Word formation

1. Affixation The process by means of which new words are yielded by adding a prefix or

a suffix to the base word. Types: prefixes and suffixes, morphemes, infixes, interfixes.2. Prefixation

letter, sound, group of letters/sounds which are added at the beginning of a word, and which change the meaning of the function of the verb.

negative meaning: a, an, dis, in, il, im, ir, non, un. Reversative/private meaning: de, dis, un. Pejorative: mal, mis, pseudo. Degree: arch, co, hyper, mini, out, over, super. Orientation/attitude: anti, counter, pro. Locative: fore, inter, intro, sub, super, trans. Time and order: ex, fore, re.

3. Suffixation Added at the end of the word. Lexical suf.: er, ize, wards, eer, ful, ism. Grammatical: s, ed, ing, en, ‘s, es. It may produce stress shifts Noun forming suffixes: Denominal (abstract) – value of uncountable nouns: age, al, ate, ation,

dom, ery, ry, ful, hood, ing, tion, ism, ity, ment, ness, ocracy, ship. Denominal (concrete): ant, ard, eer, ee, er, ette, ist, let, ling, or, ster. Productive: ant, ee, er/or only for ±ANIMATE. Noun/Adjective forming suffixes: ese, (i)an, ist, ite, able/ible (passive

meaning), ic, al, ical, (i)ous, ine, ative, ed, esque, ester, ful, ish, less, like, ling, ly, y.

Verb: ize, ise, ify, en, ate. Adverb: ly, ward, wise.

Stylistic values: diminutive suffixes – smallness, caressing, attitude, negative feelings: ard, ism, stir, ling.

4. Parasynthetic formations: prefix + noun +suffix5. Blending: word building process by means of which a word is produced by

combination part of one word with part of another in order to form a new word: smog (smoke + fog).

6. Telescoping Adapting classical combined forms through reducing the first word in a

compound or fixed phrase: telecommunication – tele. The reduction of a series of words to some of their component syllables

creates new usage: sitrep – situation report.7. Reduplication: Thrumeaning term, being used in relation to a word The rhyme between two elements: win-win The result of a vowel change: zig-zag8. Coining Inventing/result of this inventing Based on ancient analogy between language and numbers: googol (1 + 100

zeroes)9. Eponymy The means by which new words are created from names of person. Base-eponymy related to: religion, mythological names, name of kings,

literary heroes, authors, personalities, scientists, famous craftsmen (Chippandale).

10.Toponymy Concerned with words evolution: place-name, geographical place itself, new

word so derived (Welsh) Terms connected to: sports, foods, drinks, fabrics/clothing, chemical

elements. 11.Conversion Lexemes can change their word class without the addition of an affix: Stress shift: new words: ‘process/ pro’cess. Semantic shifts: acquire new meanings, lose some of its meanings, change

its meaning for the better/worse: gay.

Reduction of meaning: change of meaning through the intermediary of which a term becomes more specialized: hospital.

Amelioration of meaning: a lexeme develops a positive sense of approval, a higher status.

Radiation of meaning: new meanings of a word are derived from its basic meaning in a straight, direct way: habour – shelter.

Concatenation: a series of semantic shifts which are linked together: gold = money.

12. Transfer of meaning Metaphor Metonymy: the association of contiguity type, consisting in the use of the

name of one thing for something else with which it is usually associated. Euphemism: the substitution of an agreeable phrase or expression for one

that is hard, indelicate or taboo: second-hand – euphemism for pre-owned. Cliché: to add insult or injury.