing 50% energy requirements through concentrate on a straw based diet along with UMMB, increased the intake of UMMB and utilization of dietary nutrients. Effect of different sources of energy on UMMB intake nutrient utilization and rumen metabolism and blood profile in murrah buffaloes was studied (Hosamani, 2003). It could be concluded that the urea molasses mineral block was utilized better in the presence of cereal grain maize followed by barley and jowar green fodder.

Table 1: Nutrient digestibility in buffaloes supplemented UMMB on different plane of nutrition

Attribute*Group

I II III IV SEMDry matterIntake (g/ day) 4230.0 5240.0 5680.0 6110.0 460.0Intake (g kg W–0.75) 55.5 70.1 73.3 79.8 5.1Digestibility intake (g/day) 1920.0 2600.0 2960.0 3320.0 252.1Digestibility (%) 448a 49.8b 52.0bc 54.5 1.5Organic matter Intake (g/ day) 3890.0 4690.0 5110.0 5530.0 420.0Digestible intake (g/day) 1880.0 2490.0 2800.0 3190.0 249.0Digestibility (%) 47.8a 53.0b 54.8bc 57.7c 1.5Crude proteinIntake (g day-1)** 126.9a 413.6b 492.6bc 535.8c 21.0Intake (g kg W0.75)** 1.7a 6.0b 6.4bc 7.0c 0.8Digestible intake (g/day)** -1.8a 183.7b 245.9c 291.8c 10.4Digestibility (%) -2.50a 44.5b 50.0b 55.2b 4.2Neutral detergent fibreIntake (g/ day) 5390.0 3790.0 3860.0 3990.0 360.0Digestible intake (g/ day) 1620.0 1960.0 1960.0 2060.0 200.9Digestibility (%) 47.3 51.6 50.7 51.8 3.8Acid detergent fibreIntake (g/ day) 2110.0 2370.0 2360.0 2380.0 220.0Digestible intake (g/ day) 850.0 1230.0 1210.0 1170.0 129.4Digestibility (%) 40.3 52.1 51.2 49.60 2.8CelluloseIntake (g /day) 1660.0 1860.0 1860.0 1890.0 180.0Digestible intake (g/ day) 1010.0 1160.0 1160.0 1180.0 105.2Digestibility (%) 60.6 63.1 62.0 62.6 1.9HemicelluloseIntake (g /day) 1280.0 1420.0 1510.0 1610.0 136.9Digestible intake (g/ day) 760.0 760.0 820.0 890.0 113.0Digestibility (%) 58.7 53.6 54.1 6.4 5.2

* I Wheat straw, * II Wheat straw + UMMB, * III Wheat straw + UMMB + 700g concentrate mixture, * IV Wheat straw + UMMB + 1400g concentrate mixture a,b,c Values bearing different superscript in row differ significantly * P<0.05, ** P<0.01

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Prospects of supplementation of UMMBThe unique ability of the ruminants to synthesize enough protein for maintenance

through microbial action permits the use of urea as a NPN source, provided ready source of energy available. Thus it is now well established that urea molasses mix can provide additional nutrition and enhance the utilization of roughages. However, the use of such supplementary mix has several limitations especially if the system employed is in liquid form. One such system that can possibly overcome some of the limitations is to solidify the urea molasses liquid mix into the form of a block which is both acceptable and manageable without having any deleterious. Effect on the animals Development of UMMB technology is easily manageable and cost effective.

The primary objective of these blocks is to provide supplementary nutrition to animals in the village, subsisting on straws and crop residues. However, the whole purpose is defeated if the blocks are not hard enough and hence utmost care needs to be exercised that these blocks are meant only to serve as licks. It should release the urea nitrogen more slowly and frequently so as to minimize the change of ammonia toxicity. In addition, such a system can also facilitate the supply of other nutrients such as minerals and vitamins. UMMB also helps in overcoming the malnutrition/under nutrition of our livestock and generate better returns at the village level on farm produce.

ProblemsThe degree of hardness may decide the voluntary intake of block because if it is too

soft, it may be gobbled up rapidly and if it is too hard it may not be consumed at all (Kunju 1986 and Sansoucy and Aarts 1986). The composition of block specially urea level and the nutritional status of the animals also affected the consumption (Leng and Preston 1983). The report of Leng 1984, and Tiwari 1990 suggested that only 40 percent of the animals had started licking the block at the first instance. The available literature on the intake of block by various species of livestock is rather scanty. Hosamani (1992) recorded a maximum ingestion of 1 kg of block in buffaloes but 0.53 kg in Jersey bulls (Leng, 1984). 0.3 to 0.5 kg (Toppo et al., 1997) in crossbred cattle without any deleterious effect.

Advantage of technology1. Ingredients are easily available in almost all parts of India.2. Method of preparation is very easy.3. UMMB prepared by this method has long self life on storage at a dry place.4. Density of UMMB is much higher than the ingredients, which facilitates long

distance transportation, at a cheaper rate.5. UMMB blocks are suitable for supplementing dry fodder based diets for

sustainability of ruminants during droughts and floods.6. Licks are hard enough to control gradual intake limited to about 700 g in adult

bovines and 800-1000g in growing bovines of about 200 kg body weights.7. UMMB is much cheaper than the conventional source of intact proteins (Oil cakes).

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Precautions while using UMMB & their utility

Safety measures:1. UMMB should not have more than 10% moisture.2. UMMB should be stored at a dry place protected from rodents.3. UMMB should be offered to the animal in the dry manger and wetting should be

prevented. In contact with moisture it may become soft to facilitate swallowing.

Utility and product quality:1. UMMB supplies greater amount of protein through gradual licking.2. It also supplies essential minerals.3. It improves nutritional availability of for ruminants and facilitates some level of

production in addition to maintenance.4. Feeding of UMMB as lick is safe and incidence of sudden abnormally high intake is

remote if prepared with proper care.5. In addition to NPN it also supplies same intact protein, minerals, vitamins and

energy.

References:

Jayasuriya, M.C.N. (1987). Improvement of poor quality roughages. In: Advanced Animal Nutrition for developing countries (Ed. U.B. Singh). Indo-vision Pvt. Ltd., Ghaziabad pp. 236-259.

Van Soest, P.J. (1994). Nutritional ecology of the Ruminant. Cornell university press, Ithaca, New York, USA.Thu, N. V. and Uden, P. (2001). Effect of work and urea molasses cake supplementation of swamp buffaloes fed rice straw or grasses on rumen environment, feed degradation and intake. Asian-Aust J. Ani. Sci. 14(5): 631-639.

Thu, N.V. and Uden, P. (2000). Effect of urea molasses cake supplementation on live weight on live weight and milk yield of Murrah buffalo cows. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 13 (9): 1329-36.

Hosamani, S.V., Mehra, U.R. and Dass, R.S. (2003). Effect of different source of energy on urea molasses mineral block intake, nutrient utilization rumen fermentation pattern and blood profile in Murrah buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 2003, 16(6): 818-822.

Singh, U.B. and Mehra, U.R. (1980). A preliminary note on the possibility of using cement and wheat flour as binding agents for preparing urea molasses block lick at ambient temperature. J. Very. Physiol & Allied Sci. 5: 43-44.

Mehra, U.R., Challa, J. and Singh, U.B. (1993). Nutrient utilization and rumen fermentation pattern in buffaloes fed rations supplemented with formaldehyde treated urea molasses mineral block. J. Appl., Anim. Res. 4: 67-72.

Leng, R.A. (1984). The potential of solidified molasses based blocks for the correction of multi nutritional deficiencies in buffaloes and other ruminants fed low quality agro-industrial by products. In use of nuclear techniques to improve domestic buffalo production in Asia. IAEA. Vienna. Pp. 135-150.

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Hande, P.S. (1989). Studies on the supplementation of cotton seed cake as on additive on a diet of urea-molasses mineral block (UMMB) and utilization of nutrients in adult buffaloes. Indian J. Anim. Nutr. 12: 67-72.

Ali, A. and Mirja, I.H. (1986). Feeding of urea molasses block. “Buffalo chocolate” to ruminants in the tropics. Asian livestock, December. Pp. 160-164.

Mangat Ram and Kunju, P.J.G. (1986). Effect of incorporating concentrate mixture with urea molasses mineral block feeding on rumen metabolites and digesta flow rate in buffalo calves. Indian J. Anim. Nutr. 3: 244-248.

Srinivas, B. (1991). Effect of modified urea-molasses mineral block supplementation of straw based diets on rumen fermentation pattern and milk production in crossbred cattle. Ph.D. thesis NDRI, Karnal (Deemed University).

Tiwari, S.P., Singh, U.B. and Mehra, U.R. (1990). Urea molasses mineral block as a feed supplement: Effect on growth and nutrient utilization in buffalo calves. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 29: 333-341.Madhu Mohini and Gupta, B.N. (1991). Bacterial production rates and nitrogen metabolism in buffaloes fed on straw based diets supplemented with urea molasses mineral block licks. In: First International Animal Nutrition Workers Conference for Asia and Pacific, held from Sept. 23-28 in Bangalore compendium-II, Abst. No. 14.

Hosamani, S.V., Mehra, U.R. and Dass, R.S. (1998). Effect of different planes of nutrition on urea molasses mineral block intake, nutrient utilization, rumen fermentation pattern and blood profile in murrah buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Anim. Feed Sci. & Tech. 76:117-128.

Toppo, S., Verma, A.K., Dass, R.S. and Mehra, U.R. (1997). Nutrient utilization and rumen fermentation pattern in crossbred cattle fed different planes of nutrition supplemented with urea molasses mineral block. Anim. Feed Sci. & Tech. 64: 101-112.

Kunju, P.J.G. (1986). Urea-molasses block: A future animal feed supplement. Asian Livestock.

Sansoucy, R. (1986). Manufacture of molasses urea blocks. World Anim. Rev. Jan.-March, 40-45.

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PERSPECTIVES OF FEED PROCESSING FOR IMPROVING ANIMAL PRODUCTION IN NORTH EAST HILLS

P. SinghCentre of Advanced Studies in Animal Nutrition

Indian Veterinary Research InstituteIzatnagar-243 122, UP

The quantitative and qualitative availability of feed and fodder has now been recognized as the major constraint for sustaining and optimizing the productivity of livestock in India. Moreover, efficient utilization of crop residues and agro-industrial by-products as ruminant feeds has assumed significance owing to the shortage of concentrates, green and dry roughages to the tune of 44, 38 and 45% respectively (Anon., 2002). The huge amount of various types of crop residues is produced every year as a renewable resource due to cultivation of different commercial crops. Such crop residues are rich in cellulosed material but low in protein and are unpalatable. Moreover, different species of fodder trees are available in abundance in the NEH region but some of the incriminating factors limit their use as green fodder. Thus, any processing method that improves the nutritive value of these crop residues and detoxify toxic principles present in tree leaves will certainly increase health and productivity of animals. The aspects of improving utilization of available feed resources, overcoming scarcity situations in cost effective manner and reducing feed cost per unit of product are the major issues, which need present attention. Appropriate feed processing technologies coupled with required extension support can help in improving efficiency of production, while future strategies will help in understanding of the livestock production system, identification of constraints and their characterization in NEH region.

ole of feed processing technology in livestock productionIndia has huge livestock population of different species, still growing (Table 1) and

putting pressure on available feed resources according to the Livestock Census (1992). The estimated milk production for the year 2002-03 is 88 million tones. As per the report of National Center for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research (NCAER 1999), the productivity of dairy animals of India is very poor and varies across the regions (Table 2).

Table 1. Animal population of India

Species Number in MillionsTotal Cattle 204.00Breedable cows 63.6 *Total Buffaloes 84.20Breedable Buffaloes 43.18

Source: Livestock Census of India 1992. * 10 % of breedab1e cows are cross breds.

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Table 2. Productivity of dairy animals (per day/lactation, litres/lactation length, days)Zones Local cows Crossbred cows BuffaloesEastern 3.01/452/150 5.82/1746/300 5.39/1078/200Northern 3.29/658/200 7.07/2121/300 5.25/1323/250Western 3.19/638/200 7.80/2340/300 4.51/1128/250Southern 3.35/503/150 6.39/1917/300 3.96/792/200

Source: NCAER , 1999.

To improve the intake and digestibility of nutrients from crop resides more than 30 processing methods have been developed experimentally. The processing methods are categorized into 3 categories viz. physical, chemical & biological. Most of the methods have been technically successfully and exhaustively worked upon.

Physical Methods: Physical treatments methods include soaking, grinding, pelleting, extrusion, steam under pressure and irradiation. Chaffing is a less severe processing method and aimed at preventing selection of highly nutritive tender parts of feeds by animals (Reddy & Reddy 2004) to the particular size and to prevent feed wastage. The bulk density increases markedly by grinding and further improvement by pelleting. The extrusion processing & steam pelleting markedly increased the digestibility of nutrients and nutritive value of many crop residues as compared to grinding and chaffing (Reddy, 2003). In order to utilize crop residues in the ration of ruminants, they have to be subjected to atleast a minimum chopping or grinding processing.

The feed processing technology has very important role to play in improving productivity : stock provided it is technically sound, economically beneficial and socially acceptable. Technology triangle is not complete unless all the three aspects are taken care of. Most research projects do not take care of acceptability aspect.

In some parts of the country large quantities of crop residues are either not properly utilized or burnt, wasting a precious feed resource. Feed technologies could help in checking wastage and improving utilization of feed resources. It is observed that during scarcity period farmers give importance to crop residues and other available non conventional feed resources. A typical example of this is that farmers from Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh realized importance of left-overs of soyabean plant, hitherto considered useless for animal feeding. In Maharashtra stovers of bajra and hybrid jowar are poorly utilized while wheat straw is burnt. The survey conducted to study utilization pattern of sunflower heads (SFA) confirmed that in spite of good nutritive value SFA (residue after deseeding of sunflower) are poorly utilized as cattle feed (NATP ROPS #7 Annual Report 2002). With proper feed processing technologies, it is possible to check wastage and to improve utilization of these crop residues.

Feed processing for small holder feeding system

In India majority of livestock keepers are small holders so before going for recommendation of feed processing there is need to answer following questions (Badve, 2004).

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What feeds are available and of what quality?This may require assessment of availability of various feedstuffs and whether these

are fibrous /roughages forming basal diet of the animals. In that case it is necessary to see whether these are deficient in protein, energy and minerals.What supplements should be used?

If the basal diets are deficient in particular nutrients then supplements should obviously supply the nutrients, which are deficient. While processing such feeds there is need to look for appropriate supplement available, which can overcome the deficiency. Information on adequacy of existing supplements and potential of alternatives would be useful.How much supplement should be given with particular roughage?

Information on response to supplementation is required to optimize levels of supplementation. Such information will indicate if existing supplementation levels are sub-optimal and help intensify roles of new supplements.What feed mixtures from those available will give the best performance?

In complex feeding system a wide range of feeds may be in use. There may be scope to use improved feed mixtures to provide better balance of nutrients and also to reduce intake of anti-nutritive factors. In order to improve productivity of livestock in such system emphasis must be given on following aspects.

- Processing of feedstuffs using various technologies for improving nutritive value of poor quality roughages

- Strategies supplementation of basal ration with suitable, cheaper and locally available supplements.

- Use of probiotic / biotechnological tools for improving feed utilization.

Chemical processing methods

Most popular chemical treatment methods have been undertaken in the country include use of sodium hydroxide, anhydrous and aquous ammonia, hydrogen peroxide and urea ammoniation processing of crop residues. One of the oldest chemical method was soaking straw in a 1.5% NaOH solution overnight and rinsing in fresh water. The limitations of this method are: Cost of chemical limited availability, handling difficulty, risk of soil pollution and possible physiological disterbences to animals, which make it difficult to use under field conditions. The treating straws with anhydrous ammonia includes use of NH 3 at 30g/kg straw followed by 8 weeks incubation. Similarly aquous ammonia treatment was also tried using 120g of 25% ammonia solution/kg straw for 8 weeks. Another most popular chemical method was calcium hydroxide treatment of straw by soaking or spraying @ 10-15g/100g straw DM for 24 hours. Treating straws iwht H2O2 is relatively of recent in origin where in 3-5g of H2O2/100kg straw was used for one hour followed by addition of 0.01 N H2SO4solution prior to sealing. However, none of these processing methods has been found to be feasible under Indian field conditions due to complexity of problems such as cost effectiveness, corrosiveness of chemicals, lack of necessary infra-structure to train the farmers for adoption.

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Urea-ammoniation processing of straws: Among these methods, urea-ammoniation of straw has been found as most potential method for field condition application in most of the developing countries as urea is the cheapest and generally easily available in the market. However, acceptance of this technology at filed levels is very limited due to involvement of additional labourers during sprinkling & mixing of urea-solution with straws (ICAR, 1985). Some farmers from Bareilly district of UP (Sharma et al., 2004) and Samstipur district of Bihar (Badve, 2004) have adopted manual treatment of wheat straw not merely because of improvement in the milk production or enhanced intake of straw or reduction in concentrate feeding but also due to the fact that treatment fits into their traditional straw storage system. It shows that technology will only be acceptable to the farmers if it fits into their traditional system. Recently, a treatment cum thresher machine has been fabricated by Mehra & Coworkers (2004) for reducing the labour cost and at the same time threshing of wheat crop is also possible. This treatment machine also fits into farmers system as most of them are using thresher for harvesting grains from wheat crop. After using the treatment machine at field conditions some technology refinement can also be done as per the need of farmers so that this technology could become acceptable to traditional system of the farmers.

The potential beneficial effect of urea-ammoniation of straw is due to addition of nitrogen and solublizing cell wall structures and thus, increasing the intake & digestibility of both the nutrients. After urea-ammonia treatment many poor quality crop residues can meet the maintenance requirement of ruminants or even part of production requirements when supplemented with concentrates or good quality roughages.Effect of feeding urea treated straw on reproduction

Long term feeding of cows and calves on treated straw has shown no adverse effects on production or reproduction (Wongsrikeao and Taesakul, 1985). Feeding urea treated straw had no adverse effect on number of services per conception, birth weight of calves, milk yield, body weight gain of calves and interval from calving to first estrus and conception (Bond and Oltjen, 1973), semen quality or fertility of sheep and cattle (Thompson et al., 1972).Concept of compressed complete feed block system: The compressed complete Feed block (CCFB) system has been recently introduced in feeding system in most of developed countries with the objective of simplifying the feeding of high yielding dairy cows. Farmers from India have been practicing this system by feeding mixture of straw/bhusa oil cakes and brans soaked in water for few hours and fed to animals at the time of milking. The same concept in more refined form is used in CCFB. In this system all feed ingredient including roughages are processed and mixed uniformly which is available free choice to the animals. This ensures uniform supply of all nutrients through a diet of same composition (Badve, 2004). The CCFB system would help in utilizing crop residues, poor quality roughages and agro-industrial by-products more efficiently for improving animal production.Advantages of feeding compressed complete feed block

1. Ensures that animals consume desired proportion of all feed ingredients (roughage, concentrate and minerals).

2. Increases total dry matter and organic matter intake.3. Increase milk production and body weight gain.4. Allows greater use of feed ingredients having low palatability by uniform

blending, which helps to mask bad odour.5. Increases bulk density and storage capacity of feedstuffs.

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6. Easy transportation of bulky feed materials.

Though the concept of feeding CCFB is well accepted in dairy cows & Buffaloes in urban areas but its implementation and management at rural areas is still a common question. The work carried out by the IVRI, Agricultural Universities and BAIF development research foundation have shown promising results.

The on farm studies conducted by IVRI, NIANP, ANGRAU and BAIF using complete feeds based on agro-industrial by products, forest grasses, sunflower heads & sorghum straw have shown increase in DMI, digestibility of nutrients & milk production. The complete diet system can be applied in two ways for feeding of livestock.

1. CCFB can be prepared by using crop residues and other feed ingredients using hydrolic pressure & can be converted into compressed complete feed blocks.

2. Mixing of roughages/straws or crop residues with oil seed cakes, brans, chunies, cereal grains, etc in proper proportion along with green fodder and offer it as wholesome feed as total-mixed-ration (TMR) to the livestock.The first approach can be adopted by Compound Feed Industries, where all the feed

ingredients of CCFB can be processed using above mentioned technologies to produce feed either in pellet form or in block (Bheli) form. There is, however, need to improve upon these technologies so as to make them viable on industrial scale.

The second approach can be adopted by farmers where available crop residues can be chaffed and mixed with oil cakes, brans, chuni and cereal grains etc in certain /desired proportion to produce balanced complete ration as TMR for animals. Such rations will be cheaper and will help in optimum utilization of crop residues by reducing feed cost.Extruder technology for complete feeds

Extrusion process has been widely used for processing of feeds. It involves pushing an extrudate through an opening to produce pre-defined shape. During this process starchy and/or proteinous materials are partly cooked and plasticised in a tube by a combination of moisture, pressure, temperature and mechanical shear. This results in increased temperature within tube, gelatinization of starchy components and restructuring of tactile components and exothermic expansion of extrudate.Need of expander-extruder processing

1. Grinding of roughages/crop residues and concentrate feed ingredients.2. Mixing of ingredients and Material flow rate3. Injection of steam moistening of ingredients.4. Extruder processing and post extrusion handling of feed.

Proteins: The nutritional value of protein is usually enhanced if mildly heat-treated. The enzymes like lipases and lipo-oxygenases in feeds and feed ingredients may cause deleterious reactions that may contribute to off flavors during storage. Enzyme inactivated during extruder processing will improve stability of feed and its acceptability after extended storage.Carbohydrates and crude fibre: Carbohydrates serve as binding agents. Starch present in cereal grains undergoes gelatinization and thereby increases carbohydrate digestibility. Use of fibre in extrusion process is limited due to its effects on product expansion. The thermal treatment can change fibre composition of complete feeds.

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Although Expander-extruder and block making technologies are easy to adopt there are some constraints listed below which can be easily overcome if feed industry is ready to put sincere efforts and manufacture complete feeds in pellet form or CCFB.

1. Handling of huge quantities of roughages.2. Uniform mixing of ingredients having different densities.3. Standardization of technique of expander- extrusion processing and / or block

making needs to be done before using. it on large scale.4. Establishing market linkage and creating awareness amongst dairy farmers to use

complete feed.Biological methods

The biological treatment methods of lingo cellulosic materials is based on the use of certain micro-organisms that are very efficient for lignin breakdown but with slow degradation rates of cellulose and hemi-cellulose. Different species of fungi have been used for biological treatment of crop residues (Langer et al., 1980). It has been found that white rot fungi have the capacity to attach lignin polymers and open aromatic rings to release low molecular weight fragments (Zadrazil et al., 1995). The two stage Karnal process developed for biological treatment of straws involved treatment of straw with urea during first stage for 25 days followed by inoculation with Coprinus fimetarius spawn for 5 days (Gupta, 1986). Fungal treated straw contained higher CP as compared to urea ammoniated straw but it showed reduced DM digestibility with lower TDN value compared to urea ammoniated straw (Walli et al., 1991). However, steaming of wheat straw for 30 min. before inoculation with Pleurotus ostreatus caused maximum improvement in nutritive value of straw. Supplementation of yeast culture@1-2kg/ton of feed increases feed intake, digestibility of nitrogen and fibrous material and thus, improving the nutritive value of feeds.Need of on-farm trials

The first of all known technologies should be allowed to be tested on farm trials/demonstration and if there are any lacunae in technologies then their refinements have to be done on priority basis to make them suitable as per the needs of end users. The major efforts are required to be diverted in this direction to optimize and improve animal production in North Eastern Hills’ region. New research project proposals need to incorporate more emphasis to large scale on-farm research by promoting intensive use of available feed resources like crop residues and unconventional feed ingredients in particular region. The most important factor in technology development is that the assessment and implementation includes systems orientation having multidisciplinary and farmers participatory approaches and congruence between sustainability and productivity. Such type of interventions and foresightedness can ensure high efficiency and economic impact on utilization of available feed resources for formulation of economical and balanced ration to overcome malnutrition and feeding problems of animals. The importance of livestock in soil-crop-animal system is well established but its re-focusing is very pertinent.Interface of researchers with feed manufacturers and farmers organization:

There is great need to develop linkages between animal nutritionists with feed manufacturers and farmers organization for efficient utilization of oil cakes in compounded feeds for balanced feeding of different species of livestock. To reduce the feed cost it is necessary to use non-conventional feeds, evaluate their NV develop suitable technologies to detoxify toxic principles and make them safe for animal feeding. The involvement of the farmer organization will help in adopting the technology for their benefits. Further, these

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technologies can be commercialized by compound feed industries so that feed containing toxic principles can be detoxified and made useful to the compound feed industries.Approaches for efficient utilization of feed resources

Most of the current approaches in nutrition are aimed at improving the utilization of a particular feed either by treatment/ supplemention or other means and these approaches tend to be in isolation trying to tackle the problem in a narrow sense. However, these approaches lack the holistic view and this is one of the major reason that most often the generated technologies do not find a place in the farmers’ field. Hence it is important that improved feeding system and efficiency of feed use are clearly viewed in a farming systems perspective and for which the knowledge on the availability of the totality of feeds through out the year, feeding practices and production potential of the animals is required. This would help in assessment of the production potential of the animals is required. This would help in assessment of the extent of surpluses and feed deficit, synchronize the availability of feeds to requirement by animals and development of strategies to cope with the short fall (Devendra 1987).

The other important approaches include-maximize the use of available feed resource notable crop residues and low quality roughages through strategic supplementation, feed processing technology and low cost treatments like urea treatment.

Identifying and utilizing newer non conventional feed resources and evolving apprriate detoxification processing for overcoming the toxic factors to ensure that the resources that generated locally are put to better use.

Maximizing feed production for developing sustainable all year round feeding systems through intercropping with cereal crops, relay cropping, food-feed cropping systems, intensive use of available crop residues, forage production, multi purpose tree legumes, alley cropping and three strata forage systems in north east hill region.At last I would like to conclude that the complete understanding of livestock

production systems in North Eastern Region is very important for evolving appropriate feed processing technologies keeping the constraints of livestock owners in mind. Further, indigenous feed processing technologies of different regions has also to be tested at farmers door to assess the animal performance. Such types of efforts are indispensable for our country where mixed farming system is prevailing in majority, which makes principal contribution in milk and meat production.

ReferencesAnnual Report, 2002. Report of National Agricultural Technology Project, ROPS#7.Anon., 2002. Annual Report of NIANP, Bangalore.Anon. 1992. Livestock census in India.Badve, V.C. 2004. Role and relevance of feed processing in Livestock production in

developing countries. In proceeding of new dimensions of animal feeding to sustain development and competitiveness. Held on Nov. 24-26, 2004 at NIANP, Bangalore.

Bond, J. and Oltjen, R.R. 1973. J. Anim. Sci. 37:1040.Devendra, C. 1987. Asian Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 14(1):104-112.Gupta, B.N.1986. Microbial treatment of lignocellulosic materials.In proc.of Vth Animal

Nutrition Research Workers Conference held at Udaipur during July 14-17, 1986.p 64.

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ICAR, 1985. Terminal report 1967-1985. All Indian coordinated research project ‘Utilization of Agricultural by-products and Industrial waste materials for evolving economic rations for livestock’. National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.

Langar, P.N., Sehgal, J.P. and Garcha, H.S.1980. Indian J.Anim. Sci., 50:942-946.Mehra, U.R., Dass, R.S., Singh, P., Verma, A.K. and Tripathi, S.S. 2004. Personal

commnication.NCAER 1999. A report of National center for agricultural economics and policy research.Reddy, G.V.N. and Reddy, Y.Ramana. 2004. Perspectives of feed processing techniques for

efficient utilization of roughages. In proceeding of new dimensions of animal feeding to sustain development and competitiveness. Held on Nov. 24-26, 2004 at NIANP, Bangalore.

Reddy, G.V.N.2003. Effect of processing of crop residues on physical characteristics and nutritive value. In short term course on Feed processing technology held at ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. pp.199-214.

Sharma K., Dutta, N. and Pattanaik, A.K. 2004. Research approaches and strategies for improving feed resource utilization in crop livestock small farm systems. In proceeding of new dimensions of animal feeding to sustain development and competitiveness. Held on Nov. 24-26, 2004 at NIANP, Bangalore.

Thompson, L.H., Wise, M.B., Harvey, R.W. and Barrick, E.R. 1972. J. Anim. Sci. 35:474.Walli, T.K., Rai, S.N., Gupta, B.N. and Singh, Kshan. 1995. Indian J.Anim. Nutr.8:227.Wongsrikeo, W. and Teasakul, S. 1985. Effect of feeding urea ensiled rice straw during pre

and postpartum on reproductive performance of buffalo. In: Proceedings of the 3rd

AAAP Animal Science Congress. May 6-10, 1985 (Vol.I). pp. 456-458.Zadrazil, F., Punia, A.K. and Singh, Kishan, 1995. Biological upgrading of feed and feed

components. In Biotechnology in animal feeds and animal feeding of feed and feed components (Ed:R.J. Wallace and A.Chesson), VCH, Weinheim.pp55-69.

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STATUS AND SCOPE OF PIGGERY DEVELOPMENTIN EASTERN INDIA

S. K. Singh Department of Animal Breeding & Genetics

Ranchi Veterinary College, Birsa Agricultural University, Kanke, Ranchi -834006.

About 40% of Indian population is living below the poverty line and majority of them have special liking for livestock farming in which pig rearing gets an important place. In India, pig husbandry remains neglected for a long period due to general apathy against this occupation. The traditional pig breeders belong to weaker section of the society. They lack technical know how of pig farming on scientific lines. The Government of India initiated comprehensive piggery development programme in 1959-60 toward the end of 2nd

Five Year Plan. During this period, Pig Breeding Stations- cum- Bacon Factories, Regional Pig Breeding Farms and integrated Piggery Development blocks were established in several states including Bihar at selected centers.

Systematic research work on pig production in India was initiated with the launch of All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Pigs during the fourth five year plan. Initially, the mandate of the project was to study the purebred performance of Landrace and Large White breeds of exotic pigs at Khanapara and Izatnager and Jabalpur and Tirupati centres, respectively. Subsequently, the research programme, during the Sixth plan, was remodelled to undertake studies on indigenous pigs and their crosses with Landrace at Izatnager, Hampshire at Khanapara and Large White Yorkshire at Jabalpur and Tirupati centres.After 1994-95, work on indigenous pigs was confined only to the two newly started centres at Kerla Agricultural University, Manuthy and Veterinary University, Chennai at Kattupakkam. After 2000-01, work on indigenous pigs was confined only to the other two newly started centers at Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi (Jharkhand) and I.C.A.R. Research complex, Goa. Work on comparative performance of two groups of crossbreeds carrying 50 and 75% exotic inheritance continuing at 6 centers mentioned earlier.

The Jai Vigyan NATP Mission Mode on pigs was launched during 1999-2000 by ICAR New Delhi funded by World Bank at four following selected centers and was continued up to December ,2004. (i) Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand

(ii) ICAR Research complex, Barapani, Shillong (Meghalaya)(iii) NRC on Mithun, Jharnapani (Nagaland)(iv) ICAR research complex, Izole (Mizoram)

The objectives of the programmes are as under: -(i) To provide nutritional security to the tribal community of hilly and backward

areas through high protein, energy, vitamins etc.(ii) To provide occupation and employment security in the native environment

through integrated piggery development programmes.

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The Jharkhand state, which is predominantly a tribal belt is one of the leading areas in the country where piggery have been accepted by rural people as a remunerative enterprise. It has significant role in improving their socio-economic condition of these peoples. The Jharkhand State dominates in maintaining good quality pigs of high production ability. In the 47th Eastern and North Eastern Regional Hill Livestock and poultry show organized in Rangopo city of Sikkim where 11 pig rearing states had participated, Jharkhand state topped the list among prize winners. Out of 35 prizes awarded to pig farmers, 25 went to Ranchi district of Jharkhand. The prize of the best animal also went to the “T&D” breed of pig developed by Birsa Agricultural University. The climatic conditions ith 1300 to 1600 mm annual rainfall, 70% average humidity and 6 to 38 degree centigrade environmental temperature is conducive for such activities. The Jharkhand state has potential to grow natural feeds for pigs.

The experiments conducted by the scientists of BAU at farm and farmers doors indicated that about 75% of the cost in pig farming is on concentrate feeds. Income from pig farming may go upto large extent,if 50% of this cost is reduced by giving cheaper feed items like jungle roots, tapioca, leaf, vegetables, cauliflowers, cabbage, sweet potato, green grasses, paddy bran etc.

The major population of pig in country including Jharkhand is of native type. The production performance of which is very poor as compared to other exotics and crossbreeds. Their efficiency of feed utilization is also low. Insufficient availability of quality stock is great hindrance in boosting pig production. Birsa Agricultural University (BAU), Ranchi which is primarily dedicated to socio-economic upliftment of farmers through transfer of improved technologies shares great responsibility than others in respect of piggery development work. Therefore in order to improve the socio-economic status of pig breeder, the university felt necessity of evolving appropriate pig breeding and management technologies. On the guide lines of National Commission on Agriculture (1976), a series of breeding experiments on pig involving Large White Yorkshire, Landrace, Tamworth, Hampshire and desi were conducted over a decade by the scientists of Ranchi veterinary college and finally a new breed of pig named “T&D” was developed besides many other improved technologies in respect of its breeding, feeding, management, disease control etc. which is fully adopted by the farmers at the State and National levels. The scientists of BAU under the leadership of Dr. S.K.Singh, Professor-cum-Pig Geneticists, Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Ranchi Veterinary College decorated with prestigious “FAKHRUDDIN ALI AHMAD” National Award by ICAR New Delhi for outstanding research contributions in the field of Animal Sciences(Pig Husbandry) for the biennium 1988-89.

IMPROVED TECHNOLOGIES ON PIG BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPED BY THE SCIENTISTS OF RANCHI VETERINARY COLLEGE OF BIRSA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY:

1. For the first time in India, a new breed of black pig named “T&D” was developed involving Tamworth, a British pig, and desi pig.

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BRRED CHARACTERISTICS AND PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY OF “T&D”

a) It is black in colour. (The pig breeders of Jharkhand and North- Eastern Hill states have special liking of black pigs).

b) It is about 5 times more remunerative than the desi pigs.c) It is highly resistant to skin diseases and very well adapted to village conditions.d) At one year of age, the new pig under village conditions weighs about 70-100 Kg.

as against 30-40 Kg. for desi pigs.e) The new pig is much efficient converter of feed than desi pigs.f) Its litter size at birth is 8-12 whereas, for desi 4-6.g) Under village conditions the new breed performs better than the half-breeds of

desi with Large White Yorkshire, Hampshire and Landrace pigs.h) “T&D” has significantly lower farrowing interval (180-200 days) than that of desi

sows (220-240 days)

2. The half-breeds of Large White and desi are in general much superior to the half-breeds of Landrace and desi or Hampshire and desi in respect of various economic traits.

3.Rearing of local pigs is not economical. Hence farmers are advised to rear “T&D” pigs which is black in colour as per their likings.

4) Special care is required to new born piglets having less than one Kg live weight for exotics and crossbreeds and less than 0.7 Kg among desi for better survivability.

5) The piglets should be weaned at 5 to 6 weeks of age instead of 8 weeks of age and should be reared on weaner diet having concentrations of 20% protein .and 3500 kcal DE/Kg.

6) Maruha (millet) can economically be used as an energy source to a maximum of 60% level of swine ration by replacing of 100% maize (w/w) for growing pigs.

7) Inclusion of 4% urea treated deoiled salseed meal in ration of growing piglets is economical up to 5% level but during scarcity it can be included up to 15% without any significant harmful effect.

8) Skimmed Milk Powder of weaner diet can completely be replaced by fish-meal without affecting the performance of piglets to cut down the cost of feed.

9) Fish-meal of grower ration can completely be replaced by roasted soybean grain without affecting the performance of pigs to cut down the cost of feed.

10) Rice and Maruah fermented wastes may be profitably included in the ration of growing piglets up to 30% level without any harmful effect.

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11) Under village conditions, pigs should be kept on grazing for at least 3 to 4 hours daily for faster growth rate.

12) Raising pigs on hostel waste is about 4 times more remunerative than pigs fed ad-lib grains.

13) Pigs can be confined in rooms with the provision of grasses in their rooms for the better performances of pigs particularly under village managemental conditions which help the farmers in two ways. Firstly, improving the growth rate of pigs and secondly, avoiding damaging the crops by pigs during crop season.

14) 80% farrowing during day time (against only 30% in natural cases) can be ensured by injecting 1 ml I/M injection of PGF2 alpha to sows before 48 hours of expected time of farrowing. It also improves significantly the survival rate of piglets besides litter size and weight at weaning. The post farrowing fertile oestrous can also be significantly reduced in PG treated group than untreated group.

15) Body Weight gain was significantly lower in pigs maintained under rural conditions than semi-urban conditions should be improved in rural areas.

16) Pigs maintained on semi-intensive system of management under similar type of feeding perform better in comparison to intensive system of management in rural area.

17) Body weight gain of pigs was significantly higher in pigs fed with 80% hotel wastes and 20% concentrate feed, whereas lowest in pigs fed with 80% paddy husk and 20% concentrate feed. So it is suggested that pigs can be raised economically by hotel waste feeding.

18) The pigs can not be successfully reared only on grazing with provision of paddy husk only rather the pigs should be provided with some concentrate besides house hold waste, rice fermented and hotel waste as per availability in the area besides grazing of pigs.

19) Reduction in floor space and height of roof from optimum requirement, significantly reduced the production performance.

20) Pigs maintained on pukka floor with asbestos roof had significantly better performance. Kuccha floor should not be recommended for rearing.

21) The pigs of farmers belonging to higher income group had better production performance of pigs than lower income groups families.

After statistical analysis of data recorded at farmers` door clearly indicated non-significant difference between “T&D” and their crosses with Hampshire but both the genetic

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groups had significantly higher body weight than local pigs at all the ages. Hence, rearing of local pigs is not economical and framers are advised to rear either “T&D” or crosses of “T&D” with Hampshire. As per our estimate based on field records, rearing of improved variety of pigs (T&D) is about 5 times more remunerative then desi pigs under village management conditions. There is no problem of marketing of these pigs produced by beneficiaries due to its black color besides better adaptability and reproductive performances, faster growth and more remunerative than desi pigs. The farmers are purchasing these improved piglets (T&D) even on double prices than desi pigs. The comparative economics of desi and improved pigs are detailed below-

Sl No.

Parameters “T&D” or cross with Hampshire

Desi

a) Rearing of one sow

1. Litter size at 2-3 months of age 7.0 4.0

2. Weight at 2-3 months (Kg) 11.0 6.03. Farrowing interval (days) 190 2204. Number of piglets sold every

year from each sow13.45 6.64

5. Total weight 147.95 39.826. cost per Kg of live weight Rs. 80/- Rs. 40/-7. Total cost Rs. 11836.00 Rs. 1592.738. Expenditure per year Rs. 6000/- Rs. 500.00

Net profit Rs. 5836 Rs. 1092.73

b) One sow and their piglets for fattenings

1. Litter size at 2-3 months of age 7.0 4.02. Farrowing interval (days) 190 2203. Weight at one Year (Kg). 80 304. Mortality after (2-3) months 5 105. Number of pigs raised from one

sow up to one year on age12.77 5.97

6. Total weight (Kg.) 1021.60 179.107. Cost of pigs @ Rs. 40/- per Kg

of live wt.40864.00 7164.00

8. Total exp. in one year 23000/- 3500/-Net profit 17864.00 3664.00

Now the farmers of Jharkhand region and neighbouring states like West Bengal. Bihar,Orissa,Chhatisgarh etc have fully adopted our newly developed technologies in respect of pig breeding and management. As a result of this, large number of

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farmers are coming for training on pig breeding and management at University Pig Breeding Farm before starting their pig farm of their own. During last four years, 719 farmers have taken training on scientific pig farming for 10 days duration on their own expenses. The impact of piggery development programmes was observed to be very high among rural and backward community engaged in pig production programme. Pig rearing are gaining ground, may gain industry status in Jharkhand. The farmers were eager to make it regular enterprise due to higher economic returns, employment generation and low input high input ratio.

Lesson learnt

Pig breeders of Jharkhand were not attracted so much in the beginning when B.A.U. started giving training to farmers for scientific and modern rearing of pigs as an additional job. B.A.U. scientists tried to know its cause and came to know that people did not like exotic pigs because their meat is not so tasty as that of desi pigs. Hence, pig breeders were rearing black pigs of local variety for meat purpose not for money making business. B.A.U. scientists realized their liking and accordingly produced hybrid of black colour pig (T&D) with faster growth rate and better taste of meat by crossing Tamworth and local pigs. Soon after developing "T&D" pigs, people were attracted towards the rearing of such black pig. In the beginning they were rearing pig only for meat purposes of its own, but due to higher quantity of meat from "T & D" pigs they started selling meat with much profit.

In Jharkhand plateau only one crop i.e. Kharif is taken. Hence, the farmers are sitting ideal for about six months in a year and try to find job by going outside. But now many farmers have started piggery farm on large scale and are earning handsome money from pig farming which help them to remove their poverty. Therefore, it is gaining much popularity in Jharkhand. It is clearly visible from the heavy demand of "T & D" pigs by the pig breeders of the area. Now they are interested to purchase these pigs even on higher price. Hence pig farming can offer immense potentially in rural area by providing regular income round the year with suitable employment.

FUTURE STRATEGY

(1) Our endeavor will be maintained through planned and systematic extension activities. Hence, need base research on pig must be continued at University level.

(2) It is well known fact that the economic growth can only be achieved through well being manpower in science and technology. The proper dispersion of technology to the masses in general and to its vast majority of rural population in particular is desirable. Hence, training programmes on pig breeding and management to extension workers, farmers, unemployed youth, NGO’s etc. must continue.

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(3) The research obtained so far under different programmes of the University on pigs suggests that "T & D" pigs are the choice of breed for rearing in tribal villages to boost up pig production. Success of this programme depends on regular supply of "T & D" pigs to second line of breeders. Similarly effort should be made to increase the second line of breeders as much as possible to fulfill the heavy demand of this type of pig.

(4) Establishment of pig farm at different K.V.K. of the University should be undertaken for supplying "T & D" pigs, services and imparting training to farmers to boost the pig production of the region for improving the rural economy.

(5) Department of A.H. should actively be associated with the programme of their area in collaboration with B.A.U. scientists.

(6) For the proper disposal of the pigs produced by the farmers, Bacon Factory is essentially needed which is already available at Kanke, Ranchi. Hence, Bacon Factory should be made functional after removing its constraints. If possible, University may take up the Govt. Bacon Factory with their attached pig farm which will help the farmers in getting good number of pigs besides proper marketing of their products. Bacon Factory and Govt. Pig Farm will be an asset to the University for doing various types of research on pig.

(7) There are abundant fish ponds in this area. Hence, unemployed youth and progressive farmers may be encouraged to start pig-cum-fish farming which will provide employment as well as it will enhance the livestock productivity of the state. The pig excreta is a good manure for improving soil fertility and also` nutritious as fish feed.

(8) Agricultural by-products and kitchen waste materials should properly be utilized as pig feed to cut down the cost of pig rearing because pigs are efficient converters of these materials into high quality meat.

(9)It requires good linkages among B.A.U. scientists, pig breeders, funding agencies, Government and Bank officials for proper utilization of fund for the farmers’ welfare.

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Feeds and Feeding System of Swine in North East India

J.J.Gupta and P.B. ReddyDivision of Animal Nutrition

ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam-793 103 (Meghalaya)

IntroductionThe northeastern region of India comprises of eight states namely Arunachal

Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. The region is characterized by fragility, marginality, inaccessibility, ethnic heterogeneity and ecosystem diversity. Out of the total reporting area of 27.49 million hactre, only 12% area is under net cultivation. The society, predominantly inhabited by tribal population, is agrarian in nature and practice ecosystem specific farming systems raising both crops and animals. Due to monocropping system practiced by the farming community, animal husbandry plays a vital role in socio-economic development of the region. Pig occupies a unique role among the meat-producing animals of the NE region. It is an animal of choice for meat especially to tribal population in northeast India as pig rearing is considered to be the most encouraging and appropriate livestock enterprise to narrow down the gap between the availability and requirement of animal meat in this part of the country and it also plays an important role in improving the socio-economic status of the weaker rural community and creates employment for the un-employed youth of the region. The pig population of the northeastern region is 3.06 million (NEC, 2002), which constitutes nearly one fourth of the total pig population of the country. Out of the total meat production in the country, pork constitutes 11.93 percent during the year 2000.

Although most of the tribal and weaker sections of the society are traditionally involved in pig rearing since long, hardly any improvement has been observed in the overall production of pigs because of 80% of the pigs of this region are of indigenous non-descript type. However, pig being one of the most efficient feed converting animals with shorter generation interval, high prolificacy and faster growth rate, these traits can directly and positively be connected with the overall economy in production by improving the husbandry practices of pig rearing in the region.

Traditional feeding practicesMost of the farmers in the region especially the tribal people own two or three pigs.

The average farmer of the region is quiet concerned about the feeding of pigs. The pigs are fed with locally available feedstuffs only. No special feed is offered even during different important physiological stages. Some of the farmers are totally unaware of the importance of balanced feed, some cannot afford the cost, and some farmers cannot provide due to unavailability of such feed. Though scavenging is allowed by many farmers during the day time, one definite ration is provided in the evening by a good number of farmers and the farmers of Arunachal Pradesh follow this feeding system more than other farmers of the region. Nearly two thirds of farmers of Manipur follow stall-feeding where as in other states the number of farmers following this kind of system is little less. The concept of balanced feed and feeding is also catching up with the farmers of all these states. Regarding the quantity of concentrate fed to pigs, a research survey conducted in these states shows that majority of farmers in Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya provide only less than 1kg of

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concentrate where as in Manipur and Nagaland at least 2kg of such concentrate feed is provided to pigs by almost half of the farmers. Only in Assam it was observed that more than 3kg of concentrates feed is provided by 50% of the farmers to the pigs. The common feeding practice followed by most of the farmers is that they cook the feed before feeding to pigs. In Sikkim the farmers follow unique practice of feeding meat to the pigs in the form of slaughterhouse waste collected from nearby slaughterhouses (Rajesh Kumar et. al. 2002).

Feed Resources of the RegionPig being an omnivorous animal, its feed is of both plant and animal origin. In North

Eastern region, the concentrate mixture (feed) usually fed in the evening after the animal returns from scavenging comprises of cereal grains, bran, oil cakes and other cereal by-products. These ingredients are either fed as sole feed or some times two or three ingredients are hand mixed and fed to the animal. Due to chronic shortage and higher price of feed ingredients in the region, alternative feed ingredients and agricultural by-products that are available in this region need to be explored and evaluated for their nutritive value and incorporation in the swine rations. Besides the common ingredients like maize, broken rice, rice bran, mustard oil cake etc., other potential feed resources of the region like radish, sweet potato, rice polish, blood meal and some good quality forages were found to be very effective for utilization in pig rations.

Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) with leaves was identified as good feed resource for pigs in the region where production is taken round the year. The bio mass yield of fodder radish varied from 46-95 t/ha depending upon the agricultural practices and type of land capability in terraces on hills, however the average yield obtained was 58+7.5 t/ha in two consecutive years. The crude protein (CP) content varied from 9.26 to 11.10% and that of crude fibre (CF) varied from 20.28 to 33.04% in whole radish (roots and leaves) depending upon stage of maturity. The gross energy content was 3750 kcal/kg while the digestible energy (DE) was 2449 kcal/kg in fodder radish (Yadav et al., 1993).

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatus L) is another important tuber crop of the region. The feeding experiments with growing pigs indicated that sweet potato could completely replace maize grain in swine diets with good feed intake, better palatability and digestibility (Gupta et al., 2004 and Yadav etal.,1995). Feeding trials in swine also indicated that rice polish of good quality contained 15.40% CP and 7.42% CF and it had 8.94% DCP and 73.14% TDN. Fattening pigs can be economically reared on rice polish with adequate mineral and vitamin supplementation (Yadav and Gupta, 1995). Blood meal and hotel/kitchen wastes are also available resources and incorporation of blood meal could replace entire amount of fishmeal, which is brought from outside the region. Hotel/kitchen waste replaces around 15% of concentrate mixture in swine rations.

Apart from these, forage based pig feeding system could be achieved in the NE region with some locally available herbages like Altermanthera-folexeroides; Girardinia-heretophylla; Laportea-crerulata; Mikania-macrantha; Spilanthes-acmella; Spilanthes-oleracea and tubers like, Ipomoea-botatus, with vines; Canna-edulis; Manihot-esculenta; Colocasia-esculenta with leaves and vegetables such as schium-edule; Cucurbita-moschata; Raphanus-sativus; Brassica-rapa; cabbage and fruits waste such as pineapple waste Jackfruit waste banana pseudo stem when used along with broken rice, rice polish, brewery waste etc., as indigenous feed resources.

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Approaches for Better Feeding ManagementFeed is the single largest item in the cost of pig production, representing about 70-75%

of total cost. In intensive pig production, pigs compete directly with the human being since conventional feeding is based on concentrate feed. The deficiency of concentrate feed in the region is around 75% against deficit of 47% in the country as a whole and due to this, the new generation is gradually loosing interest in this important avocation. Therefore, an appropriate approaches for better feeding management on the basis of available resources is necessity of today to boost the swine production in the region. Creating awareness on importance of balanced feeding

Some of the farmers of the region are totally unaware of the importance of balanced feed, some cannot afford the cost, and some farmers cannot provide due to unavailability of such feed. Keeping these constraints in view farmers have to be first educated about the importance of feeding balanced ration to pigs through conducting farmers’ training programs and taking them for visits to institutional farms etc.

Feeding practicesMany farmers in NE region follow traditional scavenging system Farmers feed either cooked or wet mash along with some succulent vegetation/roots to their pigs. Cooking involves cost of fuel, utensils and extra labour, which ultimately increases the cost of production. A study on efficacy of different methods of feeding viz. dry mash, wet mash, and cooked mash in growing and finishing pigs indicated that better feed conversion and economy could be achieved under wet mash feeding.

Formulating rations based on locally available feed resourcesFeed intake mainly depends on energy content of the diet. Formulation of swine diets requires some understanding of nutrient requirements and the feed ingredients that can supply these nutrients. Ingredients should there fore be selected on the basis of availability, price, and quality of the nutrients they contain with acceptability and palatability. Since the common feed ingredients like cereal grains and oil cake are under chronic shortage throughout the year, pig rations need to be formulated based on the locally available feed resources like sweet potato, radish and other potential forages that are available in the region. These rations may be fortified with sufficient quantities of minerals and vitamins to meet the nutrient requirements of different categories of pigs. The high rainfall and humidity in the region however provides enormous potential for production of succulent fodders and green biomass like Azolla mycrophylla, which can also be utilized as protein supplement along with cereals and by products available locally in pig feeding.

Supplementation of diets with additives to improve performanceIn normal feeding practice, energy and protein needs of animal are mostly considered along with mineral and vitamin supplements. In order to improve the quality of the diets for better performance, the pig rations may be fortified with additives like fibrolytic enzymes to enhance fibre digestibility for improving the energy utilization efficiency and addition of synthetic amino acids for better utilization of protein resources of diets. Apart from these, other supplements like dried yeast, lacto bacillus may be added to the diets to improve their nutritive value.

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Feeding pigs as per the physiological status and stage of growthNutrient requirements of pigs vary depending on the stage of growth like creeper, grower and finisher and they also vary depending on the physiological status like pregnancy, lactation, breeding etc., as mentioned below (ICAR, 1985).

Nutrient Requirements of Growing and Adult Swine

NutrientCreep Ration

Grower Ration Finisher ration Adult Boar/

Breed. Gilt

Lactating gilt

5-10kg

10-20 kg

20-30 kg

30-40 kg

40-60kg

60-90 kg

Protein (%) 20 16 16 14 14 14 12 13Lysine (%) 1.20 0.90 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.57 0.43 0.58Methionine (%) 0.50 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.23 0.36Tryptophane (%) 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10DE (Kcal/Kg) 3400 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3400 3400Ca (%) 0.80 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75P (%) 0.60 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40 0.40 0.60 0.50Common Salt (%)

0.60 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50

References1. Gupta, J.J., Bardoloi, R.K. and Bujarbaruah, K.M. 2005. Nutrient digestibility and

growth performance in different age groups of pigs on sweet potato tuber based diet. In National Seminar on achievement and opportunities in post harvest management and value addition in root and tuber crops, held at Central Tuber Crop Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. (Communicated)

2. ICAR (1985). Nutrient requirements of livestock & poultry. Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi. Pp 11-12.

3. NEC (2002) Basic statistics of North Eastern Region. North Eastern Council Secretariat, Shillong.

4. Rajesh Kumar, Pal, P.P., Prasad, K. and Prakash, N. 2002. Modernizing tribal piggery- A delineated approach. Research Bulletin No. 47, Published by ICAR research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya, pp. 39.

5. Yadav, B.P.S., Varma, A. and Gupta, J.J. 1993.Effect of feeding fodder radish as a partial replacement of concentrate component in swine rations. Indian J.Anim.Sci. 63(11): 1202-1205.

6. Yadav, B.P.S., Gupta, H.K. and Gupta, J.J. 1995. Sweet potato as a component of swine ration. Indian J.Anim.Sci. 65(4): 455-459.

7. Yadav, B.P.S. and Gupta, J.J. 1995.Nutritional value of rice polish in fattening pigs. Indian J. Anim.Nutr. 12(2): 119-120.

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Status of Swine Feeding System in Mizoram

A. KUMARESAN, K.A. PATHAK , K. M. BUJARBARUAH andANUBRATA DAS

ICAR Research complex for NEH Region, Mizoram centre, Kolasib, Mizoram. 796 081

Introduction

Mizoram is inhabited by Tribal communities, who are mostly non-vegetarian and hence the demand for animal protein is much more than the other parts of the country. Animal husbandry is an inseparable part of economy in Mizoram. This region is dominated by mono cropping and crop failure pushes the farmer’s economy at the verge of collapse. Pig is the most important livestock of Mizoram and most of the people here are pork eaters. The demand for pork is very high in the state and it has been estimated that pork contributes around 71% of the total meat production in the state. Almost every house has a piggery unit, but still a wide gap exists between the need/demand and availability of pork. Further, the deficit is aggravated due to traditional ways of pig rearing like feeding of locally available feed stuff and scavenging, improper breeding, unhygienic housing and lack of disease management practices. The major limiting factor for speedy progress of swine industry is inadequate availability of good quality feed and high feed price. Due to lack of adequate transport facilities, the import of feed ingredients from plain areas is very costly and is invariably spoiled due to high humidity prevailing in the region. Pigs reared here are mostly dependent on local vegetation and agro waste products. Farmers feed several alternative feed stuffs to pigs, but there is paucity of information on their chemical composition and their effect on growth rate. A viable option to economize the cost of pork production in Mizoram is to identify local unconventional feed resources, which can cheaply provide substitute for conventional concentrate feed. 1 Scientist, Animal Reproduction/Gynaecology, ICAR Research complex for NEH Region,

Mizoram centre, Kolasib, Mizoram. 796 081.

2 Joint Director 3 Director, ICAR Research complex for NEH Region, Umroi Road, Barapani, Meghalaya 4 Principal Scientist and Incharge, NRC on Pig, Rani, Guwahati.

Pig population and Pork productionThe pig population has been increasing steadily in last decade with tremendous

increase from 1997 to 2003 (Figure 1). Though the pig population has been increasing substantially, similar trend has not been observed in pork productivity. The major reason being the pigs reared by the farmers are of nondescript local, whose growth rate is claimed to be poor and hence their production is hardly adequate for the fast growing population. Hence, introduction of fast growing pig breeds like Hampshire and Large White Yorkshire became inevitable. Though these breed of pigs have been introduced in Mizoram to increase the pork productivity, their growth performance is not be up to the mark as these pigs are also reared under the same traditional feeding system.

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Figure 1: Trend in growth of livestock population in Mizoram.

(Source: Report on integrated sample survey for estimation of production of milk,egg and meat for the year 2002-2003. Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Department, Govt. of Mizoram. Mizoram.)

The percapita meat availability has been reported to be 9.98 kg per year in 2002-03, which is less than the recommended level (12.41 kg per year per person). The per capita meat short fall is around 2.43 kgs leaving a total production short fall of 2165 tonnes per year. Of the 9.98 kg per capita meat availability, pork contributes 6.64 kg. The total meat production in the year 2002 – 03 was 7952 tonnes, of which, pork contributed to 72.18 % (Figure 2)

Figure 2: Contribution of pork to total meat production

(Source: Report on integrated sample survey for estimation of production of milk,egg and meat for the year 2002-2003. Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Department, Govt. of Mizoram. Mizoram.)

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0

50

100

150

200

250

1982 1987 1992 1997 2003

Pig Cattle Buffalo Goats Dogs

Pork72.18%

Carabeef0.005%

Beef25.87%

Mithun0.004%

Chevon0.01%

Pork Beef Carabeef Mithun Chevon

Present status of swine feeding system

Feeding practices:In Mizoram, mostly pigs are reared in intensive system with complete stall

feeding. As majority of the tribals belong to low income group, they are not in the position to offer the recommended balanced feed to livestock. Only few progressive farmers, residing in township, feed their pigs with standard feed that too in small quantity. They purchase feed from local market which is transported from other states. This leads to higher feed cost and reduces the returns from pig farming. Moreover, high humidity prevailing in this region favours growth of fungus and insects in feed, and thus quality of feed gets deteriorated very easily Hence, instead of feeding concentrate, the pigs are fed with locally available grasses, plants and kitchen waste By feeding these unconventional agro-waste products, the feeding cost is reduced. The average feed offered by the farmer/ pig/day is 1.53 to 3 kg kitchen waste, 1 kg locally available grasses and 200 g concentrate. The concentrate mixture comprised mainly of wheat bran and rice polish (Kumaresan et al 2003).

Usually the feeder and waterers for pigs are made up of wooden planks (Figure 3). Other materials used as feederer/waterer were cut tyres of vehicles, aluminium plates.etc. Majority of the farmers provide water from pipe line connection (drinking water for human) or rain water harvested from the roof of the house. Few farmers use pond and stream water for their pigs.

Figure 3: Traditional pig rearing system

Plants as pig feed:

Survey was conducted in Kolasib, Aizawl, Mamit, Champhai, Serchip and Lunglei districts of Mizoram to study the existing pig rearing practices. During the course of survey, the locally available concentrate feed, non-conventional feed stuffs (Figure 4) and faeces of pigs have been collected and analyzed for proximate composition. The commonly used non – conventional pig feeds were Ankasa (Spilanthus Sps.), Vawkpui thal (Bidens biternata), Khup nal, Japan hlo, Buar (Conyza auriculata), Taham Polygonum chinensis, Pumpkin, Bamboo shoots, Banana (pseudostem, leaves and green banana fingers), Colocasia (leaves and stems), Sweet potato (leaves and tubers) and Tapioca. Ankasa plants are fed to the pigs as fresh, chapped plant portions. The leaves and stem of other plants are cut into pieces and mixed with little concentrate feed. Little concentrate mixture along with grasses and kitchen waste and rice are boiled together as slurry and then the prepared feed was offered to pigs

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twice daily in nearly equal amounts. Concentrate feed comprised of mainly wheat bran and rice polish. No additional feed supplements were given to the pigs by the farmers.

The proximate analysis revealed that the average dry matter, crude protein, crude fiber, ether extract, total ash and nitrogen free extract content of ready to serve pig feed were 11.4, 5.5, 22, 9.5, 6.2 and 56.8 percentages, respectively (Table 1).

Table 1: Proximate composition of ready to serve pig feed

Sample DM (%) CP (%) CF (%) EE (%) TA (%) NFE (%)

Rawfeed mixture 11.4 7.6 53.2 3.5 18.8 17.1Ready to serve pig feed

11.4 5.5 22.0 9.5 6.2 56.8

Vawkpui tal 13.1 7.7 55.4 11.5 12.9 12.4Khup nal 11.1 16.9 21.2 2.9 13.3 45.6Ankasa 13.2 10.4 55.3 8.9 9.6 15.9

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Ankasa Single plant (A) and Growth under field conditions (B)

Japan hlo

A B

Figure 4: Commonly used feeding materials for pigs in Mizoram

The average dry matter content of local grasses and shrubs in North Eastern Hill region of India has been reported to range from 10 – 19%. The palatability of non conventional pig feeds, especially ankasa was found to be good and pigs relish the plant as no portion was left uneaten. Interestingly, the incidence of still birth/ pre weaning mortality in pigs fed with Ankasa plant was very less when compared to the pigs not fed with Ankasa plants (Personnel communication, DVO, Kolasib District), which might be due to the carotene present in Ankasa. Growth rate of pigs in traditional feeding system:

To find out the effect of breed variations in the traditional feeding system a study was under taken by ICAR Research Complex, Mizoram Centre under Mizoram field conditions. From the data, it was observed that there was significant (p<0.05) difference in body weight between Hampshire, Large White Yorkshire and Mizo local pigs through out the study period (Figure 5). At 9 month age, the body weight of Hampshire, Large White Yorkshire and Mizo local pigs were 50.50 ± 0.34, 48.68 ± 0.42 and 32.88 ± 0.35 kg, respectively (Kumaresan et al, 2004).

Figure 5: Growth rate of different breed of pigs under traditional feeding system

However, the overall daily weight gain observed in this study is far lower than those previously reported for exotic porcine breeds. The reported daily weight gain ranged from

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Ready to serve pig feed mixture Pigs feeding on non conventional feed

0

20

40

60

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Age in months

Bod

y w

eigh

t in

Kg

Hampshire LWY Mizo local

540 to 670g for exotic breeds under standard managemental conditions. The lower average daily weight gain recorded in this study might be due to the feeding of pigs with low energy and high fiber diet and difference in other managemental practices adopted by the farmers. However, in the existing managemental conditions also the performance of Hampshire and Large White Yorkshire pigs was found to be superior to the Mizo local pigs. Reduction in growth rate and performance of pigs due to unconventional feeding has already been reported (Sharda et al, 1976, Kennedy and Sherne, 1980) and the reason attributed was the reduced energy level in the feed.

The comparison of growth rate of pigs under traditional and standard feeding system is given in table 2. The results revealed significant difference in body weight of both Hampshire and Large White Yorkshire pigs under traditional and standard feeding system. At 9 months of age the body weight of Hampshire pigs under traditional and standard feeding system was 50.50 and 65.66 kgs, respectively. The corresponding figures for and Large White Yorkshire pigs were 39.83 and 48.68 kgs, respectively.

Table 2: Body weight (kgs) of pigs under traditional and improved feeding system

Age Hampshire Large White Yorkshirefarm conditions

field conditions

farm conditions

field conditions

2 months 9.45 8.72 8.98 8.414 months 28.16 18.56 15.83 16.946 months 45.66 29.06 28.66 26.328months 61.83 43.44 36.33 41.189 months 65.66 50.5 39.83 48.68

Future approach for increasing pig feed production

Utilization on non conventional feedAs the availability of high quality pig feed is always a problem in the Mizoram,

utilization of non conventional feed materials including plants for partial replacement of concentrate feed may be a viable option to economize pork production in the state. Moreover, round the year availability of non conventional feed plants makes its utilization for pig feeding easy. Farmers feed several alternative feed stuffs to pigs, but there is paucity of information on their chemical composition and their effect on growth rate. Hence, attempts have to be made to record in detail the commonly used non conventional pig feeding material and to analyze their proximate composition. Studies are also needed in conducting feeding trial with different levels of inclusion of locally available non conventional feed stuffs in pig feed and its effect of feeding on growth performance of pigs. Further detailed analysis of these non conventional feed plants for vitamin, mineral and amino acid content and may help in better utilization of the plants.

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Large scale production of feed ingredients Though the state Government is having feed mill for production of concentrate feed for pigs, the major constraint in large scale pig feed production is non availability of feed ingredients, especially, maize. The import of feed ingredients from plain areas is very costly due to lack of adequate transport facilities, and is invariably spoiled due to high humidity prevailing in the region, if stored for long period. In Mizoram, maize occupies only 9.47 % of total cultivated area and contributes about 10.31 % of total food grain production. The average productivity of maize in Mizoram is 1935 kg/ha, which is in higher side compared to the national average (1840 kg/ha). The total area under maize cultivation is 10, 481 ha with a total production of 20, 282 MT (2003 – 04).

With the existing production, it would be difficult to meet out the requirement of maize for concentrate pig feed production. Although the state’s maize productivity is to wards higher side than the national average, it may still be increased by popularizing high yielding varieties. It has been found out at ICAR Research Complex, Mizoram Centre that RCM 1-1 and Vijay Composite varieties yielded an average of 64 and 67 qtl per ha, respectively (Vishwakarma et al, 2005). Hence, popularizing these varieties may be one of the major steps in progressing towards self sufficiency in concentrate pig feed production. Besides this, pursuing the farmers for large scale maize cultivation with buy back agreement may also be a viable option

References

1. Kumaresan, A, Hussain, J, Ahmed, S.K, Pathak, K.A, Das A.B and Bujarbaruah K.M (2003). Performance of Large White Yorkshire pigs under Mizoram field conditions. Communicated to. Indian Farming

2. Kumaresan, A, Hussain, J, Ahmed, S.K, Pathak, K.A, Das A.B and Bujarbaruah K.M (2004). Growth Performance of Hampshire, Large White Yorkshire and Mizo Local Pigs under Mizoram Field Conditions. Communicated to Indian J.Anim.Sci.

3. Kennedy J.J and Aherne F.X (1980). The effects of fiber addition to diets formulated to contain different levels of energy and protein on growth to carcass quality of Swine.Canadian Journal of Animal Sciences. 60(2) 385- 393.

4. Sharda D.P. Yadav K..R. and Pradhan K (1976). Effect of energy restriction in the diet on the performance and carcass quality of market pigs. Indian J. Anim.Sci. 47(11), 743- 745

5. Vishwakarma, A K, Pathak, K A, Brajendra and Verma D K (2005). Performance of Maize varieties under agro – climatic conditionas of Mizoram. Communicated to AICMIP workshop held at ICAR , Barapani.

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NUTRITIONAL TECHNOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS FOR THE PROMOTION OF SWINE PRODUCTION IN NORTH EASTERN REGION OF INDIA

R.Bhuyan, B.N.Saikia and B.PhukanDepartment of Animal NutritionCollege of Veterinary Science

Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati 781022

India possesses 13.58 millions of pigs out of which the North East Region alone possesses 3.06 million (NEC, 2002). This region has a tremendous scope for piggery development, as majority of the people are fond of pork. The tribal people as well as the weaker section of this region are involved in traditional rearing of pigs for a subsidiary source of income. As the food habit of the human in this region is mostly non-vegetarian in nature hence, there is always a great demand of meat and therefore pig farming in this region is always considered as promising.

Feed resources availability in India and NE region:It has been observed that feed represents about 70-75% of total cost of meat

production in pigs (Agarwala, 1970). This is due to higher energy requirement of pigs, which is to be supplied through the incorporation of cereal grains. On the other hand there is a shortage of feeds and fodder in India to the tune of 31% dry fodder, 23% green fodder and 47% concentrate (Pradhan, 2003). The deficiency of feed resources is due to increase in population density resulting decrease in grazing land, qualitative deterioration of grasslands, low priority given for feed and fodder production and lack of proper adoption of feed and fodder production and processing technology. Availability of feed ingredients particularly cereal is also critical since there is a competition between human beings and livestock for the same. Another fact is that a feed stuff found suitable as an ingredient for animal feeding, sometimes become main input for some industries making it non available for livestock production. Hence it becomes necessary to look into ways and means for alternate strategies to overcome the shortage of feed resources for profitable livestock farming.

Importance of swine production in present situation:Although India produces 4.2 million tones of meat but the per capita availability of

meat is 6-8 g/head/day (Agnihotri and Pal, 1994) against the recommended level of 34g/head/day recommended by ICMR (Jain, 1987). This is due to the rapid growth of population, which resulted in widening of gap between availability and requirement. Therefore, an immediate thrust is required to meet the demand of requirement by multiplying all the meat-producing animals by scientific means. From the point of efficient production of meat, pig is considered as one of the best meat producing animals because of some biological advantages over other animals such as high prolificacy, rapid growth rate, better feed conversion efficiency, shorter gestation interval and high dressing percentage etc.

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NE region as a potential area for piggery development:As the North East region of India is considered as the potential area for the

development of swine industry hence, various measures may be taken to make it cost effective. The main problem faced by the pig farmer is shortage of feed for which most of the animals are in this region are underfed. Though a good number of non-conventional feedstuff are available in this region, most of it are not used by the farmers due to lack of information and scientific knowledge. Many of unconventional feeds of course cannot be fed as such. The conventional feedstuffs are also costly. Hence the Animal Nutritionist has to play a great role in solving these problems.

Need for technological intervention:The problems of under feeding can be overcome partly through technological

intervention such as physical, chemical or biological treatment of suitable feed resources. The physical treatment includes grinding, pelleting, extrusion cooking, steaming etc. Chemical methods include treatment of feedstuff with dilute acids and alkalies, ammoniation and urea treatment and others. Biological treatment includes addition of enzymes, hormones, antibiotics, probiotics and other feed additives. Although many chemical and biological techniques are feasible in the laboratory but in practice found non acceptable by the farmers. To adopt these technologies, the farmers may be motivated through the extension system. All accepts the importance of on farm testing of known technology at the present situation. Scientist-farmer interaction meet may play a vital role in technology development.

Now, it is realized that the technological intervention is the only way to increase the performance of animals and birds in terms of production of animal protein such as meat, milk and eggs. Identification of new feed resources with suitable processing technology is also the utmost need in the present situation. Studies conducted at ANGRAU, Hyderabad showed that by technological intervention the performance of swine could be enhanced. They studied the effect of diet processing such as meal (M), expanded diet (E), pelleted diet (P) and expanded and pelleted diet (EP) on the performance of starting, growing and finishing pigs. The performance was found better in expanded and pelleted diet than the meal and has been presented in the following table.(Reddy et al, 2003)

Table 1. Performance of pigs on different processed dietsStarting pigs(20-40 kg) Meal

dietExpanded diet Pelleted diet Expanded and pelleted

dietDaily feed intake (kg) 1.50 1.58 1.44 1.45Daily weight gain (kg) 0.78 0.83 0.74 0.72Feed gain ratio 1.92 1.92 1.96 2.04Grower pigs (40-70kg)Daily feed intake (kg) 2.16 2.27 2.13 2.10Daily weight gain (kg) 0.85 0.91 0.88 0,90Feed gain ratio 2.56 2.52 2.42 2.36Finisher pigs (70-100kg)Daily feed intake (kg) 2.39 2.54 2.34 2.24Daily weight gain (kg) 0.71 0.79 0.73 0.69Feed gain ratio 3.37 3.2 3.22 3.35

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Approaches for technology intervention:1. Improving the utilization of feed resources by different treatments.2. Knowledge on the availability of the total feed resources throughout the year in

the entire NE region is required.3. Supplementation with enzymes, antibiotics, probiotics etc. is an another

approach for efficient utilization of a particular feed resource4. Identifying and utilizing newer non-conventional feed resources and the

development of specific technology for detoxification of toxic factor to ensure that the resources that are generated locally are put better use.

5. Use of ideal protein in pig rations.Conclusion:

There is no other way but to pay more attention to the feed component more specifically technological intervention for better utilization of feeds for enhancing of swine production. The northeastern region of India has a tremendous scope for pork production where most of the people of the region are non-vegetarian. To make the swine enterprise as more attractive and profitable, the public, the Government and the scientists should work together.

References:1. Agarwala, O,P. (1970): Effect of plane of nutrition on swine production. 2nd Anim.

Nutr. Res. Workers Conference, Bangalore 7th to 10th Sept. 19822. Agnihotri, A.K. and Pal, D. (1994): Meat production in India. Indian J.of Med.Sc.

53: 235-2383. Jain,S.C. (1987): Multifocal approach on research and development with special

reference to transport and distribution of meat and poultry products. Advances in meat research. (Khol,J.B.; Sherikar,A.T.;Jayaro,B.M. and Pillai,S.R) pp-14. Red and Blue cross publisher, Bombay

4. NEC(2002): Basic statistics of NER. E & M cell. Govt of India. NEC Secretariate, Shillong 793001

5. Pradhan,K (2003): Key note address of workshop on present status of feed technology and future strategies held at ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad w.e.f. 22-23rd July,2003

6. Reddy,T.J. and Reddy, Y.R.(2003): Pelleting of feeds. Feed processing technology NATP, ANGRAU.Hyderabad, pp 74-94.

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