Work 4.0 Awareness Raising Guidelines · Jobs for Work 4.0 – The Future of Employment O2 – Work...

Jobs for Work 4.0 – The Future of

Employment

O2 – Work 4.0 Awareness Raising

Guidelines

Prepared by University of Minho

Project Title: Jobs for Work 4.0 – The Future of Employment

Project Number: 2016-1-PT01-KA202-022790

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission.

This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any

use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Work 4.0 Awareness Raising Guidelines

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Table of Contents

List of Tables and Figures ................................................................................................................................... 5

Part I. Introductory and Methodological Notes ................................................................................................. 6

Part II. Classification of Occupations .................................................................................................................. 8

Part III. Trends of the digital transformation .................................................................................................... 10

The ‘first wave’ of digitisation ..................................................................................................................... 10

The ‘second wave’ and the Internet of Things ............................................................................................ 11

Trends in Machine Learning, Machine-translating, Mobile Robotics and Augmented Reality ................... 13

New Management and Controlling Technologies ....................................................................................... 15

Part IV. Impact of the economy’s digitalisation on professions ....................................................................... 17

Technologies that are changing the world .................................................................................................. 19

Means of payment .................................................................................................................................. 19

E-commerce ............................................................................................................................................ 19

OCR scanning and dematerialization ..................................................................................................... 20

Electric and autonomous cars ................................................................................................................ 20

Drones impact on transportation of goods ............................................................................................ 20

Photography and printing ....................................................................................................................... 21

Augmented reality, 360° and 3D pictures and videos ........................................................................... 21

Internet of things .................................................................................................................................... 21

Occupations most impacted by the Digital Economy.................................................................................. 22

Architecture and Engineering ................................................................................................................. 22

Business and Service Operations............................................................................................................ 22

Computation and Mathematics ............................................................................................................. 23

Management ........................................................................................................................................... 24

Sales and Related Occupations .............................................................................................................. 24

Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports and Media .................................................................................... 25

Transport and Material Moving ............................................................................................................. 25

Part V. New labour models and jobs ................................................................................................................ 26

Emerging occupations ................................................................................................................................. 27

Agriculture ............................................................................................................................................... 27

Economy .................................................................................................................................................. 27

Education ................................................................................................................................................. 28

Engineering/Technology ......................................................................................................................... 28


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Environment ............................................................................................................................................ 29

Health ...................................................................................................................................................... 29

Part VI. Emerging skills and competencies for Work 4.0 .................................................................................. 31

The future of employment: developing future-proof skills ......................................................................... 31

The future of employment: in depth exploring core skills .......................................................................... 33

Interdisciplinary skills of future workers ............................................................................................... 33

Social Intelligence ................................................................................................................................... 34

Creative Intelligence ............................................................................................................................... 35

Cross-functional skills ............................................................................................................................. 36

Part VII. Towards a fairer workplace: the foreseen challenges ........................................................................ 37

Aging, demographic change and health ...................................................................................................... 37

New services of the digital economy: platform and sharing economy ....................................................... 38

Working conditions in the digital economy: flexibilization and individualisation ....................................... 39

Flexibility of Time .................................................................................................................................... 40

Flexibility of Space .................................................................................................................................. 40

Functional Flexibility ............................................................................................................................... 41

Flexibility of Approach ............................................................................................................................ 41

Flexicurity ................................................................................................................................................ 41

Labour market policy for the digital economy ............................................................................................ 42

Status of workers .................................................................................................................................... 43

Regulatory requirements ........................................................................................................................ 44

Workforce platforms: new arenas for inequality ........................................................................................ 44

Other control approaches and inequalities ........................................................................................... 45

Part VIII. Guidelines to promote future-proof skills ......................................................................................... 47

Pedagogy Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 47

Formal Learning ...................................................................................................................................... 47

Informal Learning .................................................................................................................................... 48

Integrative pedagogy .............................................................................................................................. 49

Smart Learning Environments ..................................................................................................................... 50

Design principles for courses ....................................................................................................................... 51

Recommendations for developing specific skills sets ................................................................................. 52

Sense-making, Social Intelligence and Cross-Cultural Skills .................................................................. 52

Cognitive Load Management skills ......................................................................................................... 54

Adaptive Thinking and Transdisciplinary skills ...................................................................................... 54


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Design Mindset and Computational Thinking skills ............................................................................... 54

New Media Literacy and Virtual Collaboration skills ............................................................................ 55

Part X. Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 56


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List of Tables and Figures

Table 1 - Drivers promoting the change in occupations. Adapted from (World Economic Forum, 2016)...... 18

Table 2 – Summary of the foreseen occupations ............................................................................................ 29

Figure 1 – Typical activities of Generation C users (Adopted from (Friedrich, Roman; Koster, Alex; Le Merle,

Matthew; Peterson, 2011)) ............................................................................................................................. 15

Figure 2 - Classification of nine new forms of employment ............................................................................ 26

Figure 3 - Dimensions of social intelligence .................................................................................................... 35


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Part I. Introductory and Methodological Notes

This part of the Guidelines describes the aim of the Guidelines (1), the methodology used

to produce it (2), and the main decisions regarding the information that should be included

(3). It also describes how the Guidelines should be adapted by each partner-country (4).

Digitization is increasingly shaping the world of work. While computerisation has been

historically confined to routine tasks involving explicit rule-based activities, algorithms for big data

are now rapidly entering domains reliant upon pattern recognition and can readily substitute for

labour in a wide range of non-routine cognitive tasks. Advanced robots are gaining enhanced senses

and dexterity, allowing them to perform a broader scope of manual tasks. This will change the nature

of work across industries and occupations.

Recent studies have been warning about the rapid automation of a large number of

occupations. These occupations are not only those that require less sophisticated skills. Robots and

intelligent systems will be increasingly used in medicine, justice and education.

The automation of occupations will result in the disappearance of many jobs and the

emergence of others that require people with new skills. The global and increasingly networked

economy, and the increasing importance of virtual and augmented reality, will lead to new

businesses, innovative working models, new models of social organization and growing challenges

of digital security.

The various social actors with responsibilities in education and training as well need to

anticipate changes in the labour market and offer training opportunities to develop appropriate skills

for technologically sophisticated occupations.

The objective of this document is to present a solid literature review on the expected changes

in the labour market as a result of the digital transformation of the economy and society. To achieve

this objective were collected over 100 scientific and technical articles produced between 2013 and

2017, searched on Google Scholar. For this search the following keywords were used:

• "Digital economy" Employment +

• "Digital economy" + computerization

• "Digital economy" + "labour market"

Abstracts and executive summaries were then analysed and a convergence around the

following themes was found:

• Trends in digital transformation,

• Impact of the digital economy in the professions,

• New patterns of work and new occupations,

• The skills required for the work of the future,

• Challenges of the new models of organization of work.

These themes, and the papers found, gave rise to Parts III to VII of this document. The

content of these chapters is intended to raise awareness about the essentials of the digital

transformation of the economy and their impact on the labour market. Our aim is to inform people

working in the employment sector, in vocational education and in job orientation professions, about


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the challenges posed by the pace at which digitization and the "Internet of Things" producing

important changes. Part VIII of this document aims to support these professionals in planning

suitable qualification pathways for the development of appropriate skills for future jobs. This section

gives specific guidance in terms of pedagogical strategies to adopt, intelligent learning environments,

design of training courses and concrete learning outcomes to develop the skills considered essential

in the coming decades: Sense-making, Social Intelligence and Cross-Cultural Skills; Cognitive Load

Management skills; Adaptive Thinking and Transdisciplinary skills; Design Mindset and

Computational Thinking skills; New Media Literacy and Virtual Collaboration skills.

It should be noted the existence of a significant number of publications warning about the

changes that are expected in the labour market in the coming decades, referring to occupations that

do not exist currently. However, the number of publications offering concrete support to develop the

skills considered as essential is very scarce. Also could not find studies focused on the evaluation

of the effectiveness of some of the advanced innovative strategies presented in this document, in

particular those that are referred to develop soft skills for virtual work environments. The most

developed area in this field is the virtual collaboration, with several authors discussing the challenges

facing the communication and interaction between different cultures.

The contents of the original version (English) of the document was translated and adapted to

the particular needs of each country in the project consortium, taking into account the information

gathered in the national Needs Assessment Reports produced as the Intellectual Output 1.

National versions of these guidelines were tested in each country by consulting the people

working in the employment sector, in vocational education and job orientation in professions and

adjusted according to the feedback obtained.


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Part II. Classification of Occupations

This part of the Guidelines introduces the international standard that will be used to guide

the description the impact of the digital transformation on professions. This standard,

ISCO – 08, sets the ground for a common designation of professions at the European

level.

At European level there is an instrument called International Standard Classification of

Occupations (ISCO-08), which has as its main objective the organization of the jobs by categories,

being these defined by groups according to the tasks of each type of work. This instrument belongs

to the International Labour Organization and is part of the international family of economic and social

classifications of the United Nations. The latest version, and as the name implies, is 2008, although

there were three more previous versions (ISCO-58, ISCO-68 e ISCO-88) (“ILO,” n.d.).

The ISCO-08 is structured hierarchically into four levels, comprising 10 major groups which

have in common the level of skill and expertise needed for each job, followed by 43 subgroups, 130

smaller groups, and ultimately 436 groups units. Each of the classification groups has a title and a

code represented by a number, also providing a definition for the group. The last group summarizes

the tasks and functions that can play in each of the occupations included in the group, and displays

the list of group occupations1.

The ISCO-08 tool has as main objectives: (i) to serve as the basis for international reports,

enabling the exchange of statistical data; (ii) be a model for national and regional occupational

classification development and (iii) a system that can be used directly by countries that have not

developed their own national classifications. It should be noted that this tool is not intended to replace

any national classification on occupations. The occupational classifications of each country should

reflect the structure of the labour market in that country and its information needs for national

purposes. National tools that are aligned with the latter in terms of concept and structure will make

it easier to make professional comparisons at the statistical level.

ISCO-08 has a facilitating role in international communication of occupations, providing a

framework that enables the comparison of international occupational data for statistical purposes. It

also allows these international data are produced in a format that can be useful for research as well

as for activities related to decision-making and action-oriented activities (such as activities related to

international migration and job placement). Although this tool can serve as a model, she does not

have to order the replacement of any national existing occupations classification, it is not intended

to replace national classification frameworks, which should reflect the structure of the national labour

market and specific information needs. However, countries that use the ISCO 08 as a basis for

building their national classification of occupations will find it easier to develop procedures to make

their occupational statistics internationally comparable.

The classifications of occupations can be used by governments and companies in activities

such as educational planning, reporting and reporting of industrial accidents, compensation

management to workers, migration management related to employment and matching of candidates

for available job openings. It can also be used for the collection and dissemination of statistics at the

1 Ilo.org


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national level, including censuses, surveys of the active population, surveys of employers and other

sources.

National Classifications at the Partner Countries

PT – Classificação Portuguesa das profissões -

https://www.ine.pt/ngt_server/attachfileu.jsp?look_parentBoui=107962055&att_display=n&att_dow

nload=y


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Part III. Trends of the digital transformation

In this part of the Guidelines, the main forces driving the digital transformation of the

economy are introduced and explained. Digital transformation is becoming a central

component of business strategy. As digital technology continues to evolve, innovative

products and services are emerging. Computerized business processes together the

need for sophisticated skills are at the root of new leadership roles and substantial

changes in jobs.

The past decade has seen advances in digitisation and how it is impacting on every aspect

of our lives, particularly in the social realm. Social media and mobile devices; activities such as

sharing, liking, tweeting, posting; these are all ubiquitous technologies and concepts taken for

granted nowadays, but this wasn’t always the case. As the American journalist, Tom Friedman, said,

“In 2004, Facebook didn’t exist, 4G was a parking space, an app was something you sent off to

college, LinkedIn was a prison, Tweet was a sound a bird made, and Skype was a typo” (QA

Consulting, 2016). Yet in just over a decade, these emerging technologies have revolutionised the

way we socialise and communicate with friends and family, but also how we network in business as

well as how we seek and secure new employment opportunities, how we purchase products and

how we learn using online technologies. With these advances, the way technology is used in the

worlds of work and industry is about to change as well. While many industries such as entertainment,

music, film, print media and retail have all already been impacted by the advances in technology,

there are many industries which have remained largely untouched by digitisation up until this point.

With the ‘second wave’ of digitisation, this is all about to change.

Technology has revolutionised how we shop, watch movies and listen to music. With the

high-profile legal case of Napster in 2002, the music industry fought to cease the sharing of

copyrighted music online; however, consumers of music used advances in technology to their

advantage and the music industry has never been the same since. CD and record stores have

become obsolete; instead consumers buy and download music from iTunes or Google Play Store or

they share and listen to music on Spotify and YouTube. This one example was largely driven by

consumer demand. This point is picked up by Rod Collins (Collins, 2017) in his article which

summarises how in recent years entertainment, music and retail industries have all been impacted

by technology; ‘stalwart names such as Border’s, Blockbuster, Kodak, Tower Records, and the

Encyclopaedia Britannica have all been either disrupted or displaced by the upstarts Amazon, Netflix,

Apple, Spotify and Wikipedia’. Collins further explains, however, that in the industries of healthcare,

energy, financial services or food processing, tasks and practices have largely remained unchanged

as a result of the first wave of digitisation. However, these industries will be revolutionised during

the second wave of digitisation. This section of the Guidelines aims to explain what has led to this

digital revolution and how we can all prepare for what this ‘second wave’ means for these industries.

The ‘first wave’ of digitisation The first wave of digitisation was possible because through peer-to-peer networking, internet

users made voluntary contributions which gradually populated the internet with data and contributed

to the growth of search engines such as Google. These technologies and contents fuelled the

changes in mind-set that is at the root of the digital revolution we are currently witnessing. With the

first wave of digitisation, peer-to-peer networks emerged. As a result of this first wave, technology

become mobile and people began to interact with these mobile devices on an almost continual basis.

Whereas in the early days of technology, at the beginning of the dot-com revolution in the late 1980s,

only 3% of US households had access to the internet and these households averaged less than one


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hour of usage per week (Case, 2015), by 2016 there were 4.61 billion mobile phone users worldwide,

with this figure set to climb to 4.77 billion in 2017 and to reach over 5 billion by 2019 (Statista, 2017).

The growth in the number of individuals worldwide who access the internet on a daily basis through

mobile devices for the purposes of social networking and sharing online shows the willingness of

today’s users to engage in mass collaboration with their peers. This peer-to-peer networking has

led to the growth of what are now household names such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and

LinkedIn; it has led to users taking recommendations from friends for movies on Netflix or for

products to purchase from Amazon. It has changed the longstanding business models of the film,

music and retail industries. It is best explained in the case of Napster. Using the Napster app, users

were able to share digital music files with their peers. While the music industry was able to shut

Napster down, they were unable to remove this behaviour from the psyches of internet users.

Consumers were supportive of the new peer-to-peer network model, and this had a revolutionary

effect on the music industry. Suddenly any industry which relied on the production of digital files,

which could be shared through these networks, was vulnerable. Through this new model of peer-

to-peer networking, consumers were empowered to work directly and effectively together to share

files and media online without having to go through a central organisation or body. While this change

has seen the decline in music stores and video rentals, it has seen the growth in iTunes, YouTube

and Netflix. This example shows how the first wave of digitisation was largely influenced by

consumer demand, and how industries that were unwilling to stay relevant and up-to-date with

technological advances became obsolete.

The ‘second wave’ and the Internet of Things With the second wave of digitisation, there is a shift away from voluntary content contributions

towards a larger collection of data from automatic, passive processes. This is best described through

the Internet of Things. Collins defines the Internet of Things (IoT) as a “network of physical objects

embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and connectivity to enable objects to exchange data

with manufacturers, operators, and other connected devices” (Collins, 2017). This innovation

extends far beyond collecting data from household appliances or wearable technology such as FitBit

activity trackers and smart watches; it will include street-lighting, solar energy sensors, traffic lights,

home security systems, home heating systems, mobile devices, GPS trackers, cars, etc. One

application of these IoT devices can be seen in Google Maps. Google Maps is widely used by drivers

in place of dedicated GPS or Satellite Navigation Systems. Using data in relation to average speed

and traffic flows from the GPS sensors which are available in mobile phones, Google Maps is able

to collect and process this data to provide up-to-date information on users in relation to traffic

patterns. Users can access this data on their phones and choose alternative routes to avoid areas

which typically experience gridlock. This is just one example, but at present, IoT has innumerable

applications and uses.

Using IoT technology and IoT enabled devices for the home, which are currently available on

the market, users can control lighting, heating, sound, radio, speakers and their house alarm with

their voices, making their lives more connected than ever. In the future however, the IoT has the

potential to solve real problems which affect people’s lives every day; these changes will effectively

transform entire cities around the world by turning them into ‘Smart Cities’. With sufficient

connectivity, IoT-enabled devices and data, IoT will be able to be fully integrated into these Smart

Cities of the future, helping to reduce crime, urban pollution, traffic congestion and noise (Meola,

2016). For example, research conducted by Gartner research institute estimates that by 2020,

worldwide there will be 250 million cars on our roads that are connected to the internet. Many of

these will be capable of driving themselves, but the majority are cars that are connected to the

internet through the car’s central computer system. The driverless or autonomous cars have the


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potential to reduce car collisions by an estimated 80% (Mai, 2015). Cars which are connected to the

internet will be able to communicate their locations to other cars which are also connected to the

internet. Gartner estimates that worldwide this could help to “save drivers at least some of the 90

billion hours they currently spend stuck in jams each year, generating 220 million metric tonnes of

carbon-equivalent and wasting at least $1 trillion in fuel costs and lost productivity” (Scott, 2017). In

the future, even parking cars will become easier because of IoT. Parking lots and garages in cities

of the future will be connected to the IoT, allowing drivers to obtain real-time information about

available parking spaces through an app which collects the information from individual parking lots

and garages’ sensors (Boss Controls, 2016). While these innovations will all impact on our social

and personal lives, the second wave of digitisation will also have a significant impact on the future

of employment.

In the second wave of digitisation, previously unaffected industries such as finance and

healthcare, for example, will find themselves in the middle of a digital revolution. While the finance

sector has not escaped digitisation in the past decades, with the advent of online banking and mobile

banking, there are more significant changes on the way. With the emergence of Apple Pay and digital

cryptocurrencies such as BitCoin, we are seeing trends in consumer behaviour where they interact

directly with other consumers – transferring money directly through Apple Pay – and where they use

their traditional banks less - by paying for goods online using BitCoin. These consumer trends point

to greater changes which are moving through the industry at break-neck speed. Called FinTech, or

financial services technology, digitisation is leading the revolution throughout the sector as

consumers and providers continually find new ways to make, spend, manage and invest money.

For example, where visiting local bank branches was once part of a consumer’s weekly routine,

research shows that up to 40% of consumers of banking products do not step through the doors of

a bank or credit union more than once a year (Newman D. , 2017). This has impacted on the number

of branches that have either closed or are facing closure; with the number of physical banks dropping

by almost half from 1995 to 2015 — largely due to the rise of online and mobile banking (Newman

D. , 2017). FinTech experts predict that these revolutions in the financial sector could eventually see

the elimination of physical currency entirely, as consumers increasingly do all of their banking and

purchasing online, using their mobile or buying with digital currencies like BitCoin (Newman D. ,

2017). Business customers and SMEs will also benefit from the digital transformation of this sector

as more FinTech companies offer crowd-funding and peer-to-peer lending through their online

platforms (Andrus, Kejriwal, & Wadhawani, 2016).

Healthcare is another industry which will be heavily impacted by the second wave of

digitisation. In healthcare, technology is helping patients to live longer and healthier lives; from

advances in robotics for prosthetic limbs, to surgical robots and ‘smart hospitals’, the applications for

technology to enhance the healthcare sector are numerous. The first way in which technology is

impacting this sector is in the care that technology can bring to patients without them even having to

visit their doctor or local hospital. Through the advances in wearable technology and the IoT, mobile

devices can perform ECGs, blood tests and serve as a thermometer to measure a patient’s essential

vitals without having to leave their homes. With the advances in wearable tech, patients can check

their blood pressure, blood-oxygen levels, pulse, weight and other metrics, and can upload this data

directly to a mobile patient portal which their doctor will then have access to (Newman D. , 2017).

When this data is input regularly and the records are reviewed by doctors, this will allow to predict a

patient’s risk of heart disease and other diseases. This shows the advantages that Big Data can

have on the care of patients, with patients and medical professionals collaborating using technology

to generate cohesive medical reports which are accessible anywhere by a health care provider. As

well as being beneficial to the individual patients, this data can be collated and studied en masse to


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predict health care trends for entire communities, age groups and countries. Together with the

resulting preventative medical measures that this data will yield, it also leads to the empowerment

of patients who have previously thought of healthcare as being synonymous with long waits and

unsatisfactory care. By freeing up the time of healthcare professionals who would usually have to

collect this data in person, these advances in technology can also help to ease the burden on poorly

resourced healthcare systems – leading to a reduction in waiting times for patients and a reduction

in the costs associated with accessing healthcare services.

The second wave of digitisation will also have significant impact on how businesses operate

and plan for the future. Digitisation or digital transformation is becoming a central component of

business strategy. The reason for this is that technology is ubiquitous and it is used in every industry

and sector. Whether or not a business operates in the technology sector, all businesses today are,

in a sense, ‘technology companies’. In today’s modern economy, technology is the link between a

company and its customers, suppliers and competitors. In this digital age, the impact of technology

on business strategy is note-worthy. Companies need to change how they think; how they interact

with customers, employees, suppliers and competitors; how they run and operate their business;

how they market and sell their products and services. All of these aspects of business strategy are

affected by the digital transformation of our society and economy. While these changes may not be

driven by the companies directly, they are being driven by customer demand. Customer expectations

have changed dramatically in the last decade, with customers seeking interactive and efficient

communication with the companies they buy from. Because of the pace of this change, there is a

gap emerging between what the customer expects from their interaction with companies, and what

those companies are currently able to offer the customer. In order to fully integrate technology into

their business strategies, businesses have to become more ‘social’. The development of the ‘social

business’ as a business strategy has led to companies interacting more frequently with their

customers; providing immediate customer support, seeking immediate customer feedback and

largely investing in the ‘customer experience’. In this way, enhancing the customer experience by

placing customers at the centre of a business strategy, and delivering services and products directly

to them using technology, will lead to business success in our age of digital transformation.

Trends in Machine Learning, Machine-translating, Mobile Robotics and

Augmented Reality In simple terms, machine learning is the process by which computers and devices can

improve and refine their performance of tasks by being exposed to data, rather than being

programmed to perform a certain function. The idea is that by exposing the machine to fresh data,

the machine will develop its interpretation of the environment and user preferences through cognitive

technology embedded in the machine. With the advances in technology, computers and robotics in

recent years, there is a new generation of apps and devices that can work independently of the user

and of programmes to sense, perceive, learn and respond to their environment. In this way, the

advances in technology and machine learning are a corner-stone of the IoT and of the second wave

of digitisation. While these advances have led to considerable innovations to date, emerging trends

show that in the future machine learning will be applied to mobile devices, giving rise to the

development of new product categories, influencing how businesses engage with consumers and

suppliers and transforming how employees work across all economic sectors. Trends in machine

learning also point to future advances where offline machine learning is possible through mobile

devices.

Already in mobile devices, embedded sensors allow those devices to learn from us, our

behaviours and preferences; this technology will be further developed so to improve the processing


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of graphics and images in drones and autonomous vehicles to improve the machine’s ability to

interpret and process their environment. These advances have innumerable applications to almost

all sectors of the economy. In healthcare, for example, applying machine learning to mobile devices

can lead to the development of diagnostic apps which can be used by patients without having to

access healthcare services. One example of this includes a patient being able to diagnose a skin

condition by taking a photograph of the affected area on their smart-phone and analysing the

photograph using a diagnostic app, without transmitting the image data over a network. This can

also be applied to manufacturing or any industry which requires equipment where the equipment can

be connected to the internet and through machine learning an IoT, the self-monitoring equipment

can predict maintenance needs and can self-diagnose any failures or faults in the equipment

(Schatsky, 2016). As well as the application of machine learning to healthcare and manufacturing,

with machine learning revolutionising mobile devices in the future, businesses will have to re-think

the way they market their products and services to consumers to take advantage of this new

technology. With this new generation of perceptive apps and devices, marketers and companies can

use these devices to cultivate closer and more responsive relationships with their customers.

Augmented reality is a further application of the advances in machine learning. The advances

in machine learning in this sense are most commonly seen in the entertainment and recreation

sectors, where increasingly we are seeing mobile devices on the market which offer immersive,

interactive, realistic and engaging augmented and virtual reality for games and films for consumers.

Machine translation (MT) is the area of natural language processing (NLP) in which computer

software is used to translate a text from one natural language (such as German) to another (such as

Portuguese). While this sounds simplistic, whether the process is automated or performed by a

human, it is a very complex process because the meaning of a text in the original (source) language

must be fully restored in the target language, i.e. the translation (Costa-jussà & Fonollosa, 2015).

Research presented in the Common Sense Advisory Report shows that more than half of today’s

consumers are willing to pay more money, if the company they are buying from or interacting with

will speak to them in their own language. This research, conducted in 2014, showed that of the 3,000

online shoppers and consumers from 10 countries who took part in the survey, 60% ‘rarely’ or ‘never’

purchase goods and services from websites and online stores which are only published in English

or which only offer customer care and support in English ( DePalma & Stewart, 2014). This research

finding alone shows the important of MT to the future of business and customer service. With the

customer experience becoming ever-more important to how businesses operate machine translation

is set to continue to grow, providing a more personal experience to all customers, irrespective of

their mother tongue. At present, the idea of using Big Data to develop insights and statistics from a

users’ interaction with an online translation tool is still in its infancy, however it has the potential to

impact the services which businesses provide to a global customer base in the future (Dranch, 2016).

Developments in mobile robotics have the potential to impact on transport and logistic

industries significantly. While autonomous vehicles are still years away from mass-production and

use in industry, since the beginning of 2017, Amazon have started delivering goods of up to 5 pounds

in weight to customers using their delivery drones (Amazon, 2017). While these drones have their

limitations, caused by the length of their battery life and the maximum weight they can carry, they

already represent a leap forward in harnessing the advances in mobile robots and machine learning

to improve the customer experience; with customers who live in the vicinity of Amazon’s distribution

centres able to receive deliveries by drone in 30 minutes or less, as opposed to its previous fastest

delivery time of ‘within 3-5 working days’. Mobile robots have several applications to a range of

industries, including, but not limited to agriculture, manufacturing, logistics, healthcare, transport,

and military and defence sectors (Demaitre, 2017). At present, mobile robots are being used in these


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industries to perform repetitive and remedial tasks. Mobile robots perform these tasks efficiently and

allow workers to focus on more complex tasks which require a higher-level of focus and/or dexterity.

This helps to improve the overall operational efficiency in these industries (Grand View Research,

2014). While there are mobile robots in industry, they are not the same as restrictive industrial robots

which have been used in manufacturing for decades. Mobile robots, integrating a variety of sensors,

work in unknown environments, performing dynamic and varied tasks (Demetriou, 2011).

New Management and Controlling Technologies As has previously been discussed, consumers today are used to living their lives online; they

expect to be connected through every device possible at every moment of their lives. They expect

instant access to the most relevant information to their needs; they expect an abundance of choice,

next-day delivery and the ability to leave instant feedback. Companies who have not yet been

affected by digitisation and who have not adapted their service offering to respond to the needs of

the modern consumer, will be expected to change dramatically in this second wave. The consumers

of Generation C (born after 1990) have grown up within the peer-to-peer network model; as such,

they are more likely to buy products based on recommendations from friends rather than buying

products from established or well-known brands. Generation C consumers are involved in social

causes; they are advocates of causes, well-educated on a variety of issues and they acutely

entrenched in their social environments.

The impact of this on companies will be significant. Employers, HR professionals and job

coaches will have to revolutionise the way in which they manage their employees in the future. All

employees are also consumers, they also live their lives online and increasingly they expect to be

able to remain connected and to live their online lives when they are also in work. While this is true

of the current generation of workers to some extent, this will become even more prominent when

Generation C who are already fully adapted to the digital environment, enter into the labour market.

The following graph presents an overview of the daily online activity of a Generation C user

(Friedrich, Le Merle, Peterson, & Koster, 2011):

This graph gives us an insight into the range of media, devices and different applications that

a typical Generation C user will engage with on a daily basis.

Figure 1 – Typical activities of Generation C users (Adopted from (Friedrich, Roman; Koster, Alex; Le Merle, Matthew; Peterson, 2011))


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During the second wave of digitisation significant effort will also be dedicated to improving

the internal processes in companies. The digitisation of these internal processes will not only impact

on the customer, but it will also impact on the employee experience and on the way in which

companies manage their employees. Technology is making workplaces more collaborative, with

businesses frequently engaging both internal (employees) and external (free-lancers, customers)

partners to work together and share information in real time. Companies that operate in this digital

age understand the value of improving the employee experience by giving them the digital tools and

resources they need to work collaboratively, efficiently and flexibly, even working remotely if needs

be. These measures are made possible by advances in technology and they help to increase

employee motivation and engagement; which in turn, supports the employees to provide a superior

level of service to customers and clients, leading to business success.

As well as understanding how technology can be used to manage employees, businesses

also need to dedicate time and resources to managing their technology. Technology Management

is becoming increasingly important for industries where technological developments are progressing

quickly and are growing in complexity (Schuh & Kramer, 2015). Investing in Technology

Management is important for businesses so that they can allocate sufficient resources to managing

their technology which in turn will lead to their sustained economic growth and competitiveness.

Technology Management activities are important so that companies can keep up to date with

technological progresses and so that they can ensure a results or profit-orientated approach to

integrating technology into their business processes (Schuh & Kramer, 2015).


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Part IV. Impact of the economy’s digitalisation on professions

In this part the Guidelines, the most endangered professions are introduced and the

reasons for the high risk of disappearance are explained. In addition, some professions

that are expected to emerge in the coming decades are presented. The focused sectors

are: transportation and logistics, production and manufacturing, construction and

extraction, office and administrative support, sales and related services.

The waves of digitisation have led to significant changes in the labour market, in the

productive sectors and in the occupational structure. These changes bring with them the need for a

creative and adaptable workforce, able to adjust to the requirements of dynamic work schedules and

willing to learn and evolve through gaining new skills and qualifications throughout their life.

The increasing use of technology to perform work tasks that have traditionally been

performed by humans puts increasing pressure on the development of human skills difficult to

replicate by machines. Proximity and capacity for empathy in the relationship with the client / user

are examples of skills that can bring added value in the service area.

Some authors have predicted the emergence of new professions (Frey, 2014; Miner,

2012…). Predicting with precision which jobs will arise is a very complex task, for there are many

variables over which there is a high degree of uncertainty: recession, currency fluctuations, oil crisis,

revolutionary breakthrough, disruptive innovations, etc.

The expected changes in the job offer of the various job families2 go beyond the introduction

of automation, making this phenomenon complex and multifaceted and it is therefore important to

keep up with all technological changes in order to achieve greater preparation for these changes

(World Economic Forum, 2016).

Technological, socio-economic, geopolitical and demographic developments often point to a

brighter future for job creation, but many of these changes also present a major challenge for

governments, societies and individuals alike. The following table summarizes the drivers,

technological, demographic and socioeconomic, that are most significant for the changes that the

job families and occupations will face. These drivers will have an impact on the set of skills that will

be needed in the future in the occupations, as well as the location where the individuals will begin

their careers.

2 Job families are defined in this document as groups of occupations that are based on work performance, skills, education, training and even credentials (“Browse by Job Family,” n.d.).


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Table 1 - Drivers promoting the change in occupations. Adapted from (World Economic Forum, 2016)

Technological drivers Mobile internet and cloud technology

Mobile Internet enables a more efficient offer of services and opportunities that can increase productivity. The cloud enables a rapid dissemination of Internet-based service models.

Advances in computing power and Big Data

These advances will allow for the analysis of a huge amount of structured and unstructured data. These analyses will serve as a basis for intelligent systems in all highly specialized occupations requiring complex knowledge.

New energy supplies and technologies

New technologies in the field of renewable energies are shaping the global scenario in this sector as well as disrupting the major oil stakeholders, thus leading to geopolitical and environmental repercussions.

The Internet of Things

This technology will generate a large amount of data together with system and design patterns on a scale that was previously not possible.

Crowdsourcing, the sharing economy and peer-to-peer interaction

Technologies supporting these concepts allow organizations to access talent, promote mass production and leverage individual/family businesses.

Advanced robotics and autonomous transport

The work in production / manufacturing tasks developed by robots of high dexterity and intelligence turns out to be more convenient, accurate and inexpensive. The transport sector is undergoing changes with the introduction of autonomous vehicles.

Artificial intelligence and machine learning

This type of technology allows the automation of tasks with a cognitive dimension, and therefore, augmenting human intelligence.

Advanced manufacturing and 3D printing

This technology allows to increase productivity to levels never before seen. Technology such as 3D printing enables production adjusted to real time demand, creating improving supply chain and global networks.

Advanced materials, biotechnology and genomics

Advances in this type of technology bring many innovative industrial applications. Advances in genetics can have very large impacts in areas such as agriculture and medicine. Biotechnology, in turn, has repercussions on pharmaceuticals, plastics, and biofuels.

Demographic and socioeconomic drivers Changing work environments and flexible working arrangements

The new technologies are changing where the work is done, allowing it to be done remotely. This trend will lead to a decrease of the workforce in fixed functions. It will increase collaboration between workers located in different countries and the outsourcing for specific projects.

Rise of the middle class in emerging markets

The world economy is moving towards emerging countries, with Asia expected to house the majority of the global middle class by 2030.

Climate change, natural resource constraints and the transition to a greener economy

Climate change is one of the drivers of innovation. However, global economic growth leads to the search for natural resources and raw materials leading to a high extraction cost and the degradation of ecosystems.

Rising geopolitical volatility

Geopolitical volatility has implications for global trade and talent mobility, making some industries adapt faster (such as oil, gas, or even tourism).

New consumer concerns about ethical and privacy issues

New consumers are beginning to worry about issues that were previously not as relevant as environmental, ethical, and privacy and security issues. These new concerns begin to shape their choices in the marketplace.

Longevity and ageing societies

The trend is the greater aging of the population, leading to a larger number of people working after the age of 65. This aging in turn will create new opportunities for new products, services and business models due to the needs of this population.

Young demographics in emerging markets

Part of the developing world is now facing a large youth population growth, with the need to devise appropriate education and training systems for work occupations. Access to high-quality education will contribute to an increase in university education and to the global distribution of talent.

Women’s rising aspirations and economic power

The role of women has gained more prominence in workforce and schooling, as this is reflected in the importance gained in the economy (both as consumers and employees).


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Rapid urbanization Rapid urbanization of the population refers to the mass movement to cities thus creating mega cities (10 million or more people living in the city). These mega cities will bring many opportunities, but also many challenges.

In order to understand in greater depth the impact of the above drivers on today's professions,

and their potential to create new professions, it is important to look closely at some of the

technologies involved in the implied transformations.

Technologies that are changing the world It is difficult to foresee what really innovative tools and device will come out in the next ten

years (only ten years ago the development of smartphones was unpredictable), but there are many

technological innovations already on the market today that will have great effect on jobs or on job

skill needs.

Means of payment

The way consumers pay for goods and services will undergo a revolution in the coming years

(Grewal, Roggeveen, & Nordfalt, 2017; R. Meng & Gr, 2016). Apple Pay, Google Wallet, but also

PayPal and other payment forms via SMS are already available. In Seattle, Amazon has opened

AmazonGo, a store without cashiers. The customer just needs the Amazon Go app installed in the

smartphone to enter the store. Sensors on every product tell the system which products customers

are picking up, adding the cost of the item to the total value of purchases; after the customer leaves

the store, their Amazon account is charged. AmazonGo, is thus pushing up much further the

automated cashiers that can already be found in stores like Ikea.

Some of the services that traditionally require ticketing have been offering the possibility of

using electronic tickets. This is the case of flights, train travel, cinema and others. These changes

are transforming the check-in service, making it faster and easier for the customer.

Thus, electronic currency, quick payment cards, online accounts for payment of purchases

and other transformations to occur in the payment for products and services will change the way the

customer interacts with organizations, resulting in a reduction of jobs in the area of sales and service

offerings.

E-commerce

The concept of e-commerce emerged with the online stores and the possibility to order the

products online and wait for their arrival at home. Since that time, many changes have been

introduced. Customers began to be able to comment on product quality and delivery service, thereby

influencing other potential customers and putting pressure on companies to ensure the quality of

products and a good shopping experience (Stoddard, Dotson, & Das, 2015).

More recently platforms have emerged that compare service prices (Kayak, Momondo,

Expedia among others) offering the consumer the chance to find the best price. Large online

markets, like Amazon and eBay, support the global marketplace, allowing access to quality products

produced in any region of the world.

In order to maintain customer loyalty and attract new customers, online platforms today

integrate gamification dynamics that make the shopping experience more interactive and informed

(Stoddard et al., 2015). Some platforms also integrate crowdsourcing dynamics in order to access

the talent of individuals outside the organization for the design of new products. These individuals

become then clients of the products they have helped to create and influencers for businesses (Bal,

Weidner, Hanna, & Mills, 2017; P. T. Meng, Kumar, & Som, 2016).


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Technologies that enable these innovative dynamics are resulting in a reduced need for

physical stores as well as lower costs of production and logistics due to a reduction in permanent

staff needs.

OCR scanning and dematerialization

Documents scanning with OCR systems and automatic ‘reading’ is becoming more and more

efficient and many programs are coming out that are able to scan relevant numbers of invoices,

office documents, CVs as well as automatically store information in various databases. These

developments together with the increasing benefits of process dematerialization taking places in

many organizations will certainly have a big impact on employment in public and private

organizations, especially for low qualified jobs.

Automated phone systems that answer customers’ calls will certainly deeply change the role

of secretaries, office attendants and call centres. The dematerialization of businesses and supply

chains brings faster and more sustainable processes, reducing the environmental footprint of the

companies involved. However, this dematerialization also has a negative impact on jobs in logistics;

it reduces the need for packaging and transportation of products, document printing, and other

activities associated with the flow of products, which are often carried out by specialized companies

(Schmidt, 2013; Vendrell-Herrero, Bustinza, Parry, & Georgantzis, 2017).

Electric and autonomous cars

Another important innovation is related to the increasing development of electric cars and

means of transport for it will influence in the future role and need of patrol stations. This industry has

already gone through a process of transformation and of automation that has strongly reduced the

need for employees. As more and more cars are no longer needing fossil fuel, an increasing number

of places where cars can be recharged in cities will emerge (in addition to own garages). Therefore

petrol stations will lose their centrality in developed societies (Delucchi et al., 2013).

The autonomous vehicles are already a reality in developed countries and are being used for

by individuals and businesses. These vehicles will allow better traffic management, enhanced

mobility of people with disabilities, reduction of toxic emissions by the potential to implement sharing

services and decrease of the number of car accidents. Cars will become connected (Coppola,

Morisio, & Torino, 2016; Mai, Vehicles, & Mai, 2015), this meaning that they will access the Internet,

communicate with smart devices, other cars and road infrastructures, and will collect and process

real-time data from multiple sources.

These car innovations imply that in the future there will be less need for professional drivers,

maintenance of cars will require sophisticated technological skills and the automotive industry will

have to reinvent itself to take advantage of the opportunities that connected cars open to the delivery

of innovative online services.

Drones impact on transportation of goods

Autonomous package delivery using flying drones will transform the way goods are delivered

both in B2B and B2C markets (Vlahovic, Knezevic, & Sabolic, n.d.). Amazon has already

experimented goods delivery using drones; their large-scale use has been slowed down by flight

permissions and outdated legislation but surely this will be solved in a near future.

Companies such as UPS, DHL, Deutsche Post are also interested in using drones and

working to make their use legal and safe. This innovative approach to distribution will allow to

overcome geographical limitations and reach consumers in geographically hard to reach places.

Traditional delivery services will become comparatively slower and more limited, therefore,


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they have to be reinvented in order to survive and reduce the costs of job losses.

Photography and printing

Another sector that has been recently radically changed is photography thanks to the

explosion of smart phone cameras, thus changing not only the role of professional photographers

but also of picture printing. The number of non-professional, high quality pictures is huge and many

are shared on the internet to be used by others, sometimes at no cost. This has forced the industry

to transform by promoting the development of creativity and talent of the photographers. However

this is a sector in serious danger of disappearing since the talent is not a privilege of only the

professionals and the technology available is more and more sophisticated and cheap.

Regarding the printing industry, 3D printing is already promising a revolution in several

sectors. In medicine it is expected that in a near future organs can be produced to be implemented

in the human body without the risk of rejection. In construction, 3D printing is allowing to create

models to test innovative construction techniques; it will also be involved in the production of

architectural components therefore contributing to shorten lead times and to reduce material’s usage

(Kothman & Faber, 2016). This technology will revolutionize a wide range of industries and enable

very costly services and processes today to be accessible to a large number of individuals.

But the potential of printing is not limited to 3D. 4D printing begins to emerge with the promise

of several benefits (Khoo et al., 2015). 4D printing is the impression of smart materials that react to

external stimuli by changing their shape and / or texture. These materials are particularly interesting

for the production of bioprinted structures, solar cells and self-assembling shapes. The applications

of these intelligent structures are countless and will translate into profound changes in our way of

life.

Augmented reality, 360° and 3D pictures and videos

Augmented and virtual reality, 360° and 3D pictures and videos are at the frontiers of new

technologies, yet not completely exploited. These technologies may become very important for

industries like tourism and entertainment. Travel agents for example, face ferocious competition from

online companies such as Booking, Expedia, Trivago, and others. 360° and 3D pictures and video

may bring the users back to the travel agencies that are able to show a more modern approach to

the market, using these technologies to create virtual traveling experiences. However, augmented

reality may in some cases reduce the need for traditional tourist guides.

Museums and galleries will also benefit from adopting these technologies to immerse visitors

in the historical and art environments associated with the exhibits. This immersion may be

accompanied by smells and sensations of touch that will make of these true sensory visits to the

past or aesthetic worlds.

In fact, online presence will become a sensory experience in itself and the applications are

innumerable. Online shopping experience, for example, can be greatly improved by these

technologies since they will allow to enjoy the smell and texture of the products before deciding

which to buy.

Internet of things

Another important group of innovative technologies worth to be emphasized in this document

are grouped under the general concept of Internet of Things (IoT). In a near future, all home devices

will be connected to the web and communicate with other devices and other systems. In this way,

activities such as buying food will become easier. Sensors placed in the refrigerator or storeroom

will issue purchase alerts or even make online purchases of the products that are running short on


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the shelves; the alarm clock will ring earlier if there is traffic, and the medicine box will remind us to

take the daily medicine. In the industry, sensors together with specific applications, will inform store

managers the exact quantity of each stored product in real time and order immediately new ones

when needed.

In this way, IoT will reduce the need for a large number of low qualified jobs and will increase

the need for creative and technological skills in jobs that deal with the development and maintenance

of devices.

The various technologies are their applications, explicitly or implicitly addressed in this

section, will do away with many occupations and bring out others that require more sophisticated

skills. The following section describes occupations for which the greatest impact is predicted.

Occupations most impacted by the Digital Economy In a document that is intended to be informative and easy to consult, it is not possible to

address all the expected transformations for all job families and occupations listed in ISCO-08,

presented in Part II of this document. Thus, we chose the job families and occupations most cited in

the literature as a starting point for the reflection about the impact of the digital economy on the

labour market.

Architecture and Engineering Architecture and Engineering is a growing job family. 3D printing, sustainable production and

robotics as labour force are seen as potentially driving employment growth. This is because there is

a need for skilled technicians and specialists to create and manage automated production resources

and systems, making industries highly sophisticated workplaces (World Economic Forum, 2016).

Growth is expected in occupations of Architecture and Engineering, particularly in the

Information and Communication Technology, Energy and Mobility sectors, increasing the demand

for electrotechnology engineers, architects and surveyors as well as energy, petroleum, industrial

and production engineers. In turn, in the Consumer sector this job family presents growing

occupations, such as (World Economic Forum, 2016):

• Biochemical Engineers – focus the development of usable and tangible products using

knowledge in biology, chemistry or engineering. These professionals will seek solutions

for problems related to materials, systems or processes that interact with humans, plants,

animals, microorganisms or biological materials.

• Materials Engineers – evaluate materials and develop machines and processes with

the objective of producing materials for use in products with complex specifications and

high-level performance.

• Mechanical Engineers - specialize in performing engineering tasks for the planning and

design of tools, engines, machines and other equipment. They also participate in the

supervision, installation, operation, maintenance and repair of equipment (centralized

heat, gas, water and steam systems).

Business and Service Operations

It is expected that this job family will remain stable in the next decade. However, in the health

and infrastructure sectors it is expected an increase in the complexity of the skills required for

occupations such as (World Economic Forum, 2016):

• Regulatory and government relations specialists – these professionals are usually

employed by large organizations to define policies in coordination with government


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agencies and to promote the organizational image with the media. In the age of open

government and social media, these professionals will need to develop digital literacy and

data science skills (“Government Affairs Manager: Job Description, Outlook and Duties,”

n.d., “Government Relations Jobs - Search Government Relations Job Listings |

Monster,” n.d.);

• Healthcare Associate professionals – perform technical support functions in a variety

of health professions, such as the management of emergency first aid services,

assembling, maintenance and repair. They will need to support increasingly complex

devices and robots (Office for National Statistics, 2010).

• Sales and marketing professionals – with the expansion of e- and m-commerce and

the monitoring of social networks in order to anticipate and create consumer needs, these

professionals will increasingly use sophisticated analytical tools and tools for online

interaction with customers. (“Marketing and Sales | Career and Professional

Development | Wake Forest University,” n.d.).

• Human resources specialists – perform highly specialized tasks in the human

resources area, including selection, recruitment and placement of employees. They will

need to be specialists in social media tools that allow for the location of talents and

specialized skills. Crowdsourcing is also becoming a tool to reach external knowledge

and workforce (“O*NET OnLine,” n.d.).

• Accountants and auditors – examine, analyse and interpret electronic accounting

records in order to prepare financial statements. Advise, verify and evaluate statements

prepared by others, as well as advise and install cost systems, financial and budgetary

data. Big data tools will become key tools to perform the above tasks. Robots will

automate some of the tasks related with interpreting data and generating insights

(“O*NET OnLine,” n.d.).

• Investment funds managers – plan, direct or coordinate investment strategies or

operations for a large set of liquid assets that are provided by individual / institutional

investors. These activities will be executed with the support of intelligent systems capable

of analysing large amounts of structured and unstructured data to produce accurate

suggestions for clients.

Computation and Mathematics

The job family Computation and Mathematics, according to the report of the Word Economic

Forum, will see a high growth in several occupations and the emergence of new ones. This strong

growth is driven by advances in new technologies; drivers such as rapid urbanization in developing

countries, geopolitical volatility and privacy issues contribute to this growth as well (World Economic

Forum, 2016).

Occupations as data analyst, developer of software and applications are anticipated as

having a significant growth, not only in the technology and communications sector, but also in other

industries such as Financial Services & Investors, Media, Entertainment and Information, Mobility

and Professional Services. These sectors will deal with a growing amount of data that requires

efficient and fast analyses.

These impacted and emerging occupations include (World Economic Forum, 2016):

• Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians – develop and apply updated actuarial,

mathematics and statistics techniques in order to solve problems in various fields. Intelligent


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systems will automate several of the tasks performed in these occupations (“Actuaries,

Mathematicians and Statisticians | Job Outlook,” n.d.).

• Geospatial Information Scientists and Technologists – research and develop geospatial

technologies. Advanced visualization tools will have a big impact in these occupations

(“O*NET OnLine,” n.d.), allowing to visualize geographic and social patterns in a more

detailed way. 3D visualizations will promote better understandings of situations, providing a

more effective support to complex decisions.

• Database and Security Analysts – design, develop, control maintain and support the

performance and security of IT systems and infrastructures. Cybersecurity and sophisticated

traffic monitoring tools will become increasingly used (“Database and network professionals

| World Of Work | Career information | International ISCO Career Standards,” n.d.). The ability

to operate sophisticated systems and tools to protect data will be increasingly valued

(“O*NET OnLine,” n.d.).

Management

While the Management job family will likely keep mostly stable in the next years, changes are

expected in the energy and media sectors, namely (World Economic Forum, 2016):

• Managing Directors and Chief Executives – formulate and revise policies and also plan,

coordinate and evaluate the general activities of organizations with the support of other

managers. The digital transformation will bring the need for skills to deal with global markets

and big data generated by worldwide businesses (“ILO,” n.d.);

• General and Operations Managers – plan, direct or coordinate the operations of both

private and public companies. Formulating policies, managing day-to-day operations and

planning the use of both human and material resources are some of the duties and

responsibilities of these occupations. The ability to coordinate the operations in complex

value chains using intelligent systems, collaboration tools and advanced visualization tools

will be increasingly important, especially if coupled with the ability to communicate in diverse

cultures and legal systems (“O*NET OnLine,” n.d.);

• Business services and administration managers – the digital economy will introduce

significant changes in the skills that these professionals need to develop since most of their

activity will be related to e- and m-business (Classification of Occupations, 2008);

• Organisational Development Specialists – analyze organizational structures,

responsibilities, teamwork, business and operational procedures and work processes in

order to create efficient work methods. The digital technologies will allow professionals to

introduce profound changes in organizational structures such as infrastructures, processes

and routines, communication channels and even power balances. Sensors and other

technologies will allow the gathering of rich data on organizational operations and

communication that will boost the emergence of innovative organizational designs.

(“Organizational Development Specialist Job Description | Salary.com,” n.d.).

Sales and Related Occupations The Sales and Related Occupations job family will experience job growth due to a continuous

increase in online shopping and the need to evaluate customer preferences through Big Data

applications, making the purchase more personalized and promoting engaging customer

experiences (World Economic Forum, 2016). Other factors for this increase in employment include

the growth of middle classes in emerging markets, changes in consumer values and an increase in


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women's economic power (World Economic Forum, 2016). The growth sectors are the information

and communication technologies and the media, in occupations such as telemarketers, sales

representatives, wholesale technicians, cashiers and ticket clerks, door-to-door sales workers and

street vendors (World Economic Forum, 2016).

Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports and Media

The job family Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports and Media has grown more geared

towards the arts and design in emerging occupations such as commercial and industrial designers.

This type of occupations focuses on the development and design of manufactured products, such

as household appliances and children's toys. The combination of artistic talent with an ability to

research into the usefulness of the product, marketing and materials will lead to the creation of

products with more functional and attractive designs (“O*NET OnLine,” n.d.). This growth is

combined with the introduction of computer science and mathematics in the training of professionals,

thus promoting the digital transformation (World Economic Forum, 2016).

The creative industry is already in a prominent position, and is considered one of the most

dynamic sectors in the global economy, providing significant growth opportunities in developing

countries. However, it will be necessary to invest in an education system that promotes

interdisciplinary, creativity and innovation as well as a strong commitment to the learning in the

science, technology, engineering and mathematics areas. Video game, IT and software companies

are already facing shortages of skills in these areas today (Pompa, 2015).

Transport and Material Moving

The job family Transport and Material Moving shows a trend towards a growth in occupations

such as supply chain and logistics specialists and transportation attendants and analysts.

This demand is driven by the growth of the middle classes in emerging markets and the growing

globalization of the economy.

• Supply chain and logistics specialists – ensure the good performance of the supply chain,

from the delivery of products to customer support. Functions such as inventory control, order

control, forecasting of demand, and the control and management of the warehouse team are

part of this occupation. (“Supply Chain Specialist Job Description | JobHero,” n.d.). E-supply

chains, warehouse robots and delivery drones will increase the need for sophisticated

technological skills.

• Transportation attendants and analysts – provide services that promote road safety and

improve transport efficiency, reducing costs and minimizing the impact on the environment.

Data analysis skills to develop effective solutions for traffic flows, accidents, road

infrastructure, air quality, etc. will be required. (“O*NET Resource Center - Overview,” n.d.)

(“Transportation Analyst Occupation,” n.d.). The large-scale use of autonomous vehicles will

bring new challenges to the tasks performed by these professionals.


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Part V. New labour models and jobs This part the Guidelines explores the innovative labour models together with the

emerging skills and competencies they require. The impact of those models on worker

voice and power is described. Emerging discussions on how to regulate and measure the

new models are presented.

The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions

(Eurofound), in 2015, listed 9 new forms of employment.

Figure 2 - Classification of nine new forms of employment (Adopted from (Mandl, Curtarelli, Riso, Vargas, & Gerogiannis, 2015))

The employee sharing model implies that the worker is employed by various employers

and, on a rotational basis, works within different organizations. In this way organizations fulfil their

need for a highly skilled professional and the worker gets permanent full-time employment.

In job sharing, the employer hires two or more part-time workers to jointly perform the

activities of a full-time position. In this way the employer reduces the dependency from one single

worker and the worker is allowed a part-time job.

Interim management refers to the temporary hiring of highly skilled experts that will manage

a project team or solve a specific problem. In this way, the organization accesses external

management skills highly paid for a limited period of time.

The causal work is a form of employment in which the worker is called on demand by the

employer.

More and more organizations require to ICT-based mobile work, where workers can do their

job from any place at any time, as long as he/she has the requited technologies to perform the tasks.

Voucher-based work refers a form of employment in which the services are paid with a

voucher purchased from an authorised organisation that covers both pay and social security

contributions.

When a self-employed individual works for a large number of clients in small scale jobs for

each of them, the individual is doing portfolio work according to the Eurofound classification.


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Crowd employment refers work done in response to open calls to perform specific tasks

(innovation, creativity tasks, micro tasks) placed on an online platform that matches skill seekers

with contributors. These platforms form “virtual clouds” of workers motivated to answer the open

calls that fit their perceived skills.

Collaborative employment is a form of employment in which freelancers, self-employed or

micro enterprises, cooperate in some way to overcome limitations of size and professional isolation.

Some of these forms of employment have only become possible because of the digitization

of the economy, others are developments of more traditional forms of employment made possible

by sophisticated technology available at low cost.

Using innovative models of employment or more traditional formats, it seems certain that in

the decades to come new occupations will emerge as a response to the challenges faced by mankind

and the technologies that have transformed the world into a global village (Valenduc & Vendramin,

2016). In the next section are presented some of the new occupations most referred by work futurists.

Emerging occupations With the social, economic and technological transformations associated to the gradual

implementation of the digital economy, several authors have been proposing new families of

occupations (Binsfeld, Nico; Whalley, Jason; Pugalis, 2016; Spiezia, View, & Spiezia, 2016). Below

is a list of job families and respective new occupations earning the highest consensus among

specialists (listed below in alphabetic order of job family).

Agriculture

• Urban farmers: This profession will emerge as a way to reduce costs with the shipping and

transport of food. Integrated gardens are already emerging in the city as well as specially

built buildings for this purpose.

• Plant- and tree-jackers: specialists in the manipulation of trees and plants, including genetic,

growth, texture and other kinds of manipulations. This kind of manipulations may be useful

to meet consumer preferences and to develop more resilient plants to climate changes.

• Crop robots technicians: robots will monitor water levels and soil types; they will collect data

that can be stored and analysed to help farmers making decisions about harvesting,

replanting and pesticide use. Maintaining these robots and adjusting them to the different

needs of crops will require specialized technicians.

Economy

• Alternative money bankers: the growth of online transactions will increase the demand for

virtual money (Bitcoin, Etherium, Litecoin, Ripple, Bitcoin Cash, Eos, Ripple, etc.) and for

banks to set up such money.

• Future currency speculators: buy and sell virtual currencies to profit from fluctuations in the

value of those currencies.

• Jobs of the future specialist/recruiter: due to the fast change in the labour market and

emerging advanced technologies, experts in anticipating changes in the professions /

emergence of new professions and in identifying individuals with the appropriate profile for

positions that are not yet being offered may become important labour market players (“10

New Jobs People Will Have by the Year 2030,” n.d.).


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• Productivity counselors: specialists in time and well-being management in a hyper connected

society with very low opportunities for privacy (“10 New Jobs People Will Have by the Year

2030,” n.d.).

Education

• Dismantlers of professions: will be specialized in deep transformations, or even the

elimination of industries, in the less disruptive form possible. One of the areas of activity will

be in higher education. With the increase of knowledge sharing and the increase of online

courses, the trend will be to migrate from conventional education to a more dynamic model.

Infrastructure for teaching content will no longer be needed and its use will have to be

rethought. Online learning will also need to be structured in a way that allows for virtual forms

of socialization and mobility.

• One-to-one learning specialists: artificial intelligence and unlimited access to powerful cloud

computing resources will support the emergence of devices able to create learning materials

that are tailored to the needs, aspirations and learning styles of each individual student.

Device-embedded cameras and machine vision systems will analyze learners' facial

expressions and body language to determine how engaged and invested they are in the

learning process, how difficult they are finding a particular topic, and to detect early signs of

learning disabilities. One-to-one learning specialists will be needed to guide the meta-

learning process that allows for the student to define learning needs and aspirations; to

overcome learning difficulties the intervention of specialists in different areas such as

psychology, neurosciences, pedagogy and son on will be required.

Engineering/Technology

• 3D/4D printing engineers: A profession specializing in the handling of 3D/4D printing

technologies for service delivery and the creation of innovative artefacts.

• Global systems designers: in present globalized information systems, designers will be

needed to build and manage these systems; their expertise will greatly influence global

policies (security, work design and safety, HR management).

• Drone operators: drones will be used to deliver multiple products and for community functions

such as garbage collection or traffic monitoring. Skilled traders will be highly sought after to

meet these needs.

• Space-based energy systems designers and engineers: the time will come when Earth's

natural resources will no longer be explored so deeply. New ways of capturing and producing

energy will emerge, namely by exploiting resources available outside the planet.

• Microbial balance experts: concerns with dangerous bacterial agents have been increasing

because of new forms of bacteria and the trend for parents to avoid vaccination. Specialists

in the evaluation of the health impact of bacteria and ways pandemics will evolve are

increasingly needed (“10 New Jobs People Will Have by the Year 2030,” n.d., “8 New Jobs

People Will Have In 2025,” n.d.).

• Privacy consultant: the increase in personal information sharing in a progressively more

virtualized world will bring about the need for specialists in personal data protection and

online reputation development.


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Environment

• Specialists in reversing extinctions: people capable of making extinct species reappear from

genetic material.

• Experts in environmental recovery: professionals able to apply innovative technology for, for

example, clean the atmosphere of human pollution and reduce the temperature of the earth.

• Climate change specialists: experts in developing and applying techniques and technologies

to monitor and control climate change, thus ensuring the future of the human species.

Health

• Nano-doctors: physicians specializing in disease detection, drug development and

monitoring the body from the inside.

• Service providers for octogenarians: the growing of the average life expectancy will increase

the number of people more than 80 years old. This group of people will create demand for

goods and services that currently do not exist in the market. These goods and services will

not all be in the healthcare sector since people will reach that age still active.

• Amnesia surgeons: doctors able to remove bad memories or alter rooted behaviors.

• Organ / body parts manufacturers: experts in using innovative technology to manufacture

healthy organs from scratch that can be used in humans.

• Big data doctor: health care will be offered based on the patient's health record as well as

lifestyle information collected automatically. Doctors will need skills to effectively use big data

systems and advanced information visualization tools (“10 New Jobs People Will Have by

the Year 2030,” n.d.).

The table below summarizes all foreseen occupations emerging in the job families presented

above.

Table 2 – Summary of the foreseen occupations

Job Family New Occupations

Agriculture Urban Farmers

Plant- and Tree-Jackers

Crop Robots’ technicians

Economy Alternative money bankers

Future currency speculator

Jobs of the future specialist/recruiter

Productivity counselors

Dismantlers of professions

One-to-one learning specialists

Engineering / Technology

3D/4D printing specialists

Global systems designers

Drone operators

Space-based energy systems designers and engineers

Microbial balance experts

Privacy consultant


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Job Family New Occupations

Environment Specialists in reversing extinctions

Experts in environmental recovery

Climate change specialists

Health Nano-doctors

Service providers for octogenarians

Amnesia surgeons

Organ / body parts manufacturers

Big data doctor


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Part VI. Emerging skills and competencies for Work 4.0 The skills and competencies for Work 4.0 are described in this part of the Guidelines.

Challenges in developing them through specific training programmes are identified.

While it is difficult to accurately predict the occupations that will emerge in the near future,

the key competencies for the digital economy are easy to identify. In an increasingly globalized and

technological world, in urban contexts of high population density, where virtual life experience

competes with the physical one, creativity, resilience and social intelligence are skills as important

as skills in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM).

The future of employment: developing future-proof skills The transformations expected by automation of the industrial processes, services and channels

of human interaction emphasize the importance of strictly human skills and which are very difficult

to automate. The experts have been highlighting several of these skills (Popovic & Tomas, 2009;

Willyerd, 2016), namely:

• Sense-making skills, which translate into the human capacity to co-create meaning and

construct social realities that enhance collective well-being. Knowledge entrepreneurship and

leadership are examples of skills that fall into this category. Moreover, the digital economy

demands motivated, self-reliant individuals who are capable of setting up their own goals,

schedules, workloads and education in a way that shortens the skill gaps in the organization

and empowers the worker to define meaningful careers.

• Social intelligence skills correspond to the human capacity to empathically connect with

other people, in order to produce effective interactions and to motivate positive reactions.

These competencies are particularly relevant in services where effective response depends

on the quality of communication. Socially intelligent workers are able to quickly assess the

emotions of those around them and adapt their words, tone and gestures accordingly. Social

intelligence skills are of central importance to collaboration aiming at solving complex

problems that require multidisciplinary knowledge. They are also important for global

businesses and teams.

• Cognitive load management focuses on the ability to filter information by importance and

also understand how to maximize cognitive functioning using a variety of tools and

techniques. The next generation of workers will develop their own techniques to manage

problems of cognitive overload such as social filtering - ranking, tagging, etc. or add

information as a way to project their own image or the image of the organization.

• Novel and adaptive thinking that translates into the ability to adjust thinking to the specific

circumstances of the moment and find quick solutions that go beyond what is obvious,

possibly transformational enhancers that take the best advantage of windows of opportunity.

The professions linked to technological innovation and customer service will greatly benefit

from this type of skills. This category of skills includes those related to organizational and

work engineering that give the worker the ability to make adjustments to her/his work

environment in order to enhance performance. The learning of strategies for adjustment and

adaptation are becoming increasingly important to help navigating a complex world

undergoing constant change.

• Cross-cultural skills integrate multi-cultural communication skills. In a global world, work

will no longer depend on the geographical proximity between the employer and the employee,


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nor between the company and its customers. For these relationships to be efficient, the

worker will need to master multiple languages and a wide range of cultural meanings.

Workers will need to be able to identify and communicate common insights such as shared

goals, priorities and values to build strong professional/commercial relationships and work

effectively together. These skills are also important for teams in the same geographic space.

The growing migratory movements and international businesses give rise to work teams of

great cultural, religious, gender and linguistic diversity. Being able to cooperate in this context

of great diversity will add value to the worker of the future.

• Transdisciplinary skills allow to understand the complex situations from multiple scientific

perspectives. Certain professions linked to innovation and complex problem solving (global

warming, terrorism, aging populations) will require experts in a number of multidisciplinary

fields as well as interdisciplinary communication skills. Workers will have to develop deep

understanding of at least one field, while having the capacity to comprehend a broad range

of disciplines. Furthermore, the multi–disciplinary mix of science, engineering and arts is of

utmost importance for creative businesses that the digital economy requires.

• Design mindset is the ability to define and develop tasks and work processes for desired

outcomes. Workers will be able to shape their working environments in order to leverage

cognition. Work environments have an impact on the brain so next generation of workers

must be able to recognize those impacts and to make adjustments that favour the

accomplishment of their tasks. The design mindset includes considering the arts as a

valuable component of education.

• Computational thinking skills that include statistical and programming skills required to

develop analytical and visualization technologies for a vast amount of structured and

unstructured data. Workers will increasingly need to be able to turn data into relevant and

useful insights that can increase productivity and lead to further innovation. They need to

understand the strengths and limitations of models used to identify patterns in the available

data and how well those models support business goals and strategies. Workers must also

be able to effectively react in the absence of data and recognize what that absence is

indicating. Furthermore, simulations will be used to support negotiations and decision-making

in organizations. The ability to create/identify useful simulation tools and to interpret results

of simulations will be very important skills.

• New-media literacy which refers to the ability to critically evaluate new communication

technologies and apply them in a way that makes communication with co-workers,

customers, service users and others, more effective. More than recognizing the risks of a

hyper-connected society, it is important to be able to adopt and develop more effective

strategies to strengthen the security online presence. Improving online reputation,

implementing trust mechanisms and distinguishing credible information from rumors will be

increasingly sought after skills. Furthermore, the ability to produce content to leverage these

new media for persuasive communication will be highly valued.

• Virtual collaboration skills are important to work in groups through virtual platforms that

enable collaboration between geographically dispersed workers. Virtual collaboration

requires specific communication skills such as the ability to interpret emotion in texts,

effective articulation of thoughts, and minimization of uncertainty associated with waiting for

an important feedback. In virtual environments, access to facial expressions and information

about the activity of the interlocutor outside the moments of interaction may be minimal. This

limitation can cause communication problems with negative impact on the motivation to


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collaborate. Moreover, future workers should be comfortable with the use of game strategies

to motivate online work as well as the use of avatars in virtual work environments.

Digitisation and the fourth industrial revolution require the successful acquisition of

appropriate skills. This can only be achieved by restructuring and modernizing school curricula,

especially in the fields of informatics, logic, creative thinking, problem solving, project work and team

work. This requires a change at all levels of education, including formal and non-formal forms of

learning, of education models for work, and the integration with the economy and government.

Overcoming the traditional silos of the scientific disciplines that characterize most of today's

education is a huge challenge that must be tackled quickly. Innovative initiatives in this field are

increasingly urgent, particularly if we take into account that the education sector will soon undergo a

major transformation due to the introduction of robots. These robots will allow aggregating high

quality content according to the student's specific needs in a one-to-one learning approach.

The future of employment: in depth exploring core skills

The changes in the working requirements connected to the emergence of computers call for

bigger flexibility also within jobs. There is a big call for a new skillset needed to perform jobs in

cooperation with technologies and this skillset requires continuous adaptation. Workers also need to

engage in informal learning and continuous lifelong learning. It is essential to create a learning

culture in the company, so that the employees are ready to adapt to the still emerging requirements

of innovative technology. Furthermore, our complex and rapidly evolving world today requires

exploring challenges from a wide array of disciplines.

In the 20th century, after the World War II, there was a big boost in research. Many scientific

disciplines started to flourish, with a lot of new insights, knowledge and depths. Specialization was

achieved by studying one discipline and focus a scientific topic thoroughly and deeply. This effort

leads to a narrow and deep knowledge, thus becoming a first-rate specialist in a very specific topic.

This is particularly important in a stable context, where specialists collaborate to solve well-defined

problems. However, the new millennium is struggling with continuously emerging society problems,

which are too complex to be solved from one specific discipline standpoint. These problems, such

as overpopulation, global warming, epidemics or sustainability need people who can reconnect the

existing fragmented knowledge and wisdom in a way that promotes innovative interdisciplinary

solutions. As Karl Popper (apud (National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, & Medicine, 2005))

said: “We are not students of some subject matter, but students of problems. And problems may cut

right across the borders of any subject matter or discipline.”

Interdisciplinary kills of future workers

The jobs, which are not likely to be replaced by computers in the near future, are the ones

that offer unique solutions to complex problems. The future lies in holistic approaches to problem

solving.

One approach to encourage interdisciplinary is to form teams of experts in various scientific

disciplines cooperating to solve a complex problem. These teams would require also people who

are talented in crossing the disciplinary borders and connecting the experts from different fields.

These team members would be able to speak the language of several disciplines while not being an

expert in any of them. These would be the team members with interdisciplinary skills.

The alternative approach would be to form a work team of T-shaped specialist, people who

has a deep knowledge in one discipline and also can reach into other disciplines and speak their


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languages. These specialists will be able to move between the detailed understanding of specific

aspects of a solution and the broader understanding of it.

In the future workers will naturally develop interdisciplinary skills. Firstly, extended lifespan

and longer working years suggest that people will execute tasks requiring knowledge in different

disciplines during their careers. Therefore, they will learn diverse knowledge and skills, which they

will be able to combine in future jobs. Secondly, technology will continue evolvig fast redering

solutions obsolete at a fast pace. Projects are likely to last 2 – 3 years maximum, which calls for

bigger flexibility and ability to acquire new knowledge and skills in different disciplines. Over time,

and as they evolve in their career, workers combine the acquired knowledge and skills developed

until the interdisciplinary approach to problems / solutions becomes the natural way of working.

Skills that are deeply connected to interdisciplinary approaches include: (1) critical thinking

required to effectively evaluate new ideas, select the best ones and modify them if necessary; (2)

synthetic thinking (as opposed to analytical thinking) allowing for the consolidation of new concepts

and ideas by combining insights acquired from various perspectives; (3) creativity to see the

unexpected and develop out-of-the-box solutions; (4) innovative thinking to be able to successfully

implement creative ideas; (5) communication skills effectivelly exchange insights and translate

scientific knowledge to stakeholders; (6) practical intelligence allowing the application of complex

knowledge in the development of useful solutions; and (7) willingness to push boundaries and

exploring uncharted terrain in the owns areas of expertise or in other ones.

Social Intelligence

Social intelligence allows for instant assess of situations and our position in relation to them

so adequated resposes are generated. In recent years, social intelligence became a hot topic, both

to improve individual life and work conditions.

Thorndike defined social intelligence in the 1920s. He defined it as "the ability to understand

and control men and women." According to this author, these are the skills that we all need for good

thrive in the world. Social skills are then defined as "prudent behavior in interpersonal relationships."

Or, in other words, how to manage our emotions and reactions in different social situations

(Thorndike, 1920 apud (Goleman, 2010)).

Social interactions play an important role in the neuroplastic transformation of the brain.

Constantly recurring experiences have a strengthening effect on the number of neurons and

synapses between them. They thus form a certain neural network, leading to the gradual

transformation of our brain. This means that relationships, good or bad, have a long lasting effect on

our brain and therefore, on how we understand ourselves in relation to others.

Social intelligence consists of two basic skills: social awareness and social skills. Social

intelligent people are able to establish new relationships, replace unconscious responsiveness by

conscious responsiveness and control negative feelings and transforming them into positive ones.

Social intelligence requires the ability to reconcile with fellow humans, anticipate their and one's own

reactions, and anticipate possible consequences.

Social Intelligence integrates three dimensions: Emotional Intelligence, Mindset and

Behavioural Style.


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Figure 3 - Dimensions of social intelligence (Adopted from (“Social Intelligence | How To Improve Social Intelligence,” n.d.))

Together, these three dimensions enable workers to have successful careers, benefiting from

the organizational resources available and constructively contributing to increase them thus ensuring

the success of other organizational members. In this way, workers contribute to the success of the

organization and to the creation of enriching work environments.

In the report Social Intelligence and The Next Generation (Lau, 2016), the author emphasizes

the growing importance companies are giving to social skills by supporting the careers of socially

intelligent workers and offering them higher salaries. Therefore, it is important that the education

system promotes the development of social skills such as verbal communication of understandings

and results, collaboration in teams, knowledge entrepreneurship, authonomy, flexibility, empathy

and effective time management.

Creative Intelligence Creativity has several dimensions and shapes. It can not be reduced only to the creation of

new inventions, products; it is the ability to expand conceptual horizons and rising above the usual

way of reasoning. Creativity is fed by art and culture.

Creativity is the most valued commodity of the digital economy. Creative thinking can not be

taught at a school, college or university. Creative thinking can not be scored or tested as other skills

can be. Creativity is nurtured by diversity of life experiences and environments where preconceptions

can be challenged freely. Creativity requires information and opportunities to experience with

informaton. Creativity requires tolerance to errors.

The following five competencies can be found studying the habits and mindsets of the world’s

most creative people:

1. Knowledge Mining – creative people diligentely study what came before, mashing-up

seemingly unrelated fields or bodies of knowledge; they are aware of their own knowledge

and skills in order to forge connections with the novelty. Creative people nurture

environments and situations that potentiate the connection of past experience, search for

meaning and may find themselves in conceptual realities not easily accessible by others.


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2. Framing – interpreting the world through specific, varied lenses. Creative people are able to

free themselves from established understandings, engage with other people and activities in

order to complement their understandings, and imagine beyond what society accepts as

possible.

3. Playing – Learning and experimenting is seen as fun not an obligation. Failures are seen as

important learning moments and used to redirect thinking and action.

4. Making – creative people need to create prototypes that test the validity of the new concepts

and understandings. They enjoy to actually see the products of their imagination.

5. Pivoting – scaling from inspiration to production. Not all creative peole wish to engage in

developing commercial products and services from their prototypes so an innovation process

needs to promote collaboration between creative workers, implementers, marketers and

sellers.

Cross-functional skills

Cross functional skills are developed by workers interested in learning how to perform

different tasks in the organization. This has been traditionally developed in task rotation strategies

where workers are required to work in different departments and other functional units in the

organization.

Nowadays, these skills are proactively developed by workers that wish to create better

employment opportunities for themselves. The idea is to understand as much as possible of other

functions in organizations so the worker is able to propose new arrangements and set new

collaborations that improve his/her performance as well as the performance of others. This brings

various advantages: (1) empowers the worker to communicate with workers in other functional units

and influence their action; (2) enables the worker to better integrate her/his work with the work of

others; (3) supports effective leadership because challenges that others face are better understood

and the setting of goals becomes more realistic; (4) increases the chances of career advancement

as the worker becomes known to more people and is recognized as able to intervene in various

activities relevant to the business.

The development of cross-functional skills requires flexibility to learn different knowledge and

routines, and social intelligence to be seen as a linking point in the organization and not as someone

who wants to intrude on tasks that are not her/his.


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Part VII. Towards a fairer workplace: the foreseen challenges In this part of the Guidelines, the ethics of new labour models are explored. The role of

human beings in professions that will be increasingly computerized will be discussed.

Also the short-term challenges of training the present workforce in order to develop future-

proof skills will be addressed.

Although the Osborne and Frey (Frey & Osborne, 2017) study predicted for the US that up

to 47% of current jobs would be extinguished in the coming years (without indicating a more detailed

time frame), newer studies, especially from European researchers, come to less pessimistic

conclusions. However, they all indicate that major shifts in the labour market will occur.

The great risk of job termination or automation is not only in the industry, but also in the

service and administration professions. However, new technologies create new jobs. Specific

education will become necessary to develop new skills and competences of workers, both young

and senior people. It will also be necessary to adapt the education system and the flow of knowledge

and to support all opportunities for collaborative innovation between different actors linked by

common goals and interests.

Despite the potentially beneficial impact of technology on economic growth, it is essential to

address the potential adverse effects on the labour market as well. These concern high

unemployment, increasing inequality and also the change of employment status from regular

employees to 'non-standard employment'. These (until now) atypical forms of employment offer a

certain job security, payed overtime and holidays, whereas new temporary forms of employment

tend to lead to a downward spiral of working conditions.

The problem of unemployment opens up new vulnerability fields and can have serious

consequences for the individual. Loss of job means not only loss of income, but can mean a terrible

blow to the whole family, especially where only one person brings income to the family. This

consequently leads to a decrease in self-confidence, poor self-esteem, the inability to assess one's

environment critically. In the long run, this may lead to poverty, chronic alcoholism, depression, or

even suicide.

The role of national institutions that promote employment and regulate the labour market is

extremely important, because they act as key coordinators between the supply and demand of jobs.

In this way they can inform not only citizens but also vocational education institutions about future

changes in the economy and their impact on jobs. Active labour market policy should also monitor

trends in the field of requirements for new skills and competencies.

Aging, demographic change and health By the year 2050, 9.5 billion people are estimated to live on this planet, which means 30%

more than today. The number of people over 65 will be tripled; the number of centenarians will

increase significantely. On the other hand, people between the ages of 15 and 29 is expected to

decrease to 15.3% of the European population in 2050, while it currently accounts for 19.3% of the

population3.

These projections raise issues such as the aging of the working population, later retirement

and planning a healthy life, a stable health and pension system. Aging is therefore an economic

challenge because the working age-appropriate population is decreasing. At the same time, the

3 http://www.populationeurope.org/


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share of the elderly population, which depends on the state's monetary support, is increasing.

Governments are discussing to raise the retirement age. In this way, older members of the society

can continue to contribute to the workforce, and at the same time, they can serve as mentors to the

younger generation that has no working experience. Young people, in turn, can provide digital

knowledge to older colleagues. Intergenerational cooperation could thus be one of the keys to

lifelong learning.

The key problem of the older generation is that many are unfamiliar with ICT technology and

applications. This lack of knowledge raises the resistance and distrust of other more experienced

users of new technologies. However, one can assume that this situation will have changed in the

next ten or fifteen years.

It is expected that the significance of ICT for supporting older people will continue to increase

in the future, as well as the development of ICT tools and solutions in the field of a healthy and active

life. New technological solutions enable greater independence, autonomy, information and inclusion

of the elderly.

New services of the digital economy: platform and sharing economy In discussions of the digital economy a distinction is generally made between traditional firms

and the ‘digital natives’. Traditional firms seek to adapt to the new technologies by introducing

teleworking, mobile working, community buildings etc. into their work scheme. ‘Digital natives’, i.e.

firms that came into existence with and as a result of the new technologies, are characterised by a

fundamentally different form of work organisation that is more agile, structured in project mode, more

open to the ecosystem, and much more efficient, in particular with regard to the spread of innovation:

open space, co-working sites, open data, crowdsourcing and others. This ‘agility’ relates to

workplace, to working hours, and also to the relationship of subordination between employer and

employee, and is not necessarily synonymous with greater freedom for the employee. This has an

impact on management, as well as on the new forms of non-salaried work, i.e. the self-employed

and freelance workers whose numbers are steadily increasing.

Mobile work based on new technologies offers a certain level of flexibility, autonomy and

greater responsibility for workers. New forms of employment indeed risk requiring the worker to be

available at all times and in all places because the new technologies blur or obliterate the traditional

boundaries of professional time and space (office and working time schedules).

According to Eurofound (Mandl et al., 2015), “ICT-based mobile work offers some flexibility,

autonomy and empowerment, but also incurs the danger of work intensification, increased stress

levels and working time, and blurring of the boundaries between work and private life. It may also

outsource traditional employer responsibilities, such as health and safety protection, to workers”.

Will we all have turned by tomorrow into different kinds of freelancers and self-employed

workers? Is it the end of the wage-earning economy? The European Foundation for the Improvement

of Living and Working Conditions (Mandl et al., 2015) has analysed the ‘new forms of employment’

that are developing in Europe and that are more or less radically transforming the traditional

relationships between employer and employees.

The development of new services has put in place new actors on the market: “platforms”.

They are “parallel” actors who seem, at least for the time being, to act outside of the various regional,

national and European regulations, whether it concerns administrative, technical, but also taxation

and social security aspects. Their preferred tactic is that of the fait accompli. The rapid development


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of these platforms has brought the law up short and has, with its complete disregard for labour

standards, a major impact on the European labour market.

In the ‘sharing economy’ innumerable other services are on offer that do not require any

major investment. The scope of services ranges from the provision of relatively unskilled labour (e.g.

lending a hand during a removal, repairing a dripping tap, decorating a hall for a party) to the supply

of highly specialised services: consultants, accountants, lawyers, doctors, etc. Other examples are

accommodation services among private individuals (Airbnb), hotel reservations (Booking),

innovative financing (LendingClub), or electronic sales (eBay, Amazon).

The vocabulary which these new services use is mostly designed to give a positive image of

this new market for services: “community”, “exchange”, “sharing”, “neighbourhood”, etc. However,

when “sharing” means that a company is an intermediary between consumers who don’t know each

other, it is no longer sharing at all. Consumers are paying to access someone else’s goods or

services for a particular period of time and therefore this is an economic exchange.

In the so called sharing economy, sharing most often is followed by payment, collaboration

resembles dumping, and partnership is exploitation. The consumers of such services are more

interested in lower costs and convenience than they are in fostering social relationships with the

company or other consumers.

On this virtual market workers of rich countries cannot work side by side with those from

developing countries - Americans and Europeans have a chance only if they offer their services at

prices aligned with those of the world competition. With the development of teleworking, there

emerged an increased competition within communities of low-income workers that led to a downward

spiral of working conditions.

Platforms without legal or social security responsibilities concentrate exclusively on their core

business which consists in linking up supply and demand. They deny all other types of responsibility

or commitment. Upwork offers the services of more than 10 million workers but refuses to regard

itself as an employer. Similarly, Airbnb and Uber have become big accommodation or transport

services, although they do not own a single room or vehicle, do not exercise the least contractual,

legal or penal liability in their mediation service, and integrate a minimum of salaried staff. Upwork,

Airbnb, or Uber have no more than a few hundred direct employees.

Working conditions in the digital economy: flexibilization and individualisation The technical developments are radically changing not only the prospects of which work will

remain to be carried out by people, but also the working conditions that will apply for them. This

means by whom, where, when and how the work will be carried out. This flexibilization in working

conditions is very beneficial for Work 4.0. Nevertheless, we need to bear in mind that the positive

role of the innovation driven by technology will not arise automatically. The amount of flexibilization

of working conditions needs to be balanced by the same amount of security for the workers.

A prerequisite for the more flexible production is Big Data - the assembly and processing of

large amounts of data in real time. The Internet connects companies, production facilities and

customers. In this way new, always updatable, connections are created between order, production

and delivery. There is a big flexibilization among companies via the means of outsourcing and

networking, which leads to a strong call for the flexibilization of the workforce. This is leveraged by

the fast analysis of the vast amounts of data produced by a myriad of interconnected systems. These

analyses are then used to generate sophisticated visualizations and to feed intelligent systems.


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Flexibility in working conditions includes the agreement between the worker and the employer

about the adaptation to the market demands with respect to who will do the work (the function), when

(the time), where (place) and how (approach) the work will be performed. The working conditions

thus become individualised, bringing the opportunity for collective intelligence where workers are

empowered to collaborate in the execution of sophisticated tasks; it also can materialize into

powerlessness and isolation.

Flexibility of Time

Digitisation overlaps temporal limitations of production. Work becomes more mobile and

more independent. New forms of employment emerge, which reflect these changes.

Firstly, the flexibilisation of time includes jobs with fewer working hours than full time:

• Part time job, which represents a shift from a 40-hours week to a shorter week, on a regular

basis.

• Temporary work employs workers for a limited time – for a season or for a project.

• On call work (or on-demand work) employs workers at the exact time when there is actual

need for them. Many agencies contract on-call workers in order to supply enterprises with

quick replacements for employees who become ill during the course of the day.

• Key-time staffing allows enterprises to make hourly adjustments in staffing according to

fluctuating levels of customer service or production demand. This type of work has been

implemented in service industries such as fast food restaurants, supermarkets or banks.

Secondly, the time flexibilization is reflected also in jobs with different organisation of the working

time, such as:

• Compressed workweeks means that the employee works the traditional 40-hours week,

but in fewer days. For example, instead of five 8-hours days, he/she works four 10-hours

days. This arrangement is suitable for workers who need to commute to work.

• Performance related pay refers the payment of a salary that does not depend on the time

spent at work but on how well the employee performed the job. This can be used for

professions such as cars salespeople or production line workers.

Some studies are showing that these forms of employment can eventually lead to a higher

employment rate, as they offer opportunities for entering the labour market for the people that would

not be able gain a full-time employment. This is also the reason that these types of jobs with time

flexibility are getting bigger support in the national policies with varying degrees of monitoring,

regulation and social security.

Flexibility of Space

The flexibilization of space is highly influenced by the organization and management of the

work among companies and also within companies. Production can be networked, even beyond

company boundaries. The companies may outsource the needed job to a person, who is on the other

side of the globe. The routines are less centralized, with higher levels of local self-regulation. The

most common forms of spatial flexibilisation include teleworking where workers do not physically

commute to work but use telecommunication technologies (WiFi, tablets, smartphones) to work from

a different place. It may be from home, from a coffee place or from a specialised place, like

neighborhood work centers, where workers from different companies can work side by side.

Another example would be a virtual office, where people armed with high-tech tools work anywhere,

anytime and even cooperate with colleagues.


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Flexibilization of space covers not only the topic where the workers are, but also the topic of

how the workplace is organised. Restructuring offices organized around individualized cubicles into

more communal and shared spaces may facilitate teamwork and problem solving, and save costs

on physical infrastructure. Management costs may be reduced as more centralized workspaces shift

the focus from “management by oversight” to “management for results”. Increased opportunity for

communication among workers tends to increase levels of support, lower employee stress and

increased productivity. Flexible office spaces are particularly common in the “creative” professions

including marketing, software development or research.

Functional Flexibility

Within the company, there is also a bigger need for the functional flexibility, which means the

extent to which workers can be transferred from one activity or task to another one. One way to

reach the functional flexibility would be outsourcing.

Outsourcing firms are independent firms that supply services to a variety of enterprises.

The most common outsourcing companies offer clerical, cafeteria, security and janitorial services,

accounting, (insurance) claims processing, printing, computer systems management, sales and

product marketing.

However, it is also possible to reach the functional flexibility within the company, by

encouraging job rotation (shift of workers between two or more assignments or jobs), training of

employees in different tasks and changing the management structure.

Flexibility of Approach

The internet has served the employers in finding their workforce in the global labour market,

but it also offers many possibilities for workers to enjoy the flexibility and benefits of part-time jobs.

The internet of things (IoT) offers big opportunities for flexible work conditions. There is a strong call

for individualisation of product, which gives space to new types of economies.

For example, the Peer-to-Peer, or P2P, economy is a new decentralized type of economy,

where the buyer and the seller are directly connected, without any third party serving as a mediator.

All the production process is owned and performed by the individual, who also owns the final product.

Nonetheless, questions regarding the quality, safety and transparency of the offered goods and

services are arising which have led to the emergence of the Platform Economy. The platforms have

different means to ensure the lacking qualities of P2P economy, which include mechanisms for

identity validation and assessment of participant trustworthiness. The platform economy providers

are creating online structures that enable a wide range of human activities and interconnections.

Some examples include open-source software development (platforms supporting the participation

of any programmer in the development of a usually complex software that can be used by anyone

accessing the Internet), TaskRabbits (which is an online and mobile marketplace that matches

freelance labour with local demand, allowing consumers to find immediate help with everyday tasks,

including cleaning, moving, delivery and handyman work), AirBnB (alternative to hotels, where

individuals accommodate other people in their homes), Uber (alternative to TAXI service, where

passengers are looking for a free car via an app) or Etsy (for selling handmade products).

Individual specialists can also work in global teams to fulfil given tasks. Collaborative

platforms offer opportunities to share information, perform activities online by geographically

distributed teams and communicate in real time.

Flexicurity

The new trend of flexibilisation, nevertheless, arises questions concerning security of

workers. On one hand, smaller enterprises have bigger opportunities to cooperate globally, but there


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is also the danger of social insecurity and increased vulnerability for businesses, especially in areas

where there is little or no regulation. A new term, Flexicurity, has emerged. It can be defined as an

integrated strategy to enhance both flexibility and security in the labour market. The European

Commission understands flexicurity to have four policy components (Agreement & Report, 2010):

1. Flexible and reliable contractual arrangements;

2. Comprehensive lifelong learning strategies;

3. Effective active labour market policies; and

4. Modern social security systems providing adequate income support during

employment transitions.

Flexibility of work conditions is about successful moves ("transitions") during one’s life course:

from school to work, from one job to another, between unemployment or inactivity and work, and

from work to retirement. It is not limited to more freedom for companies to recruit or dismiss, and it

does not imply that open-ended contracts are obsolete. It is about progress of workers into better

jobs, "upward mobility" and optimal development of talent. Flexibility of work is also about

organisations capable of quickly and effectively mastering new production needs and skills, and

about facilitating the combination of work and private life responsibilities. Security, on the other hand,

is more than just the security to maintain one's job: it is about equipping people with the skills that

enable them to progress in their working lives and building meaningful careers. It is also about

adequate unemployment benefits to facilitate transitions. Finally, it encompasses training

opportunities for all workers, especially the low skilled and older workers.

Thus, enterprises and workers can both benefit from flexibility and from security, e.g. from

better work organisation, from the upward mobility resulting from increased skills, from investment

in training that pay off for enterprises while helping workers adapt to and accept change.4

Labour market policy for the digital economy The digital economy offers a lot of new opportunities and also important challenges that must

be dealt with. One of those challenges is the need for innovative ways to ensure access to social

protection for workers on atypical contracts. If we understand quality employment as a system which

provides for a decent wage, occupational health and safety provision, acceptable working conditions,

opportunities for training and promotion; and if a full-time and open-ended contract ‘for all’ is to

remain the norm, then the impact of the digital revolution on labour markets triggers numerous

concerns.

Trade Unions, especially the European Trade Union Congress (ETUC), are concerned that

not enough effort is being put in to analysing the social impact of digitalization on companies and the

labour market, in particular labour laws, working conditions, work-life balance, social dialogue etc.,

which are considered to be the key to an innovative digital labour policy. However, initiatives and

resolutions are emerging, both at national and European levels. The European Commission

launched in April 2017 a consultation to social partners on the access to social protection for all as

well as on labour contracts rules as part of its European Pillar of Social Rights, aiming to avoid that

new precariousness and inequalities will emerge.

The strategic paths for adaptation of labour market policy and institutions to provide adequate

protection for workers must be based on the following aspects:

• Clear definition of the contractual partners in any employment relationship.

4 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52007DC0359


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• Formalization of contractual clauses that protect workers from being exploited in a new

employment model.

• Clarification of the concept of ‘homeworker’ and the duties and rights that are associated with

this work model.

• Applicable law and fora to solve eventual conflicts between employer and employee.

• Terms and conditions that regulate the work performed on the web platforms (collaboration,

sharing or crowdsourcing).

• Conditions for self-organisation and online entrepreneurship, including guidance on the

mechanisms to establish reputation and trustworthiness.

• Innovative forms of unionization and collective bargaining for online work.

• Co-determination of work duties and rights by task owners, mediating platforms and online

workers.

The policy implications of the emerging digitized economy also concern the regulatory

framework of insurances. Of great importance in this context is how far self-employed workers are

insured against various risks. For example, the German legislation already offers the option for

independent workers to insure themselves against unemployment.

The focus of social security systems on standard employment which is understood as work

that is full time, indefinite, as well as part of a subordinate relationship between an employee and an

employer, and the rapid growth of non-standard employment, will become not only a problem for the

unemployment insurance but also for old-age insurance. Additional incentives or even obligations to

enter the old-age insurance system need to be examined in the years to come.

Status of workers

Are the providers of digital services on platforms really self-employed or do they operate in a

relationship of subordination – or dependence – vis-à-vis the company or the platform? Do they have

the right to refuse a task? Do the fees they can charge take account of the fact that workers use and

have to maintain their own equipment, that they pay their own insurance, that they should be paying

social security contributions, and that they lack cover in the event of sickness or accident?

In terms of working conditions, the stakes are radical: the platforms are currently developing

an ultra-flexible parallel labour market. Within this form of employment no longer exists a labour

contract, salary standards, working time regulations, and standards relating to workplace conditions,

training, access to trade unions, and collective negotiations. The worker, who is called “the partner”,

is left to manage, on the basis of a contract of self-employment, his/her own social protection

(unemployment, retirement pension, occupational sickness provision), work health and safety

protection.

Legal information for crowd workers is rare and differs from country to country. Fair Crowd

Work, a joint project of IG Metall (the German Metalworkers' Union), the Austrian Chamber of Labour,

the Austrian Trade Union Confederation, and the Swedish white collar union, Unionen, inform on

their homepages that “at this time we have legal information available only for crowd workers in

Germany and Austria”. But even this information is helpful only to guide on how to register a one-

person-enterprise; it does not solve the issues mentioned above.


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Regulatory requirements

The International Labour Organization (ILO) has identified areas in which legislative

responses are needed to make jobs better for workers in non-standard employment. The measures

include:

1. Addressing employment misclassification. In most legal systems, the recognition of the

existence of an employment relationship is the precondition for the application of labour

legislation. Applying clear and objective criteria for determining the scope of the employment

relationship is of critical importance. For the platform economy, establishing a presumption

of an employment relationship when a number of conditions are met may be useful to prevent

exploitation and underemployment.

2. Ensuring equal treatment. Ensuring equality of treatment for workers through legislative

measures is essential; numerous ILO standards and three European Union directives

incorporate the principle of equal treatment for part-time workers, fixed-term workers and

temporary agency workers. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of the principle of equal

treatment seems nonetheless be weakened by exceptions or legal loopholes, such as with

respect to casual workers.

3. Implementing minimum hours and other safeguards. Minimum hour requirements for

part-time workers, such as those that were introduced in France in recent years, can be

useful for addressing some forms of very short hours and on-call arrangements, and improve

income security. On-call and casual workers face additional risks due to the possibly high

variability and unpredictability of their work schedules. Legislative responses include

reporting-time pay laws that mandate that employers pay their employees who report to work

for a scheduled shift, even if the shift is cancelled or its length is reduced.

4. Restrict the use of non-standard employment. In certain instances, restrictions need to

apply to the use of non-standard employment in order to prevent abuses. The EU Directive

on Fixed-Term Work requires the adoption of measures to prevent abuse arising from the

use of successive fixed-term employment contracts or relationships.

5. Collective responses and collective agreements. In addition to the suggestions for

legislative action given above, it is also important to strengthen collective bargaining as it is

another important regulatory tool for addressing potential decent work deficits for workers in

non-standard employment The extension of collective agreements across occupational

categories or economic sectors can also be useful for ensuring inclusive protection for

workers in non-standard and standard employment alike.

However, it must be said that until now, neither EU nor national legislation have realized

satisfying legislation in these fields.

Workforce platforms: new arenas for inequality Trade unions’ main concern are digital workforce platforms and their potentially disruptive

consequences for the labour market and employment. Many labour market policy researchers and

social scientists regard workforce platforms and crowd working as a dangerous new trend. A 2016

McKinsey Global Institute study estimated that approximately 9 million people in the United States

and the “EU-15” (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy,

Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom) have earned income

by performing labour over a digital platform.


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Another research study, funded by the Foundation for European Progressive Studies, UNI

Global Union, produced the following country-specific estimates of how many people earn at least

half of their income over online labour platforms:

• United Kingdom: About 1.4 million

• Germany: About 1.3 million

• Netherlands: About 280,000

• Sweden: About 200,000

Anonymous individuals all over the world form armies of workers existing in the shadows and

tasked by big companies like Google, Amazon or Twitter with tasks such as checking, classifying,

filtering and encoding enormous volumes of data in real time.

Amazon launched its Amazon Mechanical Turk (AMT) that is an app designed to link up

engineers with workers, frequently low-skilled, who will carry out all sorts of jobs that cannot (yet) be

correctly performed by software systems: moderation of images in forums, classification of sound or

video files, dealing with requests submitted on search engines, management of online surveys, etc.

Meanwhile, companies and workers from all over the world use the site. According to Amazon,

currently 500,000 people from 190 nations are registered with Mechanical Turk.

Workers are then – insofar as the employer is satisfied with their work – paid on a piece-work

basis. Work conditions for these data workers are what “the market,” or workers, will tolerate. As

contractors, AMT workers are excluded from the protections of minimum-wage laws. Amazon also

allows employers to decide whether or not they pay for the provided contribution.

The main social and welfare issues affecting crowd-workers include global competition,

dislocated physical workplace, intense virtual control mechanisms, non-transparent ‘digital

reputation’, lack of worker’s organisation, oligopoly of a few platforms, legal insecurities, low

remuneration and unfair terms & conditions.

If crowd working is not regulated, unfair work conditions may emerge. A growing part of the

workforce is exempt from national labour laws, and not covered by fundamental social rights. Crowd

workers get no holiday pay, no sick pay, and are not covered by social security. Crowd working

needs a framework at European level, even though it is still a peripheral phenomenon. The problem

of the power imbalance between employers and crowd workers must be tackled together with trade

unions.

Other control approaches and inequalities

The possibilities of control offered by digital management also lead to other challenges and

potential threats to the world of labour. Managers may use algorithms to steer employee workflows.

They can track workers’ typing at their keyboards and their movements through body-worn GPS.

They can monitor fulfilment rates or success at sales and fire workers who cannot meet targets.

In this overview of the employment stakes of digitalisation, other questions concerning

discrimination aspects within the digital economy should be mentioned as well. Contrary to studies

about the positive impact of digitisation of jobs, there are very few studies about how the

discrimination patterns of the real economy are being reproduced in just the same way in the digital

economy.

One aspect of inequality which also has a negative impact on employment is the under-use

of digital tools and mobile apps among low-income families. Very few digital applications available


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aim to help or to solve the problems of low-income workers, their households and their limited

resources.

Another form of digital discrimination occurs at online marketplaces which often contain

information not only about products, but also about the people selling the products. In an effort to

facilitate trust, many platforms encourage sellers to provide personal profiles. Here discrimination

based on sellers’ race, gender, age, or other aspects can be observed.

In the same line, platforms which deal with peer-to-peer financing, it shows that loan listings

with coloured people are 25 to 35 percent less likely to receive funding than those of whites with

similar credit profiles’


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Part VIII. Guidelines to promote future-proof skills Based on all information provided in previous parts, very straight-forward guidelines will

be provided for developing training programmes to promote the development of future-

proof skills and competencies. Guidelines will also be provided to promote the well-being

of workers in the new labour markets.

The coming decades will witness to profound social, cultural and economic changes

enhanced by rapid scientific and technological advances. New businesses, forms of social

organization and work models will bring numerous opportunities for personal and collective

development as well as complex challenges of individual well-being and social progress.

Professional success will depend on individuals' ability to maintain skills tailored to the needs

of a continuously shrinking labour market. Robots and intelligent systems will be increasingly used

to perform repetitive and well defined tasks, which not only include simple tasks but also very

complex ones that require high levels of precision. In this context, the scientific and technological

skills as well as those that are still specifically human will be fundamental for the future worker.

Citizens must be able to access resourced that empower them to define enriching life paths.

The sections below provide suggestions for the development of future-proof skills, namely with

regard to pedagogy, definition of effective learning environments, design of courses and

development of specific skill sets.

Pedagogy Recommendations In this section we present recommendations useful to define strategies to encourage the

learning of future-proof skills, taking into account the backgrounds and interests of individual

students. They include best practices for the general development of human potential and the

acquisition of specific skills.

Formal Learning

Skills can be developed in the classroom and outside classroom guided by formal activities

designed to lead and assess the student learning. The skills are developed using curricula,

programs, workshops, laboratory work, training sessions, projects, company visits and study

journey, in individual or group learning approaches.

Learning methodologies can be divided into three categories: expository, guided, and active

strategies (Cinque, 2016). The expository strategy includes (1) the lecture where the specialists

explores a topic in depth; (2) the seminar that brings together a small group of participants that

explore a topic in a participative way; (3) the conference where a set of innovative topics are

presented by different speakers and discussed by a large number of participants; and (4) the

demonstration where the application of concepts in experiments is used to make their learning

easier.

The guided strategy includes the (1) debate that presupposes that topics are discussed

from the different experiences of the discussants and the discussion is informed by the scientific

knowledge about those topics; (2) workshop adds to the debate the possibility to experiment with

the discussed concepts using adequate tools; (3) case study allows for the in depth study of a

phenomenon within the context it is unfolding; (4) project work usually allows for the development of


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a proof of concept (methodological or technological tools that implement a conceptual perspective)

or towards the experimentally learning about complex topics; (5) simulation supports the testing of

complex decisions, allowing the developing an in depth understanding of their impacts in specific

contexts; (6) mentoring allows to facilitate the learning of a student by closely following his/her

performance and helping to acquire the knowledge that will allow to overcome faced challenges.

Finally, the active strategy is implemented in (1) brainstorming is a group creativity

discussion aimed at raising as many ideas as possible on how to address problems, avoiding pre-

judgements about the quality or feasibility of those ideas; (2) role play allows for the embodied

knowledge of situations by developing actual experience about challenges and problems; (3)

business game is a technique aimed at engaging students in close to reality business situations; (4)

visits and journeys are aimed at observing organizational and social contexts where the phenomena

are unfolding. This strategy differs from the case study as the student assumes the passive role of

an observer instead of the active role of a researcher; (5) outdoor training takes the students outside

the classroom to more relaxing environments that may be more stimulant of creativity; (6) coaching

is the strategy aimed at defining clear learning steps that the student must follow to achieve the goals

jointly defined by the coacher and the student.

Although an initial presentation of concepts and practices may benefit from expository

strategies, they induce a passive attitude that is not appropriate with current knowledge that effective

learning requires practical experience with these concepts and practices. Learning alters the brain

to the extent that it involves integrative cognition: mind and body. Therefore guided and active

strategies have been increasingly applied by trainers and educators. However, the learning of the

skills required by the digital and global economy may face various challenges even when using these

strategies.

Many processes are being virtualized and the worker must have an effective action both on

virtual and physical work environments. The likelihood is that workers will spend more and more time

in the virtual work environments where he/she must collaborate and communicate effectively, co-

creating solutions, implementing innovative processes and leading teams. This requires that active

learning happens mostly in the mind and little is required from body learning. Moreover, the

interaction of co-workers is still limited in terms of the emotional and behavioural clues that the worker

can access. New technologies are being developed to reduce those limitations by permitting to share

sensorial information on the internet, including sound, touch, smell (Aijaz, Dohler, Hamid Aghvami,

Friderikos, & Frodigh, 2017; Fettweis, 2014). These are still experimental technologies but once they

become commercially available in a large scale, guided and active strategies will be applied for

innovative learning processes to develop skills for virtual work contexts.

In particular, strategies such as case study, project work, mentoring, role play, visits and

journeys, outdoor training, coaching will benefit from augmented reality and sensorial technologies

to create learning environments where teams geographically distributed can experiment with

concepts is a quasi-physically way, enjoying the relaxation and induction of creativity that outdoor

environments bring to learning.

Informal Learning

Skills can also be developed in informal learning contexts where the student solve problems

in non-academic situations according to actual needs that are not structured a priori (Bamber, 2013).

These learning is driven by the interests of the learner and happens in real situations, organizations

or communities, where the student learns by doing engaging tasks.


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The informal learning promotes the application of the learner’s creativity, talents, initiative

and social responsibility in the acquisition of tasks’ related knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.

Communities of open-source development are internet opportunities for developing

sophisticated computational thinking skills; crowdsourcing platforms (crisis management, co-

creation, funding) offer opportunities for developing novel and adaptive skills, cross-cultural skills,

design mindset skills, virtual collaboration skills and leadership skills; sharing platforms offer

opportunities to acquire entrepreneurial skills and online communication skills. These are only a few

examples of opportunities for informal learning that the internet offers already today.

Virtual reality is still scary for a large part of the world's population, either because of the

difference it presents in living standards that are considered mentally and physically healthy, or

because it is still an unknown area that presents major security challenges. For this reason there is

still a focus on Internet risks that seems to overlap with the need to take advantage of it in an informed

and responsible way. But this situation will certainly change in the next decade so the internet / web

will become a very rich and diverse source of informal learning.

Integrative pedagogy Formal and informal learning can be mixed in integrative strategies aimed at promoting

multidisciplinary learning and the emergence of social intelligence and sense-making skills (Tynjälä,

Virtanen, Klemola, Kostiainen, & Rasku-Puttonen, 2016). These strategies include:

• Cooperative Learning refers to learning processes where learners work in small groups on

a project or problem. The group self-organizes around the tasks to be performed and defines

the most adequate leadership strategy. A facilitator follows the rationale of the unfolding

learning and provides guidance whenever the group is not able to overcome the faced

challenges.

• Problem-based/Project-based Learning refers to the structuring of the learning process

around a project that is defined a priori to by a tutor-facilitator (a team) to promote a specific

kind of learning. The tutor guides the group of learners through all the stages and activities

that are required to acquire the experience with the concepts and practices that must be

learned.

• Action Learning adds to previous models the learning in real contexts. The decisions and

actions of the learners have actual and visible impacts in those contexts. The impacts are

then used for reflection and adjustment of future actions.

• Experiential Learning allows for grasping the meaning of experience through reflection and

use of analytical skills to conceptualize experience obtained in performing tasks or solving

problems. The learning may be individual or supported by group discussions and

brainstorming.

• Reciprocal Learning occurs when two students form a learning partnership aimed at

supporting each other’s developing a particular understanding and set of skills.

• Progressive Mastery is a learning model focused in developing skills in sequential steps

increasingly complex, each one designed to reinforce and expand previously acquired

knowledge.

• Critical reflection refers a learning model that encourages learners to reflect on each action

taken and observed impacts, therefore allowing to a metacognition about performed

activities. This approach is useful to develop insights on patterns of decision and action that

can be successfully applied in various situations.


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• Active seeking of meaning refers to the effort to motivate to actively seek the personal and

social meaning of his/her decisions and actions in order to raise awareness of impacts and

of future consequences.

The integrative learning strategies are also useful to develop future-proof skills and can be

implemented on virtual learning environments. The opportunities and challenges are similar to those

already mentioned for the formal and informal strategies. They are particularly adequate to develop

the sense-making, social intelligence, collaboration and novel thinking skills that the work performed

in virtual environments require.

Smart Learning Environments Smart learning happens with the support of intelligent technologies, such as cloud computing,

data analytics and visualization, which promote personalised and adaptive learning (Gros, 2016).

(Zhu, Yu, & Riezebos, 2016) describe ten key features that define smart learning:

• Location-aware: the contents and situations to which the learner is exposed to are linked to

her/his location data and are adjusted in real time to the learner’s motion.

• Context-aware: learning is guided by exploring the influence of different activity scenarios

and information on the outcomes of decisions.

• Socially-aware: learning evolves by sensing social relationships that shape problems to be

solved and reverberate decisions spreading their impact in unanticipated directions.

• Interoperable: learning is supported by different resources, services and platforms that

communicate with each other.

• Seamless connection: the connection of new devices to support the unfolding learning

process is not felt by the learner that progresses with the defined or emerging activities.

• Adaptable: learning resources are made available according to the preferences, learning

styles and cognitive load of the learner.

• Ubiquitous: the learning is not dependent of the specific location of the learner. Once the

learning process starts it can continue on demand wherever the learner is, as long as the

adequate resources are available to perform the defined learning activities.

• Whole record: the activities performed by the learner and the achieved outcomes are

continuously recorded and processed in order to support reasonable assessment,

suggestions and pushing on-demand service.

• Natural interaction: the learner is not required to make extra efforts to handle technology or

enter information about her/his learning. Multimodal interaction, including position and facial

expression recognition, are provided to support automatic decisions on what resources must

be provided and the pace of activities.

• High engagement: multidirectional interactive learning experiences in technology-enriched

environments are facilitated in order to provide rich insights on the topics being learned.

In sum, a smart learning environment is the concept that will revolutionize education and

vocational training by customizing learning and freeing the teacher/trainer from gathering and

structuring content and context. It will promote technology-enhanced learning in which learners are

guided in their real/virtual-world learning by autonomous and intelligent systems that give access to

the most adequate digital resources.


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Design principles for courses This section provides information on the key principles to structure online learning. In a global

and digitized world, training will increasingly be provided online for worldwide distributed classes and

with a special focus on personal learning interests and constraints (Brower, Humphreys, Karoff, &

Kallio, 2017; J. Downing & Herrington, 2013; J. J. Downing, 2017; van Ginkel, Gulikers, Biemans, &

Mulder, 2015). The learners in these online environments differ in terms age, characteristics,

ethnicity, socio-economic status and educational background. Often learners are mature aged,

employed, with family commitments, from a minority group or a low socio-economic background,

with a disability. The design of courses take into account these differences, taking advantage of the

diversity to leverage the development of the future-proof skills listed in the Part VII of this document.

The key principles to designed guided and active learning online include:

• Provide learning activities that connect theory and application in authentic contexts.

This principle focus the need to learn sound theoretical concepts with their

applications in real workplaces. It can only be achieved if the online course is

promoted by both training entities and organizations where learners can engage with

authentic problems and perform real tasks. In this way learners can better understand

the skills and knowledge required in the workplace.

• Recognise prior experience of students. By acknowledging the experience of

learners, it is possible to ground the learning in prior knowledge, structuring

progressive steps of knowledge development until the learning outcomes of the

course are reached. Furthermore, the diversity of experiences provides the basis for

developing social intelligence and the capacity to constructively discuss different

perspectives; it allows for the co-creation of meaning around the relevant theoretical

concepts; and leverages the development of communication skills required to

produce convincing arguments while respecting the standpoint of others.

• Provide meaningful opportunities for the collaborative construction of knowledge

among learners. The online environment must provide learners with the opportunity

to take specific roles from which they can contribute meaningfully to the collective

learning effort. Learners should be concerned with the others’ learning as much as

with their own, helping others to overcome challenges and accompany the pace of

activities.

• Encourage the development of a professional identity through collegial interactions in

a range of settings. Learners must understand the value of the skills they are

developing and how those skills fit the demands of a work performance of excellence.

Moreover, the internet provides access to a wide number of professional communities

specializing in sophisticated topics. These communities offer the learner the

opportunity for access to scientific and technical knowledge relevant to build a

successful career and peer recognition. Knowledge in effectively creating a profile in

social networks such as LinkedIn can be a starting point to create the skills needed

to communicate professional experience to potential employers.

• Provide authentic assessment tasks that reflect the way the knowledge will be used

in real work settings. The assessment tasks should reflect the skills and knowledge


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required by the learner’s future role in the workplace. Projects’ results and other

outcomes that will be subject to evaluation should be meaningful and useful to

learners in their profession. Participating in peer-review and formative feedback

processes is useful to get insights on the evaluation processes, their challenges and

fairness. The learner should be able to provide an informed self-assessment which

should have some relevance in the final assessment of the learner’s learning. The

learner must be able to compare his/her learning outcomes with the outcomes

reached by other learners and the expected learning outcomes of the course.

• Encourage an increasing level of ownership of learning. As much as possible the

stages and activities of the learning process should be collaboratively defined with

learners since they are the main beneficiaries of the skills that will be developed. The

learning process should be adjusted to the unique experiences and contexts of the

learner while avoiding the sensation of isolation; this means that while the learner is

empowered to define his/her own learning focus and pace, he/she is still able to

connect with fellow learners and collaborate in activities towards mutual achievement

of learning goals. Learners must be praised for achievements and the efforts they

make to experiment and develop skills (even if errors result in the first effort to learn

a new practice). Most resources for learning in many areas are already available

online; learners must be guided on how to find reliable sources of resources and

encouraged in sharing the insights acquired with other learners.

Several of these principles are routinely applied by teachers and trainers worldwide but they

are challenged when the learning process is virtualized and/or the focus is the development of skills

for virtual work environments. Virtualized learning processes must be defined to avoid isolation and

promote effective online communication and collaboration. These processes offer the opportunity to

integrate with the vast information available on the internet and will benefit from data analytic tools

and other intelligent systems able to provide insightful visualizations of information relevant to

achieve the learning outcomes of the course.

Recommendations for developing specific skills sets In this section are some concrete recommendations for developing the future-proof skills

presented in Part VII of this document. Since the focus is on the digital economy and the labour

market transformations it entails, the recommendations address effective strategy for the

development of these skills for working in virtual and smart work environments.

Sense-making, Social Intelligence and Cross-Cultural Skills

The growth of information available on the web is huge and grows very fast with each passing

day. This information is often created and shared by credible entities genuinely interested in sharing

important information for understanding the world around us and to make decisions; however,

individuals and organizations have the same ability to share false information and spread rumours.

The workers of the future will increasingly use digital information to learn, perform their tasks and

innovate. Thus it will be necessary to train these workers in the best strategies to distinguish credible

information from false information (Del Vicario et al., 2016; Shao, Ciampaglia, Flammini, & Menczer,

2016). To address this theme the following learning outcomes are recommended5:

5 http://www.teachhub.com/teaching-strategies-detect-fake-news


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• Explain the concepts of fake/biased information and rumours together with the reasons that

may lead to their creation and spread.

• Analyze problems and potential consequences associated with the spread of fake and biased

information.

• Explore real cases in which fake/biased information lead to serious consequences for

organizations and the society in general.

• Apply strategies to assess the credibility of information sources.

• Apply strategies to avoid unintended spread of rumours online.

• Evaluate software that automatically detects fake information.

Increasingly, workers will find themselves interacting online with clients and suppliers, co-

workers, individuals in knowledge communities external to their organizations among many other

individuals reachable over the internet. The success of these interactions depend on their ability to

understand the interlocutor and making others to understand them (Lau, 2016; Monnier, 2015;

Steinman & Teachman, 2015). Below it is a list of recommended learning outcomes:

• Apply social listening by using effective software tools to monitor social media. In this way,

workers can anticipate expectations and dissatisfactions as well as develop a prior

knowledge of the interlocutors.

• Evaluate different strategies to writing text to communicate reasoning and emotion.

• Assess the effectiveness of tools to share visual, sound, touch and smell information in an

online communication.

• Apply strategies for online conflict resolution to deal with situations such as cyberbullying,

fast response to a negatively-charged interaction in a productive manner, reduce the impact

of a misunderstood message.

• Apply one-to-one listening during online interactions, namely by maintaining a stable focus

on the exchange of information, ask for clarifications that may be useful to a complete

interpretation of received information, relating to prior online interactions to contextualize

received information.

• Create effective strategies for online self-advocacy that adequately transmit one’s needs

without compromising the dignity of oneself or others.

• Develop online coherent identity by ensuring consistent communication, managing online

reputation, and provide information on life experiences (personal, social, professional).

In the global economy, to make sense of situations and to relate harmoniously with whom

she/he interacts, the worker must be able to understand different cultures and learn how cultures

express online (Shadiev, 2015; Sornlertlamvanich & Charoenporn, 2011). For effective cross-cultural

communication and collaboration, the learning outcomes listed for online sensemaking and social

intelligence are also important. The list of additional recommended learning outcomes includes:

• Recognize cultural diversity and online cultural expressions.

• Explains strategies that promote mutual acceptance and understanding.

• Recognize online best communication practices.

• Describe how to prepare for a multi-cultural online assignment.


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Cognitive Load Management skills

The numerous devices that surround us offer many opportunities for accessing information,

making contacts with acquaintances and strangers, and acting locally or at a distance. The price of

this empowerment of decision and action is an overload of information that requires a very high

cognitive effort, producing anxiety, attention difficulties and inability to build consistent

understandings about events. In order to deal with the incoming information and other stimuli,

workers will have to learn how to manage their cognitive load (Convertino, Grasso, Dimicco, Michelis,

& Chi, 2010; Iandoli, 2009; Ocasio, 2011). Below it is a list of recommended learning outcomes:

• Apply effective techniques to focus own attention towards the issues relevant to perform the

tasks at hand.

• Understand the concept of collective intelligence to apply it to interlink the cognitive

capabilities of a group of people using adequate technology.

• Apply techniques and software tools to effectively manage time.

• Recognize and assess software tools that integrate information into insightful visualizations.

Adaptive Thinking and Transdisciplinary skills These skills support the worker’s ability to innovate by adjusting perspectives and connecting

insights from different scientific fields. Smart work environments will be created to take advantage of

these skills (Geiger, Seedorf, Nickerson, & Schader, 2011; Michalos, Karagiannis, Makris, Tokçalar,

& Chryssolouris, 2016; Ricci, Piunti, Tummolini, & Castelfranchi, 2015). The list of learning outcomes

below are useful guides to develop them:

• Explain how to apply technology to analyse and integrate structured or unstructured data

from different sources to produce insightful visualizations.

• Explain how to use intelligent systems to guide decision and expand action capabilities.

• Design work environments where technology (IoT, cloud computing, big data) interconnect

and expand human intelligence, defining an open ecology of interconnected smart spaces

and services.

• Recognize the potential of smartphones to act as human sensors for a wide range of

solutions that require human judgement in the selection of the information to transmit.

Design Mindset and Computational Thinking skills As the digital economy grows, the demand for innovative supply solutions, dynamic

integration of multi-national teams and development of new digital products will increase (Kalelioğlu,

Gülbahar, & Kukul, 2016; Snow, Fjeldstad, & Langer, 2017; Voogt, Fisser, Good, Mishra, & Yadav,

2015). Courses to develop the design mindset and computational skills should include the following

learning outcomes:

• Identify the digital marks of activities and transactions.

• Explain the role of digital currency and how it is created.

• Design self-organization strategies and mechanisms for digital organizations.

• Assess the performance of machine learning algorithms and their usefulness in specific work

contexts.

• Select appropriate programming languages for different development objectives.

• Design and build robots.


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New Media Literacy and Virtual Collaboration skills

Social media and collaborative tools will become essential work tools in the coming decades.

Its proper use requires a set of skills that can be developed in defined training to achieve the following

learning outcomes (Greenlight, 2009; Lee, Chen, Li, & Lin, 2015; Mihailidis & Cohen, 2013; Wende

& King, 2017):

• Develop and articulate their own personal goals for consuming media content; assess

whether those goals are being met by the content being consumed

• Describe content formats and frames, including knowledge of new media characteristics

that influence the process of information creation and dissemination.

• Assess the credibility of received/produced information.

• Apply strategies to build trust and reputation in virtual environments.

• Implement mechanisms to coordinate efforts and track task completion in virtual teams.

The learning outcomes that have been recommended for the definition of training that allows

the development of skills considered key to the digital age reflect the specific needs of digital work

or work that heavily relies in present and emerging technologies. All the learning outcomes listed are

derived from ambitious training objectives. Each of them can be subdivided to give rise to more

focused learning outcomes of courses aimed at developing skills adapted to the specific needs and

expectations of the trainees.


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