Women’s Empowerment and Gender Equality · PDF fileWomen’s Empowerment and Gender...

06/03/2012

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Women’s Empowerment

and Gender EqualityFrom its beginnings until today

Content of presentation

I. The international movement of Feminism◦ What is Feminism◦ History, Waves and Types of Feminism◦ Where is Feminism going?

II. Women and the UN◦ UN conferences on Women◦ Declarations

III. Gender and Development◦ Women empowerment and economic development

(discussion on Esther Duflo’s article)

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I. The international movement of Feminism

What is Feminism?

Feminism opposes a culture in which women are treated differently from men, and that, in that difference of treatment, women are at a disadvantage;

Feminism assumes that such treatment is cultural and thus possible to change and not simply "the way the world is and must be";

Feminism consists of activism, individually and in groups, to make personal and social change towards a more desirable culture.

History of Feminism

Olympes de Gouge (French playwright and feminist, author during the French Revolution of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Citizen) (d. 1791), Mary Wollstonecraft (author of Vindication of the Rights of Woman) (d. 1797), and Jane Austen (d. 1817) are foremothers of the modern women's movement.

All of these people advocated for the dignity, intelligence, and basic human potential of the female sex.

However, it was not until the late 19th century that the efforts for women's equal rights coalesced into a clearly identifiable and self-conscious movement, or rather a series of movements.

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Waves of Feminism

� First wave from 1848-1920, when women won the vote

� Second wave in the 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence of

feminist activity, including the women's liberation movement

and the more mainstream feminist groups

� Third wave of feminism began in the mid-90's and is informed by

post-colonial and post-modern thinking

Waves of Feminism

First wave (late 19th and early 20th centuries)

� Emerged out of an environment of urban industrialism and

liberal, socialist politics.

� The goal of this wave was to open up opportunities for

women, with a focus on suffrage.

� The wave formally began at the Seneca Falls Convention in

1848 when 300 men and women rallied to the cause of equality

for women. Elizabeth Cady Stanton (d.1902) drafted the Seneca

Falls Declaration outlining the new movement's ideology and

political strategies.

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Waves of Feminism

First wave

Characteristics and Beliefs

� Victorian America saw women acting in very "un-ladylike"

ways (public speaking, demonstrating), which challenged the

"cult of domesticity."

� Discussions about the vote and women's participation in

politics led to an examination of the differences between men

and women as they were then viewed. Some claimed that

women were morally superior to men, and so their presence in

the civic sphere would improve public behavior and the

political process.

� Middle class white women in the focus

Waves of Feminism

Second Wave (began in the 1960s and continued into the 90's)

� Context of the anti-war and civil rights movements and awareness of

minority groups around the world.

� Dominant issues: sexuality, reproductive rights and passing the Equal

Rights Amendment to the Constitution guaranteeing social equality

regardless of sex.

� Phase began with Redstockings (radical New York group) protests

against the Miss America pageant in Atlantic City in 1968 and 1969.

� Marginalized due to other social movements: Black Power and the effort

to end the war in Vietnam

� Sex and gender were differentiated—the former being biological, and

the later a social construct that varies culture-to-culture and over time.

� Women of color and developing nations were in the focus, claiming

"Women's struggle is class struggle."

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Waves of Feminism

Second wave beliefs

� The personal is politicalThis popular slogan encapsulated the important idea that what happened to individual women also mattered in a larger sense.� The pro-woman lineIt was not an oppressed woman’s fault that she behaved like an oppressed woman.� Sisterhood is powerfulMany women found an important solidarity in the feminist movement.� Comparable worthMany feminists supported the Equal Pay Act, and activists also realized that women had never had equal pay opportunities in the historically separate and unequal workplace.� Abortion rights on demandMany feminists attended protests, wrote articles and lobbied politicians in the fight for women’s reproductive rights.

Waves of Feminsim

Third Wave (began in the mid-90's)

� Characterized by post-colonial and post-modern thinking.� Critically questioned concepts: "universal womanhood," body, gender,

sexuality and hetreronormativity. � New generation of feminists (grrl-Feminism), wearing lip-stick, high-

heals, etc. which were previously identified with male oppression. Defining feminine beauty for themselves as subjects, not as objects of a sexist patriarchy "It's possible to have a push-up bra and a brain at the same time.“

� The web is an important aspect of the new "girlie feminism" cyberspace is disembodied — it permits all users the opportunity to cross gender boundaries and so the very notion of gender has been become more problematic.

� Refusal to identify themselves as "feminists" � Characteristics: global and multi-cultural, celebrating diversity

(ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, etc.) Reality is conceived not so much in terms of fixed structures and power relations, but in terms of performance.

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Feminism and developing countries

� Women in developing countries did not necessarily share the same identity and cultural goals as Western feminism outlines. They have made clear how important it is to pay attention to difference.

� They identified the need to integrate race, class, and imperialism into the debate on gender subordination among women from developing countries.

� All countries have vastly differing histories, myths, socioeconomic frameworks and evolving social expectations that impact what it means to be male or female in each society and thus these issues may translate differently.

� Advancement for some does not necessarily equate to advancement for all. The increased labor force participation of white middle-class women has been accompanied, indeed made possible, by the increased availability outside the home of services formerly provided inside the home -- cleaning, food, health, and personal services. These jobs are disproportionately filled by women from developing countries.

Types of Feminism

Ecofeminism

� A social and political movement that blends environmentalismwith feminism.

� The environmental and Women’s Liberation movements have both sought to radically change and renew society.

� Ecofeminist philosophy recognizes and analyzes the connections between behavior that oppresses women and behavior that harms the environment. There are different types of ecofeminsm which focus on areas such as economics, spirituality, colonization, class struggle or racism.

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Types of Feminism

Liberal Feminism

� Primary goal: gender equality in the public sphere -- equal access to education, equal pay, ending job sex segregation, better working conditions – through legal reforms.

� Public influences the private� Women want what men want: to get an education, to make a decent

living, to provide for one's family. � Marriage is seen as an equal partnership, and more male involvement in

child care. � Abortion and other reproductive rights have to do with control of one's

life choices and autonomy. � Ending domestic violence and sexual harassment have to do with

removing obstacles to women. � State as the protector of individual rights. Support affirmative action

legislation. � Biological differences are not a justification for inequality, such as the

wage gap between men and women. � Criticism: lack of class or race analysis. Judging women and their success by male standards.

Types of Feminism

Radical Feminism

� Philosophy emphasizing the patriarchal roots of inequality between men and women - social dominance of women by men.

� Radical feminism opposes existing political and social organization in general because it is inherently tied to patriarchy. Thus, radical feminists tend to be skeptical of political action within the current system, and instead support cultural change that undermines patriarchy and associated hierarchical structures.

� Radical feminism opposes patriarchy, not men. To equate radical feminism to man-hating is to assume that patriarchy and men are inseparable, philosophically and politically.

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Types of Feminism

Socialist Feminism

� The term "socialist feminism" was increasingly used during the 1970s

� Socialist feminist theory analyzed the connection between the oppression of women and other oppression in society (racism, economic injustice)

� Socialists had fought for decades to create a more equal society that did not exploit the poor and powerless in the ways capitalism did.

� Socialist feminism recognized the oppressive structure of capitalist society. Like radical feminism, socialist feminism recognized the fundamental oppression of women in patriarchal society.

� However, socialist feminists did not recognize gender as the exclusive basis of all oppression.

Feminism

Where is Feminism going?

� Some older feminists feel discouraged by the younger generation's seeming ignorance of or disregard for the struggles and achievements of the early movement.

� They see little progress (the pay gap has not significantly narrowed in 60 years), and are fearful that the new high-heeled, red-lipped college grrls are letting us backslide.

� This, however, is not likely the case. There have always been feminisms in the movement, not just one ideology, and there have always been tensions, points and counter-points. It's a sign that they are thriving.

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II. Women and the UN

4 UN world conferences on women:

� Mexico City 1975

� Copenhagen 1980

� Nairobi 1985

� Beijing 1995

Women and the UN

Mexico City, 1975: A global dialogue is opened

� 1975 declared International Women’s Year� 1976 – 1985 declared as Decade for Women by the UN General

Assembly� Objectives:◦ Full gender equality and the elimination of gender discrimination; ◦ The integration and full participation of women in development; ◦ An increased contribution by women in the strengthening of world

peace.� World Plan of Action was adopted – guidelines for governments and

int. community to be met by 1980� The International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) to provide the institutional framework for research, training and operational activities in the area of women and development were created

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Women and the UN

Copenhagen, 1980: The Review Process Begins

� Review and appraise the 1975 World Plan of Action� Important milestone - the adoption by the General Assembly in

December 1979 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, one of the most powerful instruments for women's equality

� Despite the progress made, the Copenhagen Conference recognized that signs of disparity were beginning to emerge between rights secured and women's ability to exercise these rights

� Identified 3 key areas: equal access to education, employment opportunities and adequate health care services

� stronger national measures to ensure women's ownership and control of property, as well as improvements in women's rights to inheritance, child custody and loss of nationality.

� Delegates at the Conference also urged an end to stereotyped attitudes towards women.

Women and the UN

Nairobi, 1985: “The Birth of Global Feminism”

� The movement for gender equality had gained true global recognition

� to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace

� With 15,000 representatives of non-governmental organizations attending the parallel NGO Forum, many referred to the Conference as the "birth of global feminism".

� Data gathered by the UN revealed that improvements in the status of women and efforts to reduce discrimination had benefited only a small minority of women.

� Wider approach: all issues were women's issues - women's equality, far from being an isolated issue, encompassed every sphere of human activity

� Identified measures: Constitutional and legal steps, Equality in social participation, Equality in political participation and decision-making;

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Women and the UN

Beijing, 1995: Legacy of Success

� Fundamental transformation: shift the focus from women to the concept of gender, recognizing that the entire structure of society, and all relations between men and women within it, had to be re-evaluated.

� Reaffirmation that women's rights were human rights and that gender equality was an issue of universal concern, benefiting all.

� Adoption of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action� Identified 12 critical areas: women and poverty, Education and training of

women, women and health, violence against women, women and armed conflict, women and the economy, women in power and decision-making, institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women, human rights of women, women and the media, women and the environment, the girl child.

� The introduction of gender mainstreaming called for the re-examination of society in its entirety and its basic structure of inequality.

� the Secretary-General assigned a Special Adviser on Gender Issues, whose role was to ensure system-wide implementation of the gender perspective in all aspects of the work of the United Nations.

Declarations

� Convention of the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination

against Women (CEDAW, 1979)

� Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995)

� Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 2000)

◦ MDG 3: Gender Equality

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III. Gender and Development

“Women Empowerment and Economic Development“

by Esther Duflo (2012)

Relationship between women’s empowerment and economic development:

� Development plays a major role in driving down inequalities between men and women

� Empowering women benefits development

� Inter-relationships are too weak to be self-sustaining, therefore continuous policy commitment for gender equality is needed

“Women Empowerment and Economic Development“ by Esther Duflo (2012)

Introduction

� Phenomenon of missing women – term by Amartya Sen, to capture the fact that the proportion of women is lower than what would be expected if girls and women throughout the developing world were born and died at the same rate, relative to boys and men, as they do in Sub Saharan Africa.

� Today, about 6 million women are missing every year (World Development Report, 2012). 23% are never born, 10% are missing in early childhood, 21% in the reproductive years, and 38% above the age of 60.

� From their births, throughout their lives, women are treated differently from their brothers and consequently lag behind in seeking education, employment, political responsibility, etc. They would have obtain these domains if they had been men.

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Introduction

Gender equality over the past 20 years� Enrolment rate at primary and secondary schools improved� Women earn less for similar work, spend twice as much time

on housework and 5 times as much on childcare� Women represent 19,4% MPs (2011)� Women lack independent rights to own land, manage

property, conduct business, travel without their husband’s consent and there are unequal inheritance rights.


Introduction

Why gender equality?

� Women’s empowerment = economical development

� Economical development = Women’s empowerment

� WDR 2012 – Equality btw. women and men is a desirable goal in

itself

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Question 1: Can economic development cause women’s empowerment?

� Gender inequality is greater among the poor (e.g. gender gap in education, participation of women in the labour market has grown by 15% in emerging economies and the gender wage gap decreased)

� Economical development relaxes household constraints and hence reduce women’s vulnerability (e.g. girls get systematically less care/food than their brothers, girls in India are more than twice as likely to die from diarrhoea than boys)

� Improved universal access to health care automatically improves girl’s access

� In crisis (droughts), less resources are spent on women or women must bare the costs (witch burning increases and is twice as likely as in normal times)


Question 1: Can economic development cause

women’s empowerment?

� As households get richer, they will also be less likely to face choices

at the margin of subsistence.

� Reducing poverty seems to automatically favour women.

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Maternal mortality

If parents expect girls to be much more likely to die as young women

than boys, they might tend to invest more in boys (e.g. reduction in

maternal mortality in Sri Lanka through policy measures led to the

reduction in the education gap)




Opportunities

Fewer opportunities for women in the public sphere lead to unequal

treatment in the household (e.g. parents have lower aspirations for

girls)

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Freeing up women’s time� At all level of incomes women do the majority of housework and

care and correspondingly spend less time in market work.� Women’s economical empowerment = increases their bargaining

power = reduces fertility = increases education (less drop outs due to early pregnancies) (e.g. the pill from the 1960’s on led to an increased age at marriage and an increased length of study)




Women’s rights

There is a correlation btw economical development and legal rights

(property rights, access to land and bank loans, violence against

women, abortion policies)

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Is economical development enough?• Economical growth is not enough to overcome discrimination at home and in other domains (e.g. China experienced growth while the sex ratio at birth worsened continuously)

• The gender gap in political participation is also big in rich countries (e.g. In 2011 only 26 countries met the target of the UN Economic and Social Council to have 30% or more women in national legislative seats)

• Adversary effect: economic growth and new technologies have led to sex-selective abortions in some countries

• Gender stereotypes persist in developed countries. Despite women’s increased participation in the labour market and in academic disciplines, both men and women are more likely to associate men with careers and women with the family.



Is economical development enough?

The “stereotype threat” effect� Studies have shown that girls are highly influenced by internalized gender bias (e.g. performing worse in maths)

� Due to social conditioning women are less willing to compete. The widespread perception that women are not competent leaders is probably the strongest barrier to greater participation in policy making.

� As perceptions are biased, affirmative action is needed (countries that have 30% or more female representation in politics, have some form of affirmative action policy in place)

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Question 2: Can women’s empowerment cause economic development?

During the 4th UN World Conference on Women it was mentioned that:

� Education for girls helps reducing child and maternal mortality, increases the educational attainment by daughters and sons, leads to a higher productivity and finally in faster economic growth.

� Education for girls increases female representation in leadership positions and increases the quality of decision making.

� Education for girls improves children’s education, the use of contraceptives and the management of homes.


Question 2: Can women’s empowerment cause

economic development?

Women as decision makers

� Preferences of men and women differ within the household

� Income in hands of women improves children’s health and housing

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Question 2: Can women’s empowerment cause

economic development?

Women and property rights

Insecure female property rights lead to wasted resources within the

family and make families poorer.



Women as policy makers� Men and women have different policy preferences. � Women’s preferences often entail children’s health and nutrition and

policies that enhance women’s bargaining power (access to the labour market, legal access)

� Studies show that formal complaints differ btw men and women (due to different gender responsibilities, e.g. drinking water, roads)

� Problems women are facing decrease if they are involved into policy making

� The public influences the private� Policies targeted towards women increase their control over

resources, improve their bargaining power on the household level and consequently improve their welfare and children’s nutrition and health.

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Empowering women: is it free lunch for development policy?� Women and men have different preferences and use their rights to

express these preferences� It is not clear whether female preferences are always “better”� Favouring women does not always lead to better outcomes (e.g.

microfinance)� Addressing one constraint is not enough. The fact that women are

facing multiple constraints means that relaxing one may not improve outcomes


Conclusion� Women’s empowerment and economic development are closely

related but one does not necessarily reinforce the other

� For greater gender equality it is necessary to continue to take policy

actions that favour women at the expense of men which are likely to

result in collateral benefits

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Thank you for your attention!

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