Word Formation in English

ConversionConversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form. For example, the verb release is converted to the noun release.

In the English language conversion is unusually prominent as a word-formation process.

There are two kinds of conversion: full conversion and partial conversion.

Full conversion is conversion of an adjective into a noun which has all features of a noun.

Partial conversion is conversion, where a word of one word class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word class.

Conversion to noun:

There are two types of conversion to noun.

1) De-verbal

This type includes the following kinds.The de-verbal nouns may be used:

1)to denote the state of mind or sensation.Desire: v. To long for, to wish n. strong longing, earnest wish

dismay: v. To fill with dismay n. strong feeling of fear and hopelessness

b) to denote an event or activity: attempt v: to try, to make a start at doing something n. effort to do something.Fall: v. To come or go down freely n. act of falling

Release: v. To allow to go, to set free. n. releasing or being released.

Search: v. To examine, to look carefully at. n. act of searching

swim: v. To move the body through water by using arms, legs, fins, the tail, etc.

n. act or period of swimming

The deverbal nouns of this kind are used dynamically.

c) as object of the given verb:

Catch:

Her husband was a good catch ( that which is caught). They say he’s got a fortune in the bank.

d) as subject of the given verb:bore: He became a bore( one that causes boredom) at last.

cheat: A cheat is a person who cheats.

e) as instrument of the given verb:

cover:

put the cover ( something with which to cover things) on the kettle and the water will boil.

Wrench:

where is your wrench (spanner)?

f) as manner of the given verb:

walk:

I can know him at once by his walk ( manner of walking).

lie:

the lie ( the way or position in which something lies) of the land.

g) as place of the given verb:

divide:

a period marking the divide.

(something that divides, especially watershed between two eras of American history.)

rise:

He sat at the top of a small rise ( an upward slope; small hill).

turn: Take a turn to the right, please. A path full of twists and turns ( a place at which something turns, turns off or turns back.

2) De-adjectival:

This conversion can be explained in terms of a fixed adjective plus noun phrase from which the noun has been ellipted.

Typical examples are:

I’d like two pints of bitter, please. ( type of beer)

They ‘re running in the final. ( the final race)

As a foot-baller, he is a natural. ( a naturally skilled player)

Daily( daily newspaper)Comic (comic actor)Regular ( regular customer)Roast( roast beef)Young marrieds ( married people)

Annual ( annual book or magazine)Bimonthly ( bimonthly magazine)Biweekly ( biweekly magazine)Weekly ( weekly magazine)Monthly ( monthly magazine)Perennial ( perennial plant)

Conversion to verb:There are two types of conversion to verb.

1) Denominal:

This type has seven kinds.A) to put in N: Bottle: to put into a bottle Corner: to put into a difficult position

B) to give N or to provide with N…

coat: to give a coat to

commission: to give a commission to

mask: to give a mask to

C) to deprive of N:core: to remove the core from

skin: to take the skin off

peel: to take the skin off fruit, vegetables etc.

D) to do with N;knife: to cut or stab with a knife

brake: to stop by means of a brake

finger: to touch with the fingers

E) to be or act as N with respect:

father: to act as a father to

nurse: to act as a nurse to

pilot: to act as a pilot to

F) to make or change…into N:

cash: to change into cash

group: to make into a group

G) to send or go by N: mail: to send by mail

telegraph: to send news, etc. by telegraph

bicycle: to go by bicycle

boat: to travel by motor-car

canoe:

to travel by canoe

Most of the verbs in this type are transitive verbs, with the exception of a few words.

a) (transitive verb) to make adj. or to make more adj.

Calm: to make calm Dirty: to make or become

dirty

2) De-adjectival:

This type has two kinds:

Don’t dirty your hands.

White shoes dirty very easily

This type can be used as transitive verbs and intransitive verbs:

b)(intransitive verb) to become adj.Dry: to become dry

Empty: to become empty

Narrow: to become narrow

Yellow: to become yellow

Grey: to become greyBlue: to become blue

This kind can also be used as transitive verbs and intransitive verbs:

Dry your wet hands.

Sometimes a phrasal verb is derived from an adjective by the addition of a particle:

Smooth out: to make smooth

Calm down: to become calm

Sober up: to become sober

Sometimes a verb is derived from an adjective plus a suffix:

Blacken: to become black

Black: to make black

C. Conversion to adjective:

This category has only one type.

Denominal:A brick garage: The garage is brick.

Minor categories of conversion:

There are three less minor categories of conversion, chiefly used informally.

1)Conversion to nouns:

This type has three kinds.

A) conversion from closed-system words to nouns.There are two postulated major word classes in the English language: open class and closed class. An open class is one whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited, whereas a closed class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.

New items are constantly being added to the open class, as new ideas, inventions, etc, appear. Nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs are open-class items. New items are not regularly added to the closed class as they are in the case of open-class items. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-system words.

Examples are:But(i.e. the word but) contains three letters.

His speech contains too many ifs and buts.

It tells you about the how and the why of flight.

B)Conversion from affixes to nouns:

Very occasionally, an affix may be converted to nouns, e.g.

This is the age of isms

C) Conversion from phrases to nouns: Phrases or combinations of more than one word, may sometimes be reduced to noun status by conversion, e.g. Whenever I gamble, my horse is one of the also-rans. ( one of the horses which also ran but was not among the winners.)

2)Conversion to verbs This conversion is conversion from closed-class words and non-lexical items to verbs. It is chiefly used informally:

They downed tools in protest.

3)Conversion to adjectives:

This conversion is the conversion from phrases to adjectives.

An up-in-the-air feeling: I feel very up in the air ( with reference to cheerful spirits)

Conversion may be reclassified into three types according to the same word-classes; the change of secondary word class—nouns, the change of secondary word class---verbs and the change of secondary word class---adjectives.

The change of secondary word class---nouns: This type has four kinds.1) noncount nouns- count nouns:a) a unit of N:Two coffees ( two cups of coffee)Two sugars ( two lumps of sugar)

b)a kind of N:

Some paints are more lasting than others.This is a better bread than the one I baked yesterday.

c) an instance of N: ( with abstract nouns)

May I ask a favour of you?The difficulties of English grammar;A home truth ( a fact about someone which is unpleasant for him but true.)Small kindnessesA miserable failureA great injustice