Woofs & Hoofs · 2010. 3. 15. · Cranial toward the head Caudal toward the tail Dorsal toward the...
Transcript of Woofs & Hoofs · 2010. 3. 15. · Cranial toward the head Caudal toward the tail Dorsal toward the...
Woofs & HoofsSchool of Animal Massage
Module 3:
Canine Anatomy and Physiology
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Module 3:
Canine Anatomy and Physiology
STUDY GUIDELINES FOR THIS MODULE
What you will learn in the section
1. Anatomical and directional vocabulary
2. External description points of the canine
3. Skeletal system: functions and components
4. Joints: structures and movements
5. Bony landmarks of the canine
6. Ligaments: functions and locations
7. Tendons: functions and locations
8. Fascia: structure, functions and locations
9. Muscles: structure, functions and locations
How the information will be used during a massage
1. You will better understand which body parts the muscles
connect to based on their names
2. You will recognize correct range of motion in the joints
3. You will understand in which directions a joint can or
cannot move
4. You will be able to locate muscles attachments by their
bony landmarks
5. It will improve your effectiveness during the massage
6. The efficiency of your massage sessions will increase
7. The intent and focus of your work will become more clear
8. You will be better able to assess the needs of the dog
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9. You will be able to discuss your work using the correct
terminology with owners, potential clients, and
professionals such as veterinarians and trainers
How to study the material
1. At first the study of anatomy may seem a bit
overwhelming, but be patient with yourself and try to learn
it a little at a time
2. Below is a list of suggested activities to help you in your
particular learning style. Choose at least two activities
from the list to complete.
3. If the activities require you to write or colour in your
books, you may want to make copies of pages before you
begin the activities. You can then practice on the blank
pages later.
4. To make the module more challenging, the answers to the
quiz preparation questions have not been provided,
however all the information you need to complete them is
provided in the module. Should you have any questions or
if you get stumped by a particular preparation question, do
not hesitate to contact your instructor.
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Suggested Study Activities
1. Speak names of the muscles into a tape player and try to identify
the origin and/or the attachment points as you play the names
back to yourself.
2. Make an audio tape or CD of yourself naming the muscles, their
attachment points or any other information you wish to
remember. Play the recording in your car while driving, while
you are cooking, exercising, riding your bike or any other time
that suits you.
3. Have a study partner/friend quiz you using your flashcards.
4. Quiz yourself by reading your flash cards aloud.
5. Photocopy the pages you wish to study and colour in the bones
or muscles while saying the names out loud.
6. Identify the parts of the muscle names that give you information
about their location, attachments, shape or depth. For example:
Brachiocephalicus, brachio=arm, cephalous=head, so this
muscle connects the arm and the head.
7. On the laminated skeletal chart included with your course, draw
the muscles using an erasable ink pen. Think about the muscle
depth as well as the two-dimensional locations.
8. On the laminated muscle chart included with your course,
practice naming the muscles while you colour them. For even
more challenge, dot and name the attachment locations aloud as
you colour the muscle.
9. Group the muscles by attachment location. For example: name
all the muscles that attach to the humerus. Now make it even
more challenging by naming all the muscles that attach to the
medial aspect of the humerus, etc.
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10. Using a stuffed animal or a willing live animal volunteer, point
to or gently touch the muscle attachment locations and outline
the muscle showing approximate size, shape and fibre direction
with your fingers.
How to make use of the on-line services
1. Visit the websites indicated in the additional resources
section for more information on animal anatomy and
articles on animal rehabilitation.
2. Visit the Student Forum to discuss this module, ask any
questions or find a study partner.
3. Participate in the webinar – “Animals are not Humans!”
4. Take the Module 3 test online when you have confidence
in your knowledge of the material.
How to check your readiness for the test
1. Complete the practice test using your notes
2. Using an actual animal, attempt to identify the types and
locations of the joints
3. Attempt to identify the bony landmarks on an actual
animal
What you will be expected to know for the practicum
1. Anatomical vocabulary for this section
2. External points of the canine
3. Main functions of the bones
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4. Bones of the canine skeleton and bony landmarks
5. Components of a synovial joint
6. Main functions of the ligaments, tendons, fascia and
muscles
7. Muscle names, locations and their basic attachment points
(during the practicum we will introduce more exact
descriptions of the attachment sites)
How to demonstrate readiness for the practicum
1. Complete all homework assignments
2. Complete and pass the online test with a score of 90% or
better (to re-take the test, please contact your instructor)
Optional/supplemental materials (not required, but will add to
your massage knowledge)
1. Some interesting websites over animal anatomy and basic
anatomical knowledge:
www.jdenuno.com/PDFfiles/RootWords.pdf
vanat.cvm.umn.edu/vanat.pdf/GrossAnatLectNotes.pdf
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_position
www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?cls=2&cat=1562&articleid=327
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Module 3:
Canine Anatomy and Physiology
Becoming familiar with anatomical words and phrases will
help you not only in your study of anatomy, massage and
kinesiology, but it will also offer you a common language when
speaking with veterinarians or other animal health professionals.
Anatomical Vocabulary
Many anatomical terms are derived from Greek or Latin, but
do not let that scare you. Simply break each word down into its
prefix, root and suffix, if present, to help you understand.
Some useful PREFIXES to know:
Prefix Meaning Example
ab-: away from abnormal, abduction
ad-: to, toward adjacent, adduction
bi-: two, double bilateral (two sides)
epi-: upon, over epicondyle
infra- below; beneath infraspinous
quad-: four quadruped, quadriceps
pre/pro-: before, in front precede
super/supra above supraglenoid
sym/syn-: with, together synergist, symphysis
uni-: one unilateral
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Some useful ROOT words:
Root Meaning Example brachi- arm bicep brachii
carpal wrist metacarpals
capit- head capitulum
caud- tail sacrocaudal
cephal- head sternocephalic
cost- rib costal cartilage
crani- skull cranium
lat- side latissimus dorsi
orb- circle orbit
thorac- chest thoracic
Directional and locating terms commonly used:
Term Meaning Cranial toward the head
Caudal toward the tail
Dorsal toward the back, sky, top
Ventral toward the belly, ground, bottom
Anterior in the front
Posterior in the back
Lateral toward the side
Medial toward the midline
Superficial toward the body’s surface
Deep toward the body’s core
Proximal used with limbs; toward the
body/core
Distal used with limbs; away from the
body
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External Points of the Dog
External anatomy includes both the general and the scientific
terms that are used to describe the surface features of the dog - that
is, those that we can see and touch. Knowing these terms will help
you later describe particular movements, locate anatomical
structures and discuss your findings with both owners and other
small animal health care professionals.
In the anatomy text provided with your course, read and
study the pages indicated and write down any questions you may
have for your instructor. Try locating, pointing to and touching the
points indicated on a stuffed animal or on a willing pet. To improve
your memory of each point, say its name out loud while touching
each point. Another excellent method of learning and remembering
the points is to teach someone else by pointing at and saying the
name of the points out loud (young children and grandchildren love
to learn this information!!).
Dog Anatomy: A Colouring Atlas
Plate 1: Regions of the Dog’s Body
Notes regarding Plate 1 :
The pinna (1) is another term for the external ear.
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The commissure of the lips (3) is the point where the upper
and lower lips meet.
The point of the shoulder (15) and the point of the hip (28)
are important landmarks. Many muscles are attached to or
can be located by these points – learn them well!
The set of the tail (30) is also known as the “dock” of the tail
The entire area including #28-36 is commonly referred to as
the “hindquarter”.
Plate 2: Directional Terms
Notes regarding Plate 2 :
Read the explanation of the directional terms for more
detailed understanding
Notice the differences between the terms used on the front
foot and those used on the rear foot
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Plate 3: Body Planes
Notes regarding Plate 3:
Any sagittal plane divides the body
into left and right parts. The
median plane divides it perfectly
into left and right halves.
A coronal plane (not shown)
divides the body into front and rear
parts, while the transverse plane
divides it exactly in the middle.
Horizontal planes divide the body
into upper and lower portions – the
dorsal plane divides the body (or
body part) at its centre of gravity.
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The Skeletal System
Because dogs are quadrupeds (walk on four limbs), their skeletal
system is considerably different than that of the human biped. Most
noticeably, many dogs lack a clavicle or “collar bone”. If present, it is
only a very small piece of bone imbedded within a tendon and has no
function. Since dogs do not have a collar bone, their shoulder is not
attached to the body via a ball-and-socket joint as it is on humans - in
fact, their shoulder is not attached to the body by a joint at all, but
instead by several very strong muscles – but more on that later. A dog’s
pelvis is also more table-like while a human’s is shaped like a bowl, the
shoulder and hip are more stable, but also less mobile. Dogs have a
special set of bones in their throat called the hyoid apparatus which
anchors the tongue. The nine bones of the canine hyoid apparatus allow
for greater extension of the tongue while humans have only one u-
shaped hyoid bone located lower in the throat and allowing us to make
the more intricate sounds required for verbal language. And of course,
they have a tail.
It is important to know the names and locations of the bones
since they act as the levers that allow muscles to create
movement. But bones are not only used as levers to create
movement, they have four other important functions:
To provide the structural frame for the body
To protect the vital and internal organs
To store minerals – particularly calcium
To act as a production site for blood cells within the
marrow
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Now again open your anatomy text to read and study Plate 7:
Skeleton of the Dog. Note that the axial skeleton refers to the bones
located along the midline or the core of the body while the
appendicular skeleton includes the bones in the limbs - thus the
forelimb and the hind limb are part of the appendicular skeleton.
The sacroiliac joint is the only joint connecting the appendicular
skeleton to the axial skeleton. Notice how the forelimb is not
connected to the axial skeleton through a joint. As indicated above,
it is attached by soft tissue structures only.
Plate 8: Vertebral Column of your anatomy text should be
examined very carefully. The spinous processes (SP) and
transverse processes (TVP) play a very important role in our study
of the muscle attachments and can help in understanding some of
the animal’s movements. For example, notice how both the SP and
the TVP at the cervical vertebrae are short and broad. This allows
the bones to move freely towards each other in several directions.
In contrast, the vertebrae in the thoracic region have very long SP’s
sticking up, but comparably shorter TVP’s to the sides. This allows
the animal a great deal of side to side movement and the ability to
take deep breaths, but a restricted amount of movement in rounding
the back at the shoulders. In the lumber region it reverses and the
SP’s are shorter while the TVP’s are very long and broad. This
allows for the attachment of a great number of muscles and the
ability to arch the lower back, but limited side to side movement as
the TVP's would touch each other. Notice also that the SP’s of the
spine have either a caudal tilt (toward the tail) in the thoracic spine,
or a cranial tilt (toward the head) in the lumbar spine.
The SP of the 10th thoracic vertebrae (T10) does not have a
tilt and feels like a dip in the back or that it is missing completely.
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This point is called the point of aclination from Latin 'a' meaning
“without” and ‘clin’ meaning “incline”.
While studying Plate 8, also note the special relationship that
exists between the first cervical vertebrae, the atlas, and the second
cervical vertebrae, the axis. These two bones attach and work
together in a special way allowing the head and upper-neck to
rotate; for example when you use your head to say “No”.
From your Instructor:
While massage techniques differ dramatically from osteopathic or chiropractic
techniques, alignment of the skeletal system is closely linked to the tension and
health of the muscular system. Massage techniques can have profound effects
on the health of the combined musculoskeletal system. The techniques used by
massage practitioners should never involve thrust directed into the joints or
bone surfaces and it is inappropriate (and usually illegal) for a massage
practitioner to ever knowingly provide chiropractic treatment for their client.
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Joints
The skeletal system alone can not create movement until the
muscles and other soft tissues are added, however the shape of the
bones and how they connect to each other are certainly determining
factors in the type of movement available. How the bones connect
to each other defines how they will articulate, or move together.
Different types of joints enable different types of movements or
may limit movement to only one plane or direction:
the ball-and-socket joint – allows movement in three
planes. Some examples of ball-and-socket joints on
humans include the shoulder and the hip.
Note from your instructor: To visualize the three planes in which
the shoulder can move, hold your arm at your side and then raise it
outward away from you and then further upward toward your head.
The line drawn by your arm is one plane. The second plane is
created by again holding your arm at your side and then lifting it
forward in front of you and then up toward your head. The third
plane is made by holding your arm in front of you as if you are
pointing at something and then while keeping it at the same height,
moving it to point at something to your side.
the hinge joint – allows movement in one plane like
the hinge on a door. Some examples on humans would
be the elbow, the knee or the last two knuckles on your
hand (but not the knuckle at your hand).
the pivot joint – allows rotation or pivoting in place,
like a jar and its lid. Our most often used pivot joint is
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in the neck. It is the atlantoaxial joint which allows
you to turn your head to tell someone “no!”.
the plane or ‘sliding’ joint – allows small movements
in all directions through the articulation of several
small bones. Our wrists and our ankles are wonderful
examples of gliding joints as are the vertebrae.
Though only 4 types of joints are defined for your studies
based on their shape and the available movements, they all have
one thing in common – they are all synovial joints.
Open your anatomy workbook to Plate 14: Structure of
Joints and you will see a visual representation of a synovial joint at
Figure 3. Note that it has the following characteristics:
a pad of articular cartilage at the ends of the bones to
lessen the force if the bones touch during movement
a supportive fibrous joint capsule with collateral (on
opposite sides) ligaments to limit the amount of
movement available
lubricating fluid produced within the synovial
membrane and often a fibrous padding between the
bones to protect the bones from the friction of
movement
The support offered by the collateral ligaments in
combination with the extra protection of the articular cartilage and
synovial fluid create a joint that can bend, flex, compress, rotate
and stretch with an impressive degree of safety. In joints such as the
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gliding joints, since movement is allowed in so many directions,
instead of possessing a joint capsule they are instead protected by a
fluid-filled sack called a bursa located between the articulating
edges. Synovial joints, however, are not the only type of joints in
the body. There are two other types of joints that allow for minute
amounts of movement between the bones - these are the fibrous
joints and the cartilaginous joints. These joints are less associated
with movement and therefore are less involved in musculoskeletal
dysfunction yet they can still benefit from bodywork, particularly to
stimulate fluid dynamics as in cranio-sacral work.
Fibrous joints, such as those found between the bones of the
skull, connect bones along a tight-knit suture line. Movement in this
type joint is limited to the minimal amount of stretch permitted by
receptors within the suture line itself.
Cartilaginous joints join bones along a line called a
symphysis. The joint does not have a specific joint capsule and
movement at the joint is minimal. The right and left halves of the
pelvis are connected by a cartilaginous joint at the pubic bone.
During childbirth (or whelping in dogs)
specific hormones are released to allow
the joint to loosen to allow more
movement and space for delivery.
Multiple litters may cause the joint to
become “lax” or unstable in some
animals.
Many common joint dysfunctions including arthritis,
dysplasia, inflammation due to strain or injury to supporting
ligaments or tendons, or even desiccation of the joint fluid due to
age or nutrition can benefit from the rejuvenating effects of
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massage. Massage helps to enhance or restore circulation, remove
waste products held at the injury site and encourage mobility in stiff
joints.
The following sections of your anatomy text will help you
learn more about the joints and their locations in the dog. Study
them carefully and send any questions you have to your instructor.
Plate 14: Structure of Joints
Plate 15: Joints of the Forelimb
For the purpose of this course it is not necessary to know the names of
the individual carpal bones and joints though this may be valuable for
future study of if you plan to assist in a veterinary practice. For now it
is sufficient to describe the wrist of the dog as the carpal joints while
understanding that multiple articulations are possible.
Plate 25: Bones of the Pelvis
We study the bony landmarks of the pelvis later so you are not required
to know these yet. It is, however, important that you get an idea of the
shape and size of the pelvis and understand how the three bones come
together to form the os coxae or hip bone.
Plate 28: Joints of the Hind Limb
As with the front limb, it is not necessary to know the individual names
of the tarsal bones and joints for this course. You should understand
that the area is described as the hock of the dog and that multiple
articulations are present.
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Bony Landmarks
Now that you are familiar with the bones and joints, you can
begin your study of the various landmarks, or locators, on the
bones. Bones are not smooth. They have many features such as
bumps, ridges, dents and curves. These topographical features can
be palpated, meaning “to be felt with the hand”, and have specific
names. Several of the tendons and ligaments that you will study
later attach at these landmark points making it easier for use to
locate and release tension in the associated muscle.
When describing the bony landmarks, some general terms are
used by medical professionals to help in locating them. The list
below should help you understand the terms in your text.
Term Meaning Example
arch arc inguinal arch
condyle knuckle lateral femoral condyle
crest top of hill crest of ilium
Epicondyle over the knuckle medial epicondyle
fossa bowl supraspinous fossa
process a projection spinous process
spine ridge spine of scapula
trochanter large projection greater trochanter
tuber root or bulb tuber coxae
tubercle small round bump lesser tubercle of the humerus
tuberosity large round bump radial tuberosity
There are several common bony landmarks used as muscle
attachment sites that will reappear often during your studies. It is in
your best interest to familiarize yourself with these bony landmarks
and to learn how to palpate them. Most are relatively easy to locate.
Using your anatomy book and referring to the plate indicated while
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learning the landmarks will help you visualize the points while
learning their names. Many of the descriptions use the directional
terms and body planes you learned previously. You may need to
refer back to plates 2 and 3 to refresh your memory.
Plate 12: Bones of the Shoulder, Arm and Forearm
Spine of the Scapula (also called the scapular spine)
(2) - the ridge located down the centre of the scapula
Supraspinous Fossa (1) - located on the cranial half
of the scapula from the anterior border to the scapular
spine
Infraspinous Fossa (4) - located on the caudal half of
the scapula from the posterior border to the scapular
spine
Acrimion (3) - the projection at the distal aspect of the
scapular spine
Greater Tubercle (10) - the small round bump on the
anterior head of the humerus (also known as the Point
of the Shoulder)
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Lesser Tubercle (12) - the small round bump on the
medial head of the humerus adjacent to the greater
tubercle
Deltoid Tuberosity (14) - large round bump on the
anterior surface of the humerus, distal to the greater
tubercle
Teres Major Tuberosity (16) - large round bump on
the posterior and medial surface of the proximal
humerus, distal to the lesser tubercle
Lateral Epicondyle (17) - feature located above the
knuckle on the lateral surface of the humerus at the
level of the elbow
Medial Epicondyle (22) - feature located above the
knuckle on the medial surface of the humerus at the
level of the elbow
Olecranon Process (26) - long projection of the ulna
at the back of the elbow
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Plate 25: Bones of the Pelvis
Crest of the ilium (1) - located from the most dorsal
aspect of the pelvis around to the anterior border of the
ilium
Ischiatic tuber (7) - large prominence across the most
caudal aspect of the pelvis on the ischium; also called
the ischial tuberosity or pin bone (note that the dog has
two of these tubers, one on each side of the pelvis)
Pelvis Symphysis (8) - the suture line between the left
and right hip bones on the ventral surface of the pelvis
Cranial ventral iliac spine (11) - located on the
ventral and cranial lip of the ilium; also known as the
“Point of Haunch” or the Tuber Coxae
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Plate 26: Bones of the Thigh and Leg
Head of the Femur (1) - located on the proximal end
of the femur; this is the ball of the hip joint
Lesser Trochanter (3) - located on the posterior
aspect of the femur, just distal to the head
Greater Trochanter (4) - located on the most lateral
aspect of the proximal femur; easily palpated and
known as the “Point of Hip”
Medial and Lateral Epicondyles (6, 7) - located on
the inner (medial) and outer (lateral) aspect of the
distal end of the femur
Tibial Tuberosity (17) - located on the proximal end
of the tibia, just below the joint
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The Soft Tissues
Though the skeletal system determines the type of movement
possible, it is not capable of creating movement until the soft
tissues are added. When laid over the architecture provided by the
skeleton, soft tissues form the overall body shape, use the bones as
levers for movement and define the range of movements
permissible.
All soft tissues are composed of several different materials
including water, proteins, salts, minerals, lipids and simple sugars.
Each type of tissue has different amounts of each of these elements
resulting in varying degrees of thickness, pliability and function.
Various soft tissues that we do not study in this course can
also profit from massage. Internal organs, the brain, the spinal cord
and various membranes, or pleura, are all nourished and
strengthened by the healing benefits of massage.
As massage practitioners, however, we are mainly concerned
about the proper functioning of the fascia, ligaments, tendons and
muscles. These four types of soft tissue are responsible for creating
movement while preventing hyper-mobility (too much or excessive
movement) in the body. They play a large role in posture and help
in transporting fluids and nutrients throughout the body to support
the overall health of the system.
Fascia
The most widespread of all the soft tissues is fascia.
Sometimes referred to as connective tissue, fascia is found
throughout the body and in various forms. It consists mainly of
water, collagen and other proteins.
Fascia is one of the first tissues to differentiate itself in the
development of an embryo and creates the tension that stimulates
the body to form the bones. As it develops, it surrounds or is
interwoven into each structure of the body - encasing bones in a
sleeve of connective tissue called the periosteum and enveloping
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each muscle fibre, internal organ and every part of the nervous
system in a fascial membrane.
Tendons and muscles share fascia, ligaments are dense
connective tissue bands, blood vessels are pipelines created by
connective tissue and even the eye and the brain contain fascial
components. In fact, fascia exists as one continuous sheet that
travels through the body in a myriad of directions - gaining density
in one area, stretching to a think watery membrane in another.
Like a spider’s web, the fascial system is sensitive to any
stimulus it receives, travelling like a ripple in a pond throughout the
body. As a result, any disruption in the system can have far-
reaching effects on the health, posture and movement of the animal.
Superficial fascia refers to those layers of connective tissue
just below the skin or closest to the external body that can usually
be palpated. Deep fascia includes the connective tissue between the
layers of muscles, the periosteum around the bones, and the
membranes of the intestines that are less accessible. Fascial
interspersed between the muscle fibres and their neural components
is called myofascia and will be the subject of further discussion
later in the course.
Facial Health and Injury
Healthy fascia is flexible and resilient and should assist in
smooth and free movement of the skin over the underlying tissues.
It also provides as slippery contact between deep tissues.
When healthy, the natural tone of fascia is similar to a muscle
at rest - it is neither too loose nor too firm. It is similar to a wet
sponge. It can be likened to a woven fabric whereby a tug or strain
at one point simultaneously creates a tightening or loosening in the
surrounding areas. By maintaining this constant tension, fascia
creates reliable and flexible support. In contrast, unhealthy fascia
will either possess too much tonus - whereby the fascia looks and,
upon palpation, feels too tight - or not enough - resulting in the
tissue appearing limp.
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Tight and restricted fascia will create ratcheted or strained
movement that is not fluid. It will also eventually lead to the
cessation of movement. Restricted fascia may be described as
looking and feeling wrinkled, dry, leathery or stiff. The tissue itself
is dehydrated. The surrounding tissues will not move freely and
may appear stretched, puckered, or crowded by the unhealthy
fascia.
Overly loose fascia does not occur often in animal, but it may
be seen as chronic or pocketed swelling. It has lost its supportive
function so structures may appear to sag or hang and movement
may be sloppy or hyper-mobile.
Whether too tight of too loose, massage is an effective way to
influence the texture and function of the fascia. Plate 16: Fascia in
your anatomy text shows some of the major fascial areas. Read and
study this information carefully to help you in your practice of
massage.
Ligaments
Tough, rope-like ligaments of both elastic and inelastic fibres
connect bone to bone. The yellow coloured elastic fibres are made
of collagen, while the white, inelastic fibres consist mainly of
protein. To offer the skeleton support and protection in its
movements, ligaments must be very strong to avoid bones
disconnecting from one another at the joints during articulations.
Strength and flexibility, however, have a reciprocal relationship;
one exists at the expense of the other. Thus because they are
required to be so strong, ligaments are less flexible than the other
soft tissues that you will study.
Health and Injury of Ligaments
Although ligaments allow movement within a designed
range-of-motion (ROM), excessive or abnormal movement at a
joint can overstretch the ligaments resulting in a sprain or small
tears in the tissue. Sprained ligaments are extremely painful but
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may not always display excessive swelling due to their limited
vascular, or blood, supply.
Severed ligaments may exhibit less pain due to loss of the
nerve stimulus, but will generally be accompanied by inflammation
and hyper-mobility. Ligament injuries are less common than tendon
or muscle injuries, but they will require a longer rehabilitation
period.
Please familiarize yourself with the following ligaments:
Collateral Ligaments
Ligaments found on the lateral and medial aspects of a
synovial joint are called collateral or capsular ligaments. The
combination of collateral ligaments and muscles offer such well-
engineered support that dislocation of the joint is rare.
Dorsal Ligament System
There is one very special group of ligaments that provide
support for the axial skeleton. This group of ligaments, known as
the dorsal ligament system refers to the cooperative action of four
ligaments; the nuchal, supraspinous, sacroiliac and sacrotuberous
ligaments.
The nuchal ligament connects the second cervical vertebra to
the second thoracic vertebra and acts to support the head and neck.
The supraspinous ligament follows along the top of the spine,
attaching to the transverse process of each vertebra to provide
support for the animal’s back. Supporting the pelvis and providing
attachment points for several of the large neighbouring muscle
groups, the sacroiliac and sacrotuberous ligaments are also
responsible for allowing the pelvis to rotate slightly when the
animal runs.
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Tendons
Just as ligaments provide support to articulating bones,
tendons act as an anchor between the muscles and the bones.
Like ligaments, tendons consist of both elastic and inelastic
fibres, however, tendons have a greater percentage of elastic fibres
giving them more flexibility and allowing for a greater degree of
movement between muscle and bone.
Tendons are fascia, or connective tissue fibres, that run
through a muscle and between the muscle fibres. At the ends of the
muscles, as the muscle fibres thin out or decrease, the connective
tissue condenses into thick bands. The point where the muscle
fibres decrease and the connective tissue increases in density is
called the musculotendinous junction. After this junction, the
connective tissue is now considered a tendon and attaches to a bone
at a bony landmark by connecting to the periosteum (the connective
tissue enveloping the bone).
Health and Injury of Tendons
In addition to serving as an anchor for the muscles, tendons
have special nerves that measure the amount of stress a muscle is
under due to load or fatigue. If the nerves are not functioning
properly due to trauma or sedation, both the muscle and the tendon
are vulnerable to strain or tearing. Pain, swelling and gradual loss of
range of motion are common signs associated with tendon injuries.
Since tendons have a greater blood supply than ligaments, generally
a tendon injury will heal faster than a ligament injury of similar
severity.
Tendon injuries also occur when a muscle is used to make
the same motion repetitively over a short amount of time. Chronic
overuse causing inflammation of the membrane surrounding the
tendon is called tendonitis. This condition can occur in animals in
the same way it does in humans though tendonitis can also have
other causes.
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Muscles
Muscles have five primary functions including:
movement
heat-production (a by-product of contraction)
fluid transport (blood, lymph, water)
nutrient transport
involuntary processes (heartbeat, digestion, etc.)
Each muscle is made up of thousands of individual muscle
fibres made of primarily water and protein. Groups of muscle fibres
are called muscle bundles or fascilicles. The thicker, central area of
the muscle is created by multiple bundles and is known as the belly
of the muscle. As stated in the previous section, the point where the
muscle fibres decrease and the connective tissue collects to become
the muscle’s tendon that will connect to the bone is called the
musculotendinous junction
When the nerves are stimulated, the muscle bundles contract
and shorten by folding like an accordion. This contraction, in
conjunction with the muscle’s connections to the bones through the
tendons, articulates the bones and creates movement.
Contraction can occur in two different ways known as
concentric and eccentric contraction. Concentric contraction occurs
while the muscle is going from the resting state to its shortened
position. Eccentric contraction keeps the movement under control
as the shortened muscle returns back to its lengthened state - some
fibres remain in the contracted state until the muscle returns to its
resting position to prevent abrupt movements that could damage the
tissues.
For example, think of lifting a glass from a table. When you
raise the glass, the muscles in the front of your arm contract to
bring your upper and lower arm closer together - this is concentric
contraction. As you set the glass back on the table, your muscles
can not simply release else you would drop the glass to the table, or
if the object were heavier, may tear the muscle as the object is
pulled uncontrolled by gravity. Instead, some of the fibres remain
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contracted to slowly lower the glass and protect the muscle and its
tendonous connections - this is eccentric contraction.
Muscles are described by their attachment points and their
action. Each muscle has an attachment site considered to be the
origin, or fixed attachment point, and an attachment site considered
to be the insertion, or the moving attachment. The muscle’s action
is defined as the movement created when the muscle is actively -
intentionally - shortened or contracted and the bony attachments are
brought closer together. Note that muscles are like a one-way street
in their working; they can only contract or release. They are not
able to expand and “push” the bones apart; they can only contract to
pull them together. This is why muscles come in pairs on opposite
sides of a joint.
Some muscles however have more than two attachments and
multiple actions which can blur the distinction between the origin
and the insertion. For this course you will be required to know the
attachment locations for the muscles as well as which is the origin
and which is the insertion. This will make your work more effective
and efficient since in general, problems occur more frequently at
the musculotendinous junction closest to the origin.
Individual Muscles
On the following pages you will find a list of muscles
including their attachment points and actions. While studying and
learning the muscles, focus your attention on being able to locate
and palpate them on the animal. In this course you will not learn
every muscle of the canine, but instead those that are most
commonly involved in massage.
To help you in your studies, you will be creating a flashcard
for each muscle. You are encouraged to add any additional
information to your flashcards as you see fit. Expanding your
knowledge of anatomy and kinesiology beyond the content of this
course will improve your talents as an animal massage therapist and
may help you to specialize in a particular field such as rehabilitation
of competing animals or improving the mobility and flexibility of
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older animals. Information that will help you in achieving these
goals can be easily added to and accessed from your flashcards.
The names of the muscles often contain clues about their
location (serratus ventralis), their shape (triceps), their action
(adductor), or their attachment sites (brachiocephalicus).
Before you begin studying the muscles, please read the
following study hints designed to help you learn the material
quickly and easily.
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Study Hints
The study of anatomy is best accomplished through repetition
and by learning small amounts of information during each study
period. Frequent review and making use of your study materials -
anatomy textbook and flashcards - will help you cover a
considerable amount of information in less time and with greater
retention. To ensure that your learning remains interesting and does
not become too overwhelming, it is recommended that you do not
attempt to learn more than four muscles per day. Study the muscles
using the following hints to make your learning experience
enjoyable:
1. Read the name of the muscle on the following
Essential Muscle List (EML).
2. Find the muscle in your anatomy text (plate #’s
are provided on the EML).
3. Study the location, shape and direction of the
fibres of the muscle.
4. Using a colour pen, pencil or marker, colour the
muscle in your anatomy book.
5. Take out a blank flashcard and three different
coloured pens, pencils or markers.
6. Write the name of the muscle on the back of
your flashcard.
7. Read the attachment sites for the muscle from
the EML and locate them using your anatomy
book.
8. Write the name of the origin on the back of your
flash card.
9. Use one colour to mark the muscle’s origin on
the front of your flashcard.
10. Now write the name of the insertion on the back
of your flashcard.
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11. Turn the flashcard over and use a second colour
to draw the attachment point (you will add the
‘action’ information later when you study the
Kinesiology section).
12. Look at the picture in the text book again and
then, using the third colour, draw the muscle
fibres in the correct direction between the
attachment sites on your flashcard.
13. Attempt to imagine and locate the muscle on a
stuffed animal.
14. Palpate the location and shape of the muscle on a
willing animal (be sure not to poke the animal as
you palpate).
15. Repeat steps 1-14 for the next 3 muscles.
When you start your study of the next four muscles on the
following day, take a few minutes to first review the muscles you
have already learned. If you follow this routine each time you learn
new muscles, you will quickly feel confident in your new
knowledge and will be familiar with all the muscles when you reach
the end of the list.
Note from your instructor: In our experience in teaching this material, the
flashcards have proven to be a key learning tool. The process of making the
flashcards will by far be the most time-intensive aspect of the entire course, but
it is also the most valuable. You will need your completed set of flashcards to
complete work in later sections and to receive your certificate after the
practicum. The flashcard set is also a great tool for your professional “toolkit”
when you start your own practice. You can quickly refer to the flashcards you
have made to confirm issues you feel you have found on your canine client and
to help explain your findings to the animal’s owner. Do not skip this exercise.
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Muscles of the Canine
Muscles of the Head and Neck
Masseter (plate 17, muscle # 7)
Attachments:
Origin (O): Zygomatic arch (plate 39)
Insert (I): Ramus of the mandible (plate 39)
Action: Mastication (chewing); elevation of the mandible
Frontal (plate 17, # 4)
Attachments:
O: Surface of the frontal bone (plate 39)
I : Also surface of the frontal bone (plate 39)
Action: Raises the scalp; ear movement
Splenius (plate 18, # 1)
Attachments:
O: SP of T1-T3 (plate 8) and nuchal ligament
(extra handout, #11)
I : Mastoid (angular) process (plate 39)
Action: Lateral flexion and extension of the head and
neck
Brachiocephalicus (plate 17 - #’s 11, 14 and 15)
Attachments:
O: Mastoid process (plate 39)
Occipital bone (plate 39)
Nuchal ligament (extra handout, #11)
I : Cranial proximal 1/3 of the humerus (plate
12, between landmarks 10 and 14 on Figure 1)
Action: Shoulder (and forelimb) extension; unilateral
and bilateral flexion of the head and neck
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Sternocephalicus (plate 18, # 4 in Figure 1 and # 30 on Figure 2)
Attachments:
O: Mastoid process (plate 39)
Occipital bone (plate 39)
I : Sternum (at the manubrium)
Action: Unilateral and bilateral flexion of the head and
neck
Muscles of the Shoulder and Forelimb
Trapezius (plate 17, #12)
Attachments:
O: Nuchal ligament from C2-T7
(extra handout, #11)
I : Scapular spine (plate 12, #2) and brachial
fascia
Action: Elevation of the scapula; cervical portion draws
the scapula forward; thoracic portion draws the
scapula backward
Rhomboideus (plate 18, #5)
Attachments:
O: Occipital bone (plate 39, occipital b.)
Nuchal ligament (extra handout, #11)
SP of T1-T7 (plate 8)
I : Medial, dorsal border of the scapula (plate 12,
in the area of # 7)
Action: Elevation of the scapula; lateral flexion of the
neck; draws the scapula forward and backward
Ventral Serrate (Plate 18, #2)
Attachments:
O: TVP of C2-T8 (plate 8)
Lateral surface of ribs 1-7 (plate 9, Figure 1)
I : Subscapular fossa (plate 12, #8)
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Action: Trunk support (stationary and mobile) and
inspiration (inhaling)
Pectoral (plate 17, # 19, plate 18, #’s 32 and 33 and plate 19, # 4) -
occurs in two parts (deep and superficial)
Attachments:
O: Sternum (plate 9, Figure 1)
I : Medial shaft of the humerus (plate 12, area
between 16 and 21)
Action: Forelimb adduction
Brachialis (plate 17, # 17, plate 18 #11 and plate 19, #10)
Attachments:
O: Lateral proximal 1/3 of the humerus (plate
12, # area between 13 and 14)
I : Ulnar and radial tuberosities (plate 12, #25)
Note from your instructor: The ulnar tuberosity
is not indicated in your textbook, but lies on the
ulna at the same level as the radial tuberosity
Action: Elbow flexion
Bicep Brachii (Brachial Bicep) (plate 19, # 11)
Attachments:
O: Supraglenoid tubercle (plate 12, #5)
I : Ulnar and radial tuberosities (plate 12, #25)
Action: Elbow flexion; shoulder extension
Triceps Brachii (plates 17, # 18, plate 18, # 10 and plate 19, # 9) -
there are 4 heads: the long, the lateral, the medial and the accessory
Attachments:
O: Caudal border of the scapula (plate 12, along
the edge of area # 4)
I : Olecranon process (plate 12, # 26)
Action: Elbow extension; shoulder flexion
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Supraspinatus (plate 18, # 6 and plate 19, # 5)
Attachments:
O: Supraspinous fossa of the scapula (plate 12, # 1)
I : Greater tubercle of the humerus (plate 12, # 10)
Action: Shoulder extension and internal rotation
Infraspinatus (plate 18, # 7 and plate 19, # 6)
Attachments:
O: Infraspinous fossa of the scapula (plate 12, # 4)
I : Lateral tuberosity of the humerus (plate 12, in
the area of # 15)
Action: Shoulder flexion, abduction and external rotation
Deltoid (plate 17, # 16, plate 18, # 9)
Attachments:
O: Posterior spine of the scapula (plate 12, # 2)
I : Deltoid tuberosity of humerus (plate 12, # 14)
Action: Shoulder flexion, abduction and external rotation
Teres Major (plate 18, # 8 and plate 19, # 7)
Attachments:
O: Caudal border of the scapula (plate 12, along
the edge of area 4)
I : Teres major tuberosity of the humerus
(plate 12, # 16)
Action: Shoulder flexion and internal rotation
Muscles of the Trunk
Latissimus Dorsi (plate 17, # 20)
Attachments:
O: SP of T7-L6 (plate 8)
Thoracolumbar fascia (plate 16)
I : Teres major tuberosity (plate 12, # 16)
Action: Shoulder flexion and internal rotation; draws
foreleg backward
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Longissimus Dorsi (plate 18, # 16 and plate 35, # 3) - longest
thoracic and lumber muscle
Attachments:
O: TVP of C7-L6 (plate 8)
I : Crest of the ilium (plate 25 # 1)
Ventral surface of the ilium (plate 25, between
#’s 11 and 12)
Action: Extension and lateral flexion of the spine
Rectus Abdominus (plate 18, # 20)
Attachments:
O: Sternum and costal cartilages of ribs 4 - 9
(plate 9, Figure 1)
I : Cranial rim of the pubis (plate 25, between #4 and #9)
Action: Trunk support; flexion of the back
External Oblique (plate 17, # 21 and plate 18, # 34)
Attachments:
O: Lateral surface of ribs 6-13 (plate 9)
I : Inguinal arch (plate 25, Figure 2 - area
between #’s 12 and 4)
Action: Trunk support and later flexion; assist in
drawing the hind limb forward
Internal Oblique (plate 17, # 22) partial view
Attachments:
O: Spine of the iliac (plate 25, #‘s 11 and 12)
Inguinal arch (plate 25, Figure 2 - area
between #’s 12 and 4)
I : Medial surface of ribs 9-13 (plate 9)
Action: Trunk and visceral (intestinal) support
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Intercostals (plate 18, # 18) - internal and external (only external
are visible)
Attachments:
Anterior surface of each rib (plate 9)
Posterior surface of each rib (plate 9)
Action: Respiration (breathing)
Muscles of the Hindquarter
Iliopsoas (plate 35, Figure 2 - #’s 3 and 4)
Attachments:
O: Ventral surface of the lumbar vertebrae (plate
8)
Ventral surface of the ilium (plate 25,
between #’s 11 and 12)
I : Lesser trochanter of the femur (plate 26, # 3)
Action: Hip flexion
Superficial Gluteal (plates 17, caudal portion of # 24, plate 18,
caudal portion of # 22 and plate 31, # 4)
Attachments:
O: Sacrum at the spine of the iliac (plate 25,
between #’s 2 and 3)
Gluteal fascia (plate 16)
I : Greater trochanter of the femur (plate 26, # 4)
Action: Hip extension and abduction
Middle Gluteal (plate 17, cranial portion of # 24, plate 18, cranial
portion of #22 and plate 31, # 5)
Attachments:
O: Crest and gluteal surface of the ilium
(plate 25, # 1)
I : Greater trochanter of the femur (plate 26, # 4)
Action: Hip extension, abduction and internal rotation
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Tensor Fascia Latae (plate 17, # 26 and plate 31, # 6)
Attachments:
O: Cranial ventral iliac spine (plate 25, #11)
I : Lateral fermoral fascia (plate 16)
Action: Hip flexion; stifle extension
Bicep Femoris (plate 17, # 27 and plate 31, # 1)
Attachments:
O: Sacrotuberous ligament (plate 29)
Ischiatic tuberosity
(plate 25, ventral surface of # 7 and plate 29)
I : Tuber calcanei (point of hock) (plate 27)
Proximal tibia (plate 26)
Action: Extension of hip, stifle and hock
Semitendinosus (plate 17, # 28, plate 18, # 26 and plate 32, # 7)
Attachments:
O: Ischiatic tuberosities
(plate 25, ventral surface of # 7 and plate 29)
I : Medial body of the tibia (plate 26)
Tuber calcanei (plate 27)
Crural fascia (plate 16)
Action: Extension of hip and hock; flexion of the stifle
Semimembranosus (plate 18, # 25, plate 31, # 3 and plate 32, # 6)
Attachments:
O: Ischiatic tuberosities
(plate 25, ventral surface of # 7 and plate 29)
I : Posterior femur (plate 26)
Proximal tibia (plate 26)
Action: Extension of the hip; flexion of the stifle
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Gastrocnemius (plate 31, # 15 and plate 32, # 8)
Attachments:
O: Medial and lateral condyles of the femur
(plate 26, #’s 6 and 7)
I : Tuber cancanei (plate 27)
Action: Extension of the hock; flexion of the stifle
Adductor Group (plate 32, #’s 3, 4 and 5)
Note from your instructor: The adductor group is actually made up of
three muscles: Gracilis, Pectineus, and the Adductor. They share
common attachments on the inner thigh and all act to adduct the hind
limb. For the purposes of this course, you do not need to learn the
individual muscles of the adductor group, however it is a recommended
area for future study as their individual contributions to adduction vary
slightly and can be involved in specific dysfunctions.
Attachments:
O: Pelvic symphysis (plate 25, # 8)
Ventral arch of the ischium (plate 25, area
between #’s 7 and 4, lies below # 13)
I : Medial and posterior surface of the femur
(plate 26)
Action: Hind limb adduction
Quadricep Group (plate 31, # 9a and 9b and plate 32, # 2a and 2b)
Note from your instructor: The quadricep group is made up of four
muscles: Rectus femoris, Vastus Lateralis, Vastus Intermedius and
Vastus Medialis. They all have attachments on the inner thigh and act
in extension of the stifle. For the purposes of this course, you do not
need to learn the individual muscles of the quadriceps group, however
it is a recommended area for future study as their individual
contributions to hind limb action vary slightly and can be involved in
specific dysfunctions.
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Attachments:
Rectus Femoris (plate 31, #9a and plate 32, # 2a)
O: Cranial ventral spine of the ilium
(plate 25, # 11)
I : Proximal cranial tibia (plate 26)
Vastus muscles (plate 31, #9b and plate 32, #2b)
O: Shaft of the femur (plate 26)
I : Proximal tibia (plate 26)
Action: Stifle extension (Rectus Femoris also flexes the
hip)
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Muscles of the Limbs
For the purposes of this programme, you need to be
concerned with only two primary groups of muscles - the flexors
and the extensors. The joints of the limbs below the elbow and
below the hock are all hinge joints and thus only flex or extend.
When you consider the forelimb, you will quickly notice that
below the wrist the soft tissues are mainly tendons and ligaments
with very little muscle fibres. The names of the muscles in the limb
indicate their action, whether they act on the wrist (carpus) or the
toes (digits) and give a hint to their attachment location. Thus the
radial carpal flexor attaches to the radius and flexes the wrist
(carpal).
In the forelimb, the extensor muscles are found on the front
or anterior part of the leg while the flexors are located on the back
of the leg.
Forelimb (plate 20)
Radial Carpal Extensor (# 1)
Common Digital Extensor (# 3)
Radial Carpal Flexor (# 11)
Ulnar Carpal Flexor (#’s 7 and 8)
Superficial Digital Flexor (# 10)
On the hind limb, the same is true. Extensors are found on
the front of the leg, since contraction of these causes the foot to
extend, and flexors are on the back of the leg whereby contraction
causes the foot to flex.
Hind Limb
Superficial Digital Flexor (plate 32, # 9)
Deep Digital Flexor (plate 32, # 10)
Long Digital Extensor (plate 31, # 19)
Long Peroneal (plate 31, # 18 - turns foot
outward)
Cranial Tibial (plate 31, # 17 - turns foot
inward)
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Module 3:
Canine Anatomy and Physiology
Reinforcement Exercises
The following activities are designed to reinforce the material
and to make it easier for you to remember what you have just
learned. You are encouraged to participate fully in the activities to
help gain confidence, knowledge and comfort when working with
animals, their language of communication and the concepts that
have been introduced.
Instructions:Each exercise consists of a written assignment that you are to
submit to your instructor at the end of your study of the section.
Please re-state the question in your answer. For example, the
question “What is your name?” would be re-stated as “My name is
…”.
Please create a separate document for each exercise including
your name, the course section (for example - Section 1: Behaviour
and Handling) and the exercise number. You may send the
exercises via post or via e-mail. For submissions by post, please
send to:
Woofs & Hoofs
Professional Animal Massage Training
Sonnisstraat 106
3530 Helchteren
For e-mail submissions, please send only .TXT or Microsoft
Word .DOC files to [email protected] with your name and
the course section on the subject line.
You will be graded on your understanding of the material and
not on grammar or how well you can write, so do not be concerned
if your answers do not read like Shakespeare !
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Activity One:
Find a picture of a dog from a magazine, the internet or other
source. The picture should show a full side view of the dog’s body.
Label the picture with all of the external features that you have
learned. You may use multiple pictures if necessary. Submit your
picture with the features labelled.
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Activity Two:
Imagine that you are petting a dog from the tip of its nose to the tip
of its tail. Make a list of all the external points you touch as you
move from front to back. Submit this list.
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Activity Three:
Now imagine that you are petting the dog from the top of his
shoulder down to the tips of his toes. Make a list of all the bones
and landmarks you will touch as you follow this path. Remember to
consider if you are petting on the lateral or medial side of the arm !
Submit this list.
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Activity Four:
Make a table and categorize the following list of words based on if
they are related to the front limb or the hind limb.
plantar, deltoid tuberosity, manus, point of hip, pastern,
supraspinous fossa, acromion, pes, forearm, point of shoulder,
pinna, hock, fibula, palmar, head of fibula, tibial tuberosity, digits,
dorsal, tuber calcanei, supraglenoid tubercle, metatarsal, olecranon
process, radial tuberosity, stifle, radius, scapula, teres major
tuberosity, humerus, femur, patella, tibia, carpus, sesmoid bones,
ulna
Submit this table.
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Activity Five:
Complete the chart below comparing the general characteristics
found in all ligaments, tendons and muscles. Use terms such as
strong, weak, high, low, fast, slow, etc. Submit the chart.
Function Strength Flexibility CirculationHealing
Properties
Ligaments
Tendons
Muscles
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Activity Six:
Create lists answering the following criteria:
a. List all the muscles that attach on the scapula.
b. List all the muscles that attach at the mastoid
process.
c. List all the muscles that attach on the pelvis.
d. List all the muscles that attach on the ribs.
e. List all the muscles that attach on the nuchal
ligament.
f. List two muscles that share a common attachment
on the humerus.
g. List three muscles that share a common attachment
on the hock.
Submit the lists.
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Activity Seven:
During this module you have learned about two types of
muscles - superficial and deep. Explain which type you will
be touching during a massage and how you can affect each
type.
Now study the rhomboid and the trapezius muscles.
Which muscle is superficial and which is deep? What actions
do they share? Submit your answers.
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Activity Eight:
Choose four muscles that you have studied. Scan or
photocopy the front and back of that flashcards you have
created for these muscles. Submit these photocopies.
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Activity Nine:
When working with veterinarians, they will often use
the Latin names you have learned for muscles as well as the
other terms. If you work with pet owners, they will often not
recognise these Latin names so you will need to “translate”
them into more simple terms.
Also, if English is not your first language or the
language which you will be working in as an animal massage
practitioner, you may need to adjust your vocabulary to
ensure you can make yourself understood. For example the
English word “tendon” would translate to “pees”, “Sehne”,
“tendon” or “tendón” in Dutch, German, French or Spanish,
respectively. Though “scapula” could be used with a
veterinarian, you may need to replace it with “shoulder
blade”, or the foreign language equivalent, when speaking to
a pet owner.
Complete the list below with terms (in your “working
language”) which you may need to use to explain different
issues with veterinarians and pet owners.
English Term Your “translated”
veterinary term
Your “translated”
owner term
Bone
Tendon
Ligament
Soft Tissue
Scapula
Pelvis
Hip
Metacarpals
Masseter
Stifle
Lumbar spine
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Module 3 - Canine Anatomy and Physiology
Quiz Preparation Questions
1. Which structure is cranial to the shoulder?a. pelvisb. hockc. humerusd. skull
2. Which term refers to the arm?a. proximalb. cephalicc. brachiid. pre/pro
3. The elbow is to the carpal bones.a. inferiorb. proximalc. connectedd. lateral
4. The pes includes the tarsus, metacarpals and digits.a. trueb. false
5. The term “ventral” refers to the .a. headb. ribsc. bellyd. thorax
6. The stifle is to the pelvis and to the shoulder.a. proximal, posteriorb. inferior, lateralc. distal, caudald. superior, deep
7. Which best describes the anatomical back of the dog?a. the dorsal aspect of the dogb. the sagittal plane from the neck to the pelvisc. the thoracic spined. the area between the wither and the loin
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8. The Olecranon is a bony landmark on the humerus.a. trueb. false
9. The three types of joints are the .a. Cartilaginous, Synious and Fibrousb. Cartilaginous, Suture and Fibrousc. Symphysis, Fibrous and Cartilaginousd. Synovial, Fibrous, Cartilaginous
10. The Point of the Hip and the Point of the Shoulder are:a. bony landmarksb. attachment sites for musclesc. alternate names for features on the bonesd. all of the above
11. Palmar and plantar are terms used to describe the back of thelimbs below the wrist or hock.
a. trueb. false
12. The dorsal plane is an imaginary line that divides the body into:a. left and rightb. front and backc. upper and lowerd. medial and lateral
13. Which type of joint allows movement in three planes?a. ball-and-socket jointb. hinge jointc. sliding jointd. synovial joint
14. The median and sagittal planes are both:a. at the midlineb. horizontalc. laterald. vertical
15. The spinous processes are always longer than the transverseprocesses.
a. trueb. false
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16. Which of the following is a synovial joint?a. hinge jointb. ball and socket jointc. atlantoaxial jointd. all of the abovee. none of the above
17. The appendicular skeleton refers to the:a. skull and spineb. limbsc. bones at the midline of the bodyd. shoulder and hip
18. Which are components of a synovial joint?a. articular cartilageb. collateral ligamentsc. lubricating fluidd. cartilaginous jointe. all of the abovef. only a, b and dg. only b, c and dh. only a, b, and c
19. Another name for the metacarpus is the wrist.a. trueb. false
20. The ischiatic tuber is found on what body part?a. the shoulderb. the elbowc. the pelvisd. the skull
21. The dog’s rump is also called the .a. carpusb. croupc. withersd. buttock
22. When comparing canine and human anatomy, which of thefollowing joints on the dog is equivalent to our knee?
a. fetlockb. hockc. stifled. pes
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23. The vertebrae are fused by 1 ½ years of age.a. cervicalb. thoracicc. lumbard. sacrale. caudal
24. What is the meaning of the term “fossa”?a. projectionb. arcc. bowld. knuckle
25. The intervertebral disks of the dog account for of thetotal length of the vertebral column.
a. halfb. one-eighthc. one-fourthd. one-sixth
26. Another terms for the area at the top of the shoulders andbetween the shoulder blades is the .
a. point of shoulderb. withersc. thoraxd. crest
27. The hip bone, os coxae, is made up by three bones fusedtogether.
a. trueb. false
28. The prefix “ab-” means:a. to add tob. to move or take away fromc. to move or take towardd. to move apart
29. The dog has ribs (hint: it has the same number of ribs as thoracic
vertebrae)
a. sevenb. 20c. tend. 13
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30. The two hip bones are joined by the pubis to create thepelvis.
a. sutureb. syndesmosisc. synoviald. symphysis
31. If “condyle” means “knuckle”, what does “epicondyle” mean?a. at the knuckleb. under the knucklec. through the knuckled. over the knuckle
32. An object is said to be “cranial” to another object if it is .a. closer to the backb. closer to the tailc. closer to the headd. closer to the belly
33. Suture joints are the most flexible type of joints.a. trueb. false
34. The processes on the top of the vertebrae are called the .a. sacral processesb. spinous processesc. transverse processesd. coccygeal processes
35. The supraspinous and infraspinous fossae lie on the .a. humerusb. femurc. scapulad. acrimion
36. If “bilateral” means “two sided”, what does “quadrilateral”mean?
a. walks on four legsb. walks of two legsc. four sidedd. walks on four sides
37. The skeletal system creates movement.a. trueb. false
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38. The dog’s shoulder is attached to the body by:a. a hinge jointb. a ball-and-socket jointc. a pivot jointd. none of the above
39. The deltoid tuberosity is a large bump on the anterior surface ofthe .
a. ischiumb. humerusc. pelvisd. tibia
40.The point where the dog’s upper and lower lips meet is calledthe:
a. flewb. stopc. commissured. muzzle