Women in Parlament 2005

7/30/2019 Women in Parlament 2005

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WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES


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WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES


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Table of contents

Preface: From indicators to action ........................................ 3

Better policies for men and women ..................................... 4

OECD work on gender equalityin developing countries ................................................................. 6

1. Population

Men and women in the populationsof OECD countries ............................................................................. 7

Total fertility rates ............................................................................ 8

Immigration ........................................................................................... 9

2. Education

Students with disabilities,learning difficulties and disadvantages ............................ 10

Student performance ...................................................................... 11

Tertiary education ............................................................................ 12

University graduates by field of study ................................ 13

3. Labour market

Inactive youths .................................................................................... 14

Gender wage gaps ..............................................................................15

Employment ........................................................................................... 16

Unemployment .................................................................................... 17

Self employment ................................................................................ 18

Working hours ..................................................................................... 19

Occupations of men and women ............................................ 20

Immigrants and employment .................................................. 21

4. Political and economic power

Women in parliament .................................................................... 22

Managerial and professional posts ....................................... 23

5. Social issues

Life satisfaction ................................................................................... 24

Social isolation .................................................................................... 25

Prison population .............................................................................. 26

6. Health

Life expectancy at birth ................................................................ 27

Causes of death ................................................................................... 28

Tobacco consumption .................................................................... 29

Overweight and obese .................................................................... 30

Acknowledgements:

This brochure has been prepared by Derek Blades, with

Mark Pearson, Head of the OECD Social Policy Division

as editor. Contributors from across the Organisationdeserve the real credit for the existence of this brochure,

however, for all the work they have undertaken in

developing gender statistics over the years. The

enthusiasm of the OECD Gender group was essential in

getting the project completed. Particular thanks are due

to Pauline Fron, Lynda Hawe and Valentina Kostyleva.


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PrefaceFrom indicators to action: OECD provides the analysis

The OECD exists to promote policies designed to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth andemployment and a rising standard of living. We are proud of the role we play in helping countries learn from

one another in achieving these goals, and in identifying best practice in a very broad range of policies, fromeducation and pensions to macroeconomic policy and trade.

To identify best practice, the OECD develops indicators which illustrate some vital differences in experience,across countries, over t ime and across different groups. Such indicators are not plucked from thin air. Rather, theyare the product of many years of painstaking work in identifying the issue, getting agreement across countries,collecting and standardising data. For many years now, we have been trying to improve analysis by collectingstatistics separately for women and men. Outcomes for women and men are very different across many differentareas of life, and policies have to reflect this. Best practice across countries in many areas of policy cannot begender-blind.

The Quality Framework and Guidelines for OECD Statistics indicates that, whenever appropriate, the OECDshould collect data disaggregated by sex. The indicators in this brochure are a tiny sample of the data which arenow collected by the OECD. They illustrate some important differences between women and men. Sometimesoutcomes are better for women than for men they perform better at school, they are less likely to go to pr ison,to smoke, are less likely to be social ly isolated, and they l ive longer. In other areas, men have a better t ime of it they earn more and are more likely to get into positions of power in both political and economic life.

In addition to these indicators of outcomes, we need to analyse policy. There is not space to showcase all ofour gender-related work in this brochure, but we are making a lot of headway in many different areas of genderanalysis, not just in the areas that you would expect pensions, family policies and education, for example but also in trade, entrepreneurship and development aid. If governments want more growth, employment

and a better standard of living, then they are going to need more of this sort of gender-sensitive analysis, andmore indicators of how men and women are doing. The OECD is committed to sustain this effort providing solidstatistical evidence and analysis.

Dick HecklingerOECD Deputy-Secretary General


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Better policies for men and women

younger age groups, most new claims for disability benefits areby women rather than by men see new reviews on Sickness,

Disability and Work. Some people argue that this is because of anincrease in stress. This in turn is said to be due to the rise infemale employment which, when combined with continuing careresponsibilities, means many women now find themselves doingtwo jobs.

One of the ways in which countries have coped with the increasein demand for carers has been through immigration. Caring isthe main area of employment for female migrants (see reviewsof the Social Integration of Migrants). The fact that women providemore than half of all new immigration into OECD countries (see

the International Migration Outlook) has too often been ignored bypolicymakers.

The OECD has long pioneered analysis of womensentrepreneurship, through elimination of barriers to enterprisecreation and growth. The Istanbul Declaration by OECD Ministershas recognised the importance of womens entrepreneurship,and recommendations have been developed to foster womensentrepreneurship. Local Reviews on Womens Entrepreneurshiphave been undertaken in order to explore the role of womensentrepreneurship in local development.

Gender issues have also been prominent in some unexpectedareas. For example, the OECD Guidelines for MultinationalEnterprises have been used to promote gender equality in theoperations of multinationals in non-OECD countries. Gender andTrade argues that women sometimes face particular barriersin taking advantage of trade liberalisation. Information onEqual Opportunity Policies is collected as part of OECDs work on

Indicators are only the first step in developing better policies for womenand men: the next stage is to understand why these differences occur, and

then what we can do about them. The following describes a few of the mostimportant recent and ongoing projects aimed at improving gender policy inOECD countries. Information on OECD work on gender issues in developingcountries follows.

Gender differences are striking in school performance, asthe OECD PISA study (Programme for International StudentAssessment) of attainments at age 15 shows. National experiencesare being reviewed in an Equity in Education project, which looksat why different groups including the different sexes end upwith different outcomes. While female participation in tertiary

education has grown rapidly in comparison to males, the choiceof subjects remains very different. This contributes in part to theresult that women end up in low-wage sectors of the economy,as documented in country reviews on The Transition from School toWork.

Work on the reconciliation of work and family life (Babies andBosses) and studies in the OECD Employment Outlook and the OECDEconomic Outlook show that taxation, provision of childcare andparental leave, and the availability of part-time work can al l havea big impact on the working patterns of parents, particularly

mothers. Family-friendly policies can also affect Fertility Rates,which have collapsed in many OECD countries.

Children are not the only family members that need care:older relatives may need help too. This is another task whichpredominantly falls on women. OECD work is looking at DisabilityTrends among older people and at different models for deliveringLong-Term Care Services either at home or in institutions. For


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Public Governance. New work is beginning which will look athow specified target groups, including women, could be more

involved in Policymaking. OECD work suggests that having agender dimension in Environmental Policy might be justified women and men behave differently the way they use transport,recycle or purchase organic food.

A guidance document for regulators and industry on how best toassess whether Hazardous Chemicals can harm a womans abilityto become pregnant and have healthy babies is under discussion.The OECD has developed a new hazard category within the GloballyHarmonised System for Classification of Chemicals covering risks duringpregnancy and breastfeeding.

The OECD Health Care Quality Indicators project has collected dataon breast and cervical cancer screening and survival rates, withfurther work underway on colorectal cancer rates, and heartattack and stroke mortality rates.

Some aspects of the pension system favour women over men lower retirement ages (though these are often being phased

out see Living Longer, Working Longer) and longer life expectancycombined with gender-neutral actuarial tables in calculatingpension payouts, for example (see Pensions at a Glance). On theother hand, women have lower pensions than men and are morelikely to be in poverty in old age than men. This reflects reducedearning (and therefore pension contributions) through theirlifetime, partly because of child-rearing. Furthermore, work onFinancial Education suggests that women have less understandingand confidence in making financial decisions, have less to save,and invest more conservatively than do men.

Further information is available on those projects in italics above.Simply go to the Gender Topic on the OECD website (www.oecd.org/gender) and click on whichever link interests you. Alternatively,contact [email protected] for further information.


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OECD work on gender equality in developing countries

Did you know?On average, women in developing countries get married 6 yearsearlier than in OECD countries.

There are still 800 million people in the world lacking basic

literacy skills. Women account for two-thirds of the total.Young women in sub-Sahara Africa aged 15-24 are between twoand six times as likely to be HIV-positive than men of a similarage.

About one-half of aid to basic education and basic health targetedgender-specific concerns.

Progress towards gender equality and womens empowerment isvital for improving economic, social and political conditions indeveloping countries. The OECD helps show how governments

can take gender equality into account in development policiesand practices. OECD countries are encouraged to give aid in a waythat supports gender equity.

The Gender, Institutions and Development database

In large parts of the developing world, traditions and socio-cultural norms stil l trap countries in poverty as they bar womenfrom economic activities: more discrimination less economicgrowth more poverty.

To help governments choose effective policies, the OECD has

created the Gender, Institutions and Development Database (GID). Itincludes comparative data for 161 countries on the socio-economicstatus of women. Its innovation is the inclusion of institutionalvariables that range from intra-household behaviour to socialnorms. Information on cultural and traditional practices iscoded to measure the level of discrimination, making the GID aunique tool for a wide range of analytical queries and allowing acase-by-case adaptation to specific research or policy questions.

By identifying cultural and traditional practices that discriminateagainst women, from forced marriages and female genitalmutilation to restrictions on inheritance and ownership rights, theGID helps design effective policies. More funding will be effectiveonly if the underlying causes of discr imination are addressed. The

Gender, Institutions and Development database can be accessed free ofcharge at www.oecd.org/dev/institutions/GIDdatabase .

Gender equality and aid

The Network on Gender Equality (GENDERNET) (www.oecd.org/dac/gender) is a forum where gender experts from developmentco-operation agencies meet to stimulate fresh thinking andnew approaches to investing in gender equality and womensempowerment.

The OECD asks countries to provide information on aid in support

of gender equality. In the OECDs Creditor Reporting System database(www.oecd.org/dac/stats/crs/gender), donor countries are asked toindicate for each individual aid activ ity whether or not it targetsgender equality as one of its policy objectives. A study conductedin 2005 showed that two-thirds of aid in support of genderequality was in the social sectors, especially basic educationand basic health. About one-half of aid to basic education andbasic health targeted gender-specific concerns, while little wasreported as targeting gender equality in the sectors of transport,communications and energy infrastructure.


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1W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Population

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Men and women in the populations of OECD countries

Did you know?Up to their early teens, boys slightly outnumber girls in allthe OECD countries. In the 25-54 age group prime workinglife the numbers of men and women are about equal in all

countries. But in the older age groups women often outnumbermen by more than two to one.

In 2005 women slightly outnumbered men in all OECD countriesexcept Iceland, where the numbers were equal, and Korea andTurkey where there were slightly more men than women. In theOECD area as a whole there are 104 women for every 100 men.

OECD populations in 2005 and ratios of women to men

Population(000)

W/Mratio

Population(000)

W/Mratio

Population(000)

W/Mratio

Iceland 295 1.00 Sweden 9 041 1.02 Spain 43 064 1.04

Luxembourg 465 1.03 Hungary 10 098 1.05 Korea 47 817 0.99

NewZealand

4 028 1.03 Czech Rep. 10 220 1.10 Italy 58 093 1.06

Ireland 4 148 1.01 Belgium 10 419 1.04UnitedKingdom

59 668 1.05

Norway 4 620 1.01 Portugal 10 495 1.07 France 60 496 1.05

Finland 5 249 1.04 Greece 11 120 1.02 Turkey 73 193 0.98Slovak Rep. 5 401 1.02 Netherlands 16 299 1.01 Germany 82 689 1.05

Denmark 5 431 1.06 Australia 20 155 1.03 Mexico 107 029 1.05

Switzerland 7 252 1.06 Canada 32 268 1.02 Japan 128 085 1.05

Austria 8 189 1.05 Poland 38 530 1.06UnitedStates

298 213 1.03

In all OECD countries a few more boys are born than girls, so thatboys predominate in the 0-14 age group. However, men smoke anddrink alcohol more than women, have higher suicide rates, andindeed have higher mortality rates from many other causes. As aresult, women are much more numerous than men in the 80+ age

group.High male death rates in the Second World War explain thewomen/men ratios in excess of 2.0 in the chart below. The maledeath toll was particularly high in Germany, Finland, Japan andthe countries of central Europe.

Ratios of women to men at different ages2005

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Turkey

Mexico

Greece

Icelan

d

Austr

alia

Swed

en

NewZe

aland

Cana

da

Unite

dStates

Norw

ay

Switz

erlan

dSp

ain

Unite

dKing

dom

Irelan

d

Portu

galIta

ly

O

ECD

averag

e

France

Denm

ark

Belgi

um

Slo

vakR

epublic

AustriaJapanKo

rea

Neth

erlan

ds

Cze

chRepublic

Luxe

mbou

rg

Polan

d

Hung

ary

Finlan

d

Germ

any

0 to 14 25 to 54 80 and over

Source: United Nations population projections, 2004 revisions.

Further reading:OECD (2006), Labour Force Statistics 2006 Edition, OECD, Paris.


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Total fertility rates

In all OECD countries, fertility rates have declined for youngwomen and increased at older ages, because women (and men)are postponing the age at which they start their famil ies.

Many reasons have been given for the dramatic change in fertilityrates. The most convincing is that young women, now better

educated than those of earlier generations, wish to have a careeras well as a family. The countries with the lowest fertility ratestend to be those with the highest female employment rates.

Total fertility rates: number of children expectedto be born to women aged 15 to 49

2004 or latest year available

Did you know?The total fertility rate is the number of children that are expectedto be born to women of child-bearing age. A rate of about 2.1 willproduce a stable population. Less than this, the population willdecline unless the shortfall is made up by immigration.

Only two OECD countries have fertility rates above this level:Mexico and Turkey. The average fertility rate in OECD countriesis now just 1.6.

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Korea

CzechR

epublic

Polan

d

Slovak

Republic

Hung

ary

Greece

JapanSp

ainItaly

Germ

any

Portu

gal

Switz

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Austria

Canada

OECD

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Sweden

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ark

Finlan

d

Norw

ay

Fran

ce

Irelan

d

NewZe

aland

Icela

nd

Unite

dStates

Mexico

Turkey

The chart below shows the long-term decline in total fertilityrates. The countries which had the highest fertility rates in 1970have, unsurprisingly, recorded the largest subsequent declines.Finland, Denmark and Sweden are among those countries whichrecorded the smallest declines: these are countries which have

traditionally had family-friendly employment policies includinggenerous maternity/paternity leave and widely available child-care facilities. Even here, their current rates are below thereplacement threshold.

Decline in total fertility rates since 1970Absolute difference between 1970 and 2004 fert ility rates

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

Finlan

d

Canada

Sweden

Denm

ark

Luxe

mbo

urg

Unite

dStates

Fran

ce

Belgi

um

Unite

dKing

dom

Germ

any

Norw

ay

Switz

erlan

d

CzechR

epublic

Hung

ary

Icelan

dJapan

Neth

erlan

ds

Austria

Polan

d

OECD

ave

rageIta

ly

Austr

alia

Greece

Slovak

Republic

NewZe

aland

Portu

gal

SpainKo

rea

Irelan

d

Turkey

Mexico

Source: Council of Europe (2006), Recent Demographic Developments in Europe,

2004; Eurostat and national statistical offices.

Further reading:OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.OECD (2002-2004), Babies and Bosses Reconciling Work and Family Life,series, OECD, Paris.


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Immigration

Did you know?There are more female immigrants than male in 20 of the23 countries for which data are available the three exceptionsbeing the United States, Norway and Australia where the numbersare about equal. In other countries women, on average, emigrateabout as often as men in these countries.

Immigrants are usually defined as those born in a differentcountry from where they are now living they are foreign-bornas opposed to native-born.

In the past, in most OECD countries, the majority of immigrantscame from other OECD countries, especially from OECD Europe.This is no longer the case. Asia is now the main source continentof immigrants.

Ratios of male to female immigrants2004 or nearest year available, percentages

The chart below shows the gender breakdown of immigrants livingin European OECD countries and in the United States according totheir countries of birth, where the countries considered are limitedto those with at least 100 000 immigrants. Percentages of womenimmigrants are especially high in Europe for immigrants from the

Philippines, the Russian Federation and Poland, whereas in theUnited States, women are more numerous among immigrants fromJapan, Thailand and the Dominican Republic.

Note that this chart shows only countries of birth from whichsubstantially more women than men emigrate. More men thanwomen emigrate from some of the other sources of migration such asCentral America, Ecuador and India in the case of the United States,and Tunisia, Pakistan, Albania and Morocco in the case of Europe.

Gender breakdown of immigrants in OECD Europeand the United States by country of birth

Selected countries of birth: 2004 or latest year available, percentages

0

1020

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Unite

dSt

ates

Norw

ay

Australia

Luxe

mbo

urg

Neth

erlan

ds

Irelan

d

Germ

any

Fran

ce

Spain

Swed

en

New

Zeala

nd

Belgiu

m

Switz

erla

nd

Cana

da

OECD

ave

rage

Unite

dKi

ngdo

m

Denm

ark

Austria

Finlan

d

Portu

gal

Czech

republic

Italy

Hung

ary

Pola

nd

Male immigrants Female immigrants

Source: OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook, OECD, Paris.

Further reading:OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook 2006 Edition, OECD, Paris.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Polan

d

Colo

mbi

a

Kore

a

Phili

ppin

es

Jam

aica

Germ

any

Trin

idad

&Toba

go

Dom

inic

anRep

ublic

Thail

and

Japa

n

Germ

any

Irelan

d

Fran

ce

Spain

Finlan

d

Ukra

ine

Braz

il

Polan

d

Russ

ianFe

dera

tion

Phili

ppin

es

Men Women

United States OECD Europe


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2W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Education

Students with disabilities,learning difficulties and disadvantages

Did you know?Most OECD countries provide additional resources to helpstudents with disabilities and learning difficulties and those from

disadvantaged families.It appears that 50% more boys than girls receive help of this kindbecause of learning disabilities, and over twice as many boysas girls receive help because of learning difficulties althoughstatistics are available for only about half of all OECD countries.

In all the countries for which data are available, substantially less thanhalf of the students receiving help for disabilities or learning difficultiesare girls. For some countries or regions, the boy/girl disparities areparticularly marked for students with learning difficulties (behaviouralor emotional disorders and specific difficulties in learning) compared

with students with disabilities (organic disorders).Gender distribution of students in compulsory education receiving

additional resources for disabilities and learning difficultiesPercentage of girls

0

5

10

1520

25

30

35

40

45

50

%

Nethe

rland

s

Engla

ndandW

ales

Finlan

d

Switz

erlan

d

Cana

da

(New

Brun

swick

)

Belgi

um(Fr.)

Italy

1

Germ

any

OECD

ave

rage

Franc

e

Turke

ySp

ain

Mexic

o

Belgi

um(Fl.)

Hung

ary

CzechR

epublic

SlovakR

epublic

Japa

n

Disabilities Learning difficulties

1. Data refer to primary and lower secondary education.

1. Data refer to primary and lower secondary education.

Source: OECD (2005), Students with Disabilities, Learning Difficulties andDisadvantages. Statistics and Indicators, OECD, Paris.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

%

Slov

akRepublic

Canada

(New

Brunswi

ck)

CzechR

epublic

OECD

ave

rage

Turkey

Spain

Italy

1

Switz

erlan

d

Finlan

d

Mexic

o

Belgi

um(Fl.)

Neth

erlan

ds

Factors associated with the risk of being disadvantaged includebeing born into immigrant families with poor knowledge of thehost-country language and culture, or into families where theparents are themselves poorly educated. In Belgium (Flanders) and

the Netherlands the percentages of disadvantaged boys and girlsreceiving additional resources in compulsory education are equal;in a number of other countries (or regions) where data are availablethey are only about 45/55 in favour of boys. The gender gap in favourof disadvantaged boys is most marked in the Slovak Republic, theCanadian province of New Brunswick and the Czech Republic.

Why do boys get more special help than girls? Is it a genuine needor do school administrators give more priority to the successfuleducation of boys?

Gender distribution of disadvantaged students in compulsoryeducation receiving additional resources

Percentage of girls


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Student performance

Did you know?OECDs Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)assesses student knowledge and skills in mathematics, reading,and science at age 15.

In general, girls outperform boys in reading by a wide marginwhile boys outperform girls, by lesser margins, in mathematicsand, even less in science.

The chart below shows the gender gaps for scores in mathematics,with in dark colour the significant differences between boys andgirls.

Gender differences (boys-girls) in student performancein mathematics in PISA 2003

Gender differences (boys-girls) in student performancein reading in PISA 2003

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30Score point difference

Korea

Greece

Slovak

Republic

Italy

Luxem

bourg

Switz

erlan

d

Denm

ark

Turkey

CzechRepublic

Irelan

d

New

Zeala

nd

Portu

gal

Cana

da

Mexico

Germ

anySp

ain

Fran

ce

Japan

Hung

ary

Austria

Belgi

um

Finlan

d

Swed

en

United

Stat

es

Norw

ay

Polan

d

Austr

alia

Neth

erlan

ds

Icelan

d

OECD average

Source: OECD (2004), Learning for Tomorrows World First results from PISA2003, Table 2.5c, OECD, Paris.

In mathematics the boys score higher than the girls in the majorityof the countries except in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Japan, theNetherlands, Norway and Poland where the advantage for boys isnot significant, and in Iceland where the girls outperform the boys.

Source: OECD (2004), Learning for Tomorrows World - First results from PISA 2003,Table 6.3, OECD, Paris.

In the reading assessment, however, the girls come out well aheadof the boys in all countries and the gender gaps were exceptionallylarge in Iceland, Norway, Austria and Finland as shown in thechart above.

Science shows the smallest average gender differences among allcontents assessed. Statistically significant differences in favour ofmen are found in Canada, Denmark, Greece, Korea, Luxembourg,Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic and

Switzerland. On the other hand, women in Finland and Icelandoutperform men.

Further reading:OECD (2004), Learning for Tomorrows World: First Results from PISA 2003,OECD, Paris.

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Icelan

d

Norw

ay

Austria

Finlan

d

Germ

any

Polan

dIta

ly

Austr

aliaSp

ain

Fran

ce

Greece

Belgi

um

Swed

en

Portu

gal

Switz

erlan

d

Turkey

Luxe

mbou

rg

Slovak

Rep

ublic

Unite

dStat

es

Cana

da

CzechR

epublic

Hung

ary

Irelan

d

NewZe

aland

Denm

ark

Japa

n

MexicoKo

rea

Neth

erlan

ds

OECD average

Score point difference


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12


Tertiary education

Did you know?On average 33% of women aged 25 to 34 have tertiary educationcompared with 28% for men of the same age in OECD countries.

Even in the poorest parts of the world more than 60% of young

girls usually attend primary school. In sub-Sahara Africa andin the Indian Sub-Continent only 3-4% of young women receivetertiary education.

Although tertiary education delays the start of paid employment, itsubstantially increases lifetime earnings and is a good investmentboth for the individual and for society.

In the OECD area, tertiary attainment rates for the population ofworking age range from below 12% in Turkey, the Czech Republic,Italy and the Slovak Republic to over 35% in Canada, the UnitedStates, Sweden and Japan. Female attainment rates exceed thosefor men in just over half of the countries with significantly higherrates in Canada, Finland, Sweden and New Zealand. By contrast,the number of men having attained a tert iary level of education isstill substantially higher in Korea and Switzerland.

Percentage of men and women aged 25-64 with tertiary education2004 or latest year available

The next chart shows that in general young people of both sexesare more likely than their parents to acquire tertiary education.The only exceptions are Austria, Germany, Hungary and theUnited States, where tertiary attainment rates for young men arebelow those for older men. The most striking feature however

is the large difference between the age groups for women. Theincrease in the number of women attaining a tertiary level ofeducation has been particularly marked in Japan, Korea and Spainwhere cultural attitudes about the role of women in society haveprobably undergone more profound changes than in other OECDcountries.

Differences in tertiary attainment bypeople aged 25-34 and 55-64

Percentage of young people with tertiary education minuspercentage of older people with tertiary education, 2004

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Turkey

CzechR

epublic

Italy

Slovak

Rep

ublic

Mexico

Portu

gal

Austria

Polan

d

Hung

ary

Switz

erlan

d

Greece

Luxe

mbo

urg

Germ

any

Unite

dKing

domKo

rea

OECD

ave

rage

Fran

ceSp

ain

Neth

erlan

ds

NewZe

aland

Irelan

d

Icelan

d

Belgi

um

Austr

alia

Norw

ay

Denm

arkJapan

Swed

en

Finlan

d

Unite

dStates

Cana

da

Men Women

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

Men Women

CzechR

epublicTu

rkey

SlovakR

epublic

Germ

any

NewZe

aland

Unite

dStates

Hung

aryItaly

Switz

erlandAu

stria

Unite

dKing

domMe

xico

Denm

arkPo

land

Portu

gal

Neth

erlan

dsSw

eden

Austr

alia

OECD

ave

rageGr

eece

Luxe

mbo

urgFin

landIce

landCa

nadaNo

rwayBe

lgiumFr

anceIre

landSpainJapanKo

rea

Source:OECD Education database and Gender, Institutions and Development(GID) database.

Further reading:OECD (2006), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.


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University graduates by field of study

There are large gender differences in the subjects that young menand women study at university. Female preference for health andwelfare subjects is most marked in Nordic countries Finland,Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark. In these countries lessthan 20% of g raduates in these subjects are men. In Japan, Belgium

and Switzerland, on the other hand, more than 40% of graduatesin the caring sciences are men.

Percentage of university graduates in health and welfare subjects2004 or latest year available

Did you know?For all OECD countries taken together, health and welfare subjectsare the most popular for women with humanities, arts andeducation a close second. For male graduates, subjects related toengineering, manufacturing and construction come first just aheadofmathematics and computer science.About an equal number of men and women opt for life sciences,physical sciences and agriculture and for social sciences, businessstudies and law.

The gender gap is equally marked in subjects related toengineering, manufacturing and construction. Less than 20% ofgraduates in these topics are women in Japan, Switzerland, theNetherlands and Austria. The largest shares of women graduatesin these subjects are in Greece and Portugal.

Such differences in subjects studied at university both reflect andinfluence different career choices, contributing to occupationalsegregation in the labour market.

Percentage of university graduates in engineering,manufacturing and construction subjects


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Women Men

Japa

n

Belgi

um

Switz

erlan

d

Mexic

o

Turkey

AustriaKo

rea

Fran

ce

Germ

any

GreeceIta

ly

CzechR

epublic

OECD

ave

rage

Polan

d

Unite

dKing

dom

Unite

dStat

es

Slov

akRepublic

Neth

erlan

ds

Austr

aliaSp

ain

Cana

da

Hung

ary

Portu

gal

NewZe

aland

Irelan

d

Denm

ark

Sweden

Norw

ay

Icelan

d

Finlan

d

Source: OECD Education database and OECD (2006), Education at a Glance:OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.

Further reading:OECD (2006), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Women Men

Greece

Portu

gal

Slov

akRepublic

NewZe

alandSp

ain

Icelan

d

SwedenIta

ly

Polan

d

Denm

ark

Fran

ce

Irelan

d

OECD

ave

rage

Hung

ary

Turkey

CzechR

epublic

Cana

daKo

rea

Mexico

Austr

alia

Belgi

um

Norw

ay

Germ

any

Unite

dStat

es

Finlan

d

Unite

dKing

dom

Austria

Neth

erlan

ds

Switz

erlan

dJapa

n


15/33

14

3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market

Inactive youths constitute both a present and future problem.Present because they are more likely to be involved in variouskinds of anti-social behaviour including property crime and drugabuse. Future, because lacking work experience or marketableskills they are likely to join the pool of the social ly excluded formuch of their lifetimes.

In most OECD countries less than 10% of those aged 15 to 19 areinactive and less than 5% in eight. Rates in excess of 10% were recordedin Turkey, Mexico, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom.

Percentage of people aged 15-19 who were notin education or work (2004)

Did you know?Inactive youths are those between 15 and 19 who have no jobsand are not at school.

In most countries the gender differences are small but there were

substantially fewer young inactive women than men in Norway,Belgium and Sweden and many more inactive women than menin Mexico and Turkey.

The good news is that youth inactiv ity rates have been falling inmost countries since 1995 the first year for which these dataare available. (In the chart below negative growth rates meana decline.)

For the OECD as a whole, female youth inactivity rates have been

falling at just over 3.0% per year compared with 1.9% for men.In most countries where youth unemployment has been rising,the increases have been larger for young men than young women.In Sweden, on the other hand, the annual growth of the inactivityrate for women has been relatively high while the rate for menhas been falling.

Average annual growth in rates of youth inactivity1995 or earliest year available to 2004

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Men Women

Polan

d

Neth

erlan

ds

Denm

ark

Norw

ay

Luxe

mbo

urg

Germ

any

Icelan

d

Belgi

um

Swed

en

Fran

ce

Finlan

d

Hung

ary

CzechR

epublic

Canada

Switz

erlan

d

Slovak

Rep

ublic

Unite

dStates

Austr

alia

Austria

OECD

ave

rage

Irelan

dIta

ly

Unite

dKing

dom

GreeceSp

ain

Portu

gal

Mexico

Turkey

Source: OECD Education database.

Further reading:OECD (2006), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.

-25

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

2025

Men Women

Icelan

d

Switze

rland

B

elgium

Luxembo

urg

Polan

d

SlovakR

epublic

Italy

Denmark

Hun

gary

Netherlan

ds

Austra

lia

OECDa

vera

ge

Greece

Mexico

UnitedStates

Cana

daSp

ain

CzechR

epublic

Germa

ny

Turkey

Portu

gal

Sweden

France

UnitedK

ingdo

m

Irelan

d

Inactive youths


16/33

15


Almost all OECD countries legislate to ensure equal pay for equalwork regardless of gender. But there are all sorts of reasons whythis is insufficient to close the gender gap. Discrimination may

continue, if legislation is not or cannot be applied. More generally,women may end up in lower-paid occupations than men, and maystruggle to be promoted as often as men.

Gender wage gapsGender gap in median earnings of full-time employees,


Gender wage gapsThe chart below shows the gender gaps in wages mens minuswomens for low paid and for high paid workers. (Low and highpaid are defined as those in the 20 th and 80th percentiles of thewage distribution respectively.) In a majority of countries, thegender gap is larger for the high wage earners. This is evidence

that the glass ceiling is no myth women are less likely to getinto higher paid and managerial occupations.

Gender gap at the top and bottom of the earnings distribution2003 or latest year available

Did you know?In all OECD countries median wages for men are higher thanthose for women. The average difference is more than 15% andexceeds 20% in several countries.

Male median earnings are more than 20% higher than those ofwomen in Korea, Japan, Germany, Switzerland, Canada and theUnited States. Note that these are median earnings in full-time

jobs and so are not affected by a widespread preference for part-time work by women (though men tend to work longer hoursthan women). At the other end of the scale, the gender gap is lessthan 12% in New Zealand, Belgium, Poland, Greece and France.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

New

Zeala

nd

Belg

ium

Polan

d

Gree

ce

Fran

ce

Hung

ary

Denm

ark

Aust

ralia

Swed

en

Spain

OECD

ave

rage

Czec

hRe

publ

ic

Portu

gal

Irelan

d

Unite

dKi

ngdo

m

Finlan

d

Unite

dSt

ates

Cana

da

Switz

erlan

d

Germ

any

Japa

n

Kore

a

Source: OECD Employment and Labour Market Statistics.

Further reading:OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.OECD (2002-2004), Babies and Bosses Reconciling Work and Family Life,series, OECD, Paris.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

%Low earners (20th percentile) High earners (80th percentile)

Gree

ce

Portu

gal

Belgiu

m

New

Zealan

d

Fran

ce

Denm

ark

Unite

dKi

ngdo

m

Pola

nd

Australia

OECD

ave

rage

Swed

en

Cana

da

Unite

dSt

ates

Switz

erlan

d

Finlan

d

Germ

any

Japa

n

Korea


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16


Employment

A higher percentage of men than women are employed in eachOECD country. Less than 50% of women are in paid employmentin Turkey, Mexico, Italy, Greece, Spain and Poland, while morethan 70% are employed in Iceland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden

and Switzerland. The gender gap is most pronounced in Turkeyand Mexico but is also high in Japan, Korea and Ireland.

Percentage of men and women of working age in employment2004

Did you know?The employment rate is the number of people of working agewho are in employment divided by all those of working age.

Employment rates of women are below employment rates of

men in all OECD countries. But nearly everywhere, the gapbetween male and female employment rates has been falling.There are only five countries where the gap between maleand female employment rates have risen since the mid-1990s Turkey, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Finland and Sweden.

However, differences in employment rates for men and women arefalling in almost all countries. The chart below shows how muchfaster female employment rates have been growing comparedto male employment rates over the last decade. The growth offemale employment has been higher than that of men in al l OECD

countries except Turkey, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Finlandand Sweden. Female employment rates have been growingmuch faster than those for men in Spain, Ireland, Greece and theNetherlands.

Difference between women and men in annual averageincreases of employment rates

Average annual increase from 1991 to 2004

0

10

20

30

4050

60

70

80

90

100

Men Women

Turkey

MexicoIta

ly

Greece

Polan

dSp

ain

Luxe

mbou

rg

Hung

ary

Slov

akRepublicKo

rea

Belgi

um

Irelan

d

CzechR

epublic

Fran

ce

Japan

OECD

ave

rage

Germ

any

Austria

Portu

gal

Austr

alia

Neth

erlan

ds

Unite

dStates

Finlan

d

NewZe

aland

Unite

dKing

dom

Canada

Switz

erlan

d

Swed

en

Denm

ark

Norw

ay

Icelan

d

Source:OECD (2006), OECD Factbook: Economic, Environmental and Social Statist ics,OECD, Paris; OECD (2006), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.

Further reading:OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth 2006 Edition,OECD, Paris.OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and SocialStatistics, OECD, Paris.

-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0

0.5

1.01.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Turkey

Hung

ary

CzechR

epublic

Finlan

d

Sweden

Denm

ark

Polan

dJapa

n

Slov

akRepublic

Icelan

d

Unite

dStates

NewZe

alandKo

rea

Norw

ay

Cana

da

Unite

dKing

dom

Austria

Austr

alia

OECD

ave

rage

Switz

erlan

d

France

Portu

gal

Germ

anyIta

ly

Mexico

Luxe

mbou

rg

Belgi

um

Neth

erlan

ds

Greece

Irelan

dSp

ain


18/33

17


Unemployment

Compared to men, women have a higher risk of being unemployedin most OECD countries. Twenty-seven countries are shownin the chart and the female unemployment rate is higher thanthat for men in 20 of them. The gender gap in favour of men is

particularly large in Greece, Spain, and Italy. On the other hand,women are somewhat less likely than men to be unemployed inKorea, Norway, Ireland, Japan and the United Kingdom.

Unemployment as a percentage of the maleand female labour forces (2004)

Did you know?For statisticians, the labour force is everybody who is eitherworking or is unemployed. The unemployed are people whoare actively looking for work but who have not found more thanone hour of paid work in the last week. The unemployment rate

is the number of unemployed as a percentage of the labour force.The female unemployment rate is the number of unemployedwomen as a percentage of the female labour force.

Poland has the highest with nearly 20% of the female labour forceout of work in 2004; the Slovak Republic was second with justover 19%.

Have unemployment rates been falling or rising for women overthe past decade? The chart below compares female unemploymentrates in 1994 and 2004. Countries that fall on the diagonal linehave exactly the same female unemployment rates in both years.If they are below the diagonal, the 2004 rate is higher than the

1994 rate. Fifteen of the 27 countries lie above the diagonalmeaning that in most countries female unemployment rates havefallen over the decade.

Female unemployment rates in 1994 and 2004

0

5

10

15

20

25

Men Women

Korea

Norw

ay

Irelan

d

Unite

dKi

ngdo

mJapan

NewZe

aland

Neth

erland

s

Switz

erland

Austria

Unite

dSt

ates

Australia

Denm

ark

Hung

ary

Sweden

Luxe

mbo

urg

Cana

da

OECD

ave

rage

Portu

gal

Finlan

d

Belgiu

m

CzechRe

public

Fran

ce

Germ

anyIta

ly

Spain

Greece

Slovak

Republic

Polan

d

Source: Quarterly Labour Force Statistics and Annual Labour ForceStatistics; OECD (2006), OECD Factbook: Economic, Environmental and SocialStatistics, OECD, Paris.


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

1994

OECD

USAGBR

CHE

SWE

ESP

SVK

PRT

POL

NOR

NZLNLD

LUXKORJPN

ITAIRLHUN

GRC

DEU

FRAFIN

DNK CZE

CAN

BEL

AUT

AUS


3O O C C O S


19/33

18


Self-employment

Self-employment may be seen either as a survival strategy forthose who cannot find any other means of earning an incomeor as evidence of entrepreneurship and a desire to be ones own

boss.Percentage of self-employed as a percentage of

employed men and womenExcluding self-employed in agriculture, 2004 or latest years available

Did you know?According to the standard ILO definition any person who worksfor more than one hour per week is counted as being employed.As a result, self-employment rates are very high in countrieswhere there are many small farms because virtually all family

members will do at least an hours work on the farm.Ignoring self-employment in agriculture, Greece, Korea, Italy andMexico have the highest rates of self-employment while Norway,France and the United States have the lowest.

The self-employment rate for men is more than twice that ofwomen in most OECD countries.

Excluding the agricultural sector, more men than women areself-employed in all OECD countries except Mexico. The gendergaps are particularly large in Turkey, Greece, Italy and Ireland andare smallest in Mexico, France and Canada.

In most OECD countries, self-employment rates have been falling

since 1990: rates for women have declined somewhat faster thanthose for men.

Female self-employment outside of agriculture is negativelycorrelated with levels of economic development as measuredby per capita GDP; the richer the country the lower the share ofwomen in self-employment. The same result is also found formen.

Female self-employment and per capita GDP2004 or latest year available

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Women Men

Norw

ay

France

Unite

dStates

Cana

da

Denm

ark

AustriaJapan

Sweden

Finlan

d

Germ

any

Polan

d

Austr

alia

Slovak

Rep

ublic

Hung

ary

OECD

ave

rage

Unite

dKing

dom

Icela

ndSp

ain

Irelan

d

Portu

gal

NewZe

land

CzechR

epublic

Turkey

MexicoIta

lyKo

rea

Greece

Source: OECD (2005), Labour Force Statistics, OECD, Paris.

Further reading:OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.OECD (2001), Women Entrepreneurs in SMEs: Realising the Benefits ofGlobalisation and the Knowledge-based Economy, OECD, Paris.

0

5 000

10 000

15 000

20 000

25 000

30 000

35 000

40 000

45 000

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Self-employed women (excluding agriculture) as a percentage of all employed women

Per capita GDP

OECD average GRC

ITA

TUR

CZENZL

PRT

IRL

ESP

ISL GBR

HUN

AUS

POL

DEU

FIN

SWE

JPN

AUT

DNK

CAN

USA

FRA

NOR

y = -1206.8x + 36943

R2 = 0.2499

3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S L b k t


20/33

19


Working hours

People who work for less than 30 hours per week in their main jobare considered as part-time workers, although not all countries usethis definition. Part-time work is particularly favoured by womenin the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Germany,

Belgium and Ireland but is rare in central Europe, Turkey, Mexicoand the United States. The only country in which part-timeemployment of men significantly exceeds 10% is the Netherlands.

Percentage of employed persons who work lessthan 20 hours per week (2002)

Did you know?More than one in four women work part-time and nearly threeout of four part-time jobs are held by women. Part-time work bywomen increases when they live with a partner and increasesstill further if they have dependent children.

Men tend to work longer hours than women in paid employment,but women work more hours in unpaid activities housework andcaring for children and elderly parents. Most OECD countries carryout time-use surveys to measure this unpaid employment, butthese are not done regularly or on a comparable basis.

In most OECD countries the standard working week is around 40hours but many people work longer. Working paid or unpaid longworkweeks is a mans thing in all OECD countries. In Iceland,Mexico and Turkey 60% or more of men report that they work morethan 45 hours per week. High percentages of women also workmore than 45 hours in Turkey and Mexico. On the other hand,workaholics of either gender are rare in Netherlands, Norway,Luxembourg, Austria and Sweden.

Percentage of employees who work more than 45 hours per weekYears around 2002

Source: OECD Employment and Labour Market Statistics.


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Men Women

SlovakRep.

Turkey

Hungary

Poland

CzechR

ep.

Mexico

UnitedStates

Portugal

Japan

Greece

Canada

FinlandSpain

NewZealand

OECD

ave

rage

Sweden

Denmark

France

AustraliaItaly

Austria

Luxembourg

Norway

Iceland

Ireland

Belgium

Germany

UnitedKingdom

Switzerland

Netherlands

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Men Women

Neth

erlan

ds

Norw

ay

Luxe

mbo

urg

Austria

Switz

erlan

d

Germ

any

Cana

da

Belgi

um

Sweden

Finlan

d

Hung

ary

Fran

ce

Irelan

d

Slov

akRepublic

CzechR

epublic

Denm

arkSp

ain

Portu

gal

Unite

dStates

OECD

ave

rage

Polan

d

Unite

dKing

domIta

ly

Austr

alia

NewZe

alandJapan

Icelan

d

Greece

Mexico

Turkey



21/33

20


Occupations of men and women

Comparable information on occupations is available only forthe European members of the OECD and the United States. Inthese countries, at least half of all working women are in elevenof the 110 occupations while half of the men work in more thantwenty of them. This suggests that women tend to enter a morerestricted range of professions than men. But it could also bepartly a statistical illusion. It is possible that a gender bias may

have inadvertently appeared due to a more detailed breakdownof the occupations that are typically chosen by men. Gendergaps whether real or statistical are particularly marked in theUnited States, Italy, Ireland, Greece and the United Kingdom.

Number of occupations that account for half of total employment2004 or latest year available

Did you know?Women tend to work in a much narrower range of occupationsthan men.

The International Labour Organisation lists 110 major occupationgroups in their classification of occupations (ISCO). In OECDcountries for which information is available, half of all womenwork in eleven or fewer of these occupations.

The table below shows the top ten gender-biased occupationson average in Europe and the United States. In the first column,the numbers in brackets are the ratios of women to men in theseoccupations. For example, 14.5 times more women than men workas pre-primary teaching associate professionals. In the secondcolumn the genders are reversed so that, for example, there are

just over 80 men working as miners, shot-firers, stone cuttersand carvers for each woman in this occupation.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Women Men

Denm

ark

Spain

Portu

gal

Unite

dKi

ngdo

m

Finlan

d

Poland

Slov

akRepublic

Switz

erlan

d

Germ

any

Greece

Ireland

OECD

ave

rage

Fran

ce

Hung

ary

Neth

erland

s

Norw

ay

Swed

en

Belgium

Italy

CzechRe

public

Unite

dSt

ates

Concentration of employment in 20 OECD countries

Many more women than men work as: Many more men than women work as:

Pre-primary education teaching associateprofessionals (14.5 )

Miners, shot firers, stone cutters andcarvers (80.2)

Nursing and midwifery professionals(10.1)

Building frame and related trades workers(64.8)

Secretaries and keyboard-operating clerks

(9.8 )

Ships deck crews and related workers

(52.9)Nursing and midwifery associateprofessionals (9.5)

Building finishers and related tradesworkers (35.4)

Personal care and related workers (9.3) Mining and construction labourers (35.3)

Primary education teaching associateprofessionals (6.2)

Agricultural and other mobile plantoperators (30.5)

Shop, stall and market salespersons anddemonstrators (5.8)

Mining and mineral-processing-plantoperators (24.5)

Special education teaching professionals(5.6)

Metal moulders, welders, sheet-metalworkers, structural-metal preparers, andrelated trades workers (23.1)

Domestic and related helpers, cleanersand launderers (5.4) Machinery mechanics and fitters (21.7)

Primary and pre-primary educationteaching (5.3)

Power-production and related plantoperators (15.9)

Source: European Labour Force Survey and March Current PopulationSurvey for the United States.

Further reading:OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.



22/33

21


Immigrants and employment

In most OECD countries, finding a job is harder for immigrantwomen than for immigrant men and is harder for immigrantwomen than for native-born women.

The chart below shows the gender gaps for employment of

foreign-born versus native born people. It shows, for example, thatnative-born Finnish women are almost as likely to be employedas native-born Finnish men, but foreign-born Finnish women arefar less likely to work than foreign-born Finnish men.

Gender gap in employment of native-born and foreign-born adultsEmployment rates for men less employment rates for women (2004)

Did you know?Statisticians define employment as work for pay or profit of atleast one hour in the last week.

Like native-born women, immigrant women are less oftenemployed than their male counterparts. But the differencebetween men and women is larger for immigrants. Immigrantwomen can be said to have a double handicap in the labourmarket: as immigrants, they have lower employment ratescompared to non-immigrants and as women, lower employmentrates compared to men.

This is a common pattern in all except two countriesunemployment among the foreign-born is higher than that ofnative-born people. The two exceptions are Spain and the CzechRepublic.

Although immigrant women are not employed as often as

immigrant men, differences in unemployment rates betweenimmigrant men and women are small. Indeed, when the barsin the chart below fall below the zero-line, immigrant womenare less likely to be unemployed than immigrant men. Ireland,Sweden, Germany and Norway are countries where this is thecase. Overall, if native-born women find it harder than native-born men to find work, then it is generally also the case forforeign-born women compared to foreign-born men.

Gender gap in unemployment rates, native-born and foreign-bornUnemployment rate for women minus unemployment rate for men in 2004

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Native-born Foreign-born

Swed

en

Finlan

d

Norw

ay

Denm

ark

Cana

da

Unite

dSt

ates

Germ

any

Fran

ce

Unite

dKi

ngdo

m

Austria

Slov

akRep

ublic

Hung

ary

Portu

gal

Switz

erla

nd

OECD

ave

rage

Neth

erlan

ds

Belgiu

m

Australia

CzechRe

public

Irela

nd

Luxe

mbo

urg

Italy

Spain

Gree

ce

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Native-born Foreign-born

Unite

dSt

atesIre

land

Swed

en

Unite

dKi

ngdom

Germ

any

Cana

da

Norw

ay

Hung

ary

Austria

Australia

Finland

Switz

erland

Denm

ark

Neth

erla

nds

OECD

ave

rage

Slov

akRep

ublic

Portu

gal

Belgium

Fran

ce

Luxe

mbo

urg

CzechRe

publicItalySp

ainGr

eece

Source: OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook, OECD, Paris.

Further reading:OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook 2006 Edition, OECD, Paris.

4W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Political and economic power


23/33

22


Women in parliament

In nine OECD countries at least one-third of parliamentary seatsare held by women. The Nordic countries and the Netherlandsstand out with more than 35% of parliamentary seats held bywomen. In most OECD countries though, women hold under aquarter and the shares are 15% or less in Japan, Italy, France andthe United States.

Percentage of parliamentary seats held by women2005 or latest year available

Did you know?Women are outnumbered by men in all the worlds parliaments.

Women hold close to half the parliamentary seats in Rwanda andSweden and about a third in the Nordic countries, in Cuba, CostaRica and Argentina.

There is no reliable relationship between how rich a country is,and how many women are in parliament.

On the other hand, there does seem to be a link between thepercentage of women in employment and the percentage ofparliamentary seats held by women. The chart below plots thepercentage of women in parliament against the percentage of thetotal female population of working age (15-64) in employment.Womens participation in political life appears to reflect, at leastto some extent, their participation in economic life. Percentages ofwomen in parliament are high in Nordic countries where womenmake up a large part of the labour market and low in Turkey,Greece, Italy and Hungary.

Percentage of women in parliament and percentageof women in employment

2004

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

TurkeyJapan

Hung

aryItalyFr

ance

Greece

Irelan

dKo

rea

Unite

dStat

es

Slov

akRepublic

CzechR

epublic

Unite

dKing

dom

Polan

d

Cana

da

Portu

gal

Luxe

mbou

rg

OECD

ave

rage

Mexic

o

Austr

alia

Switz

erlan

d

Germ

any

NewZe

aland

Icelan

d

Austria

Belgi

umSp

ain

Neth

erlan

ds

Denm

ark

Finlan

d

Norw

ay

Swed

en

Do women participate more in political life in richer countries? Notnecessarily. Percentages are low in rich countries like the UnitedStates, Ireland, France and Japan and are high in countries withlower per capita incomes such as New Zealand, Spain and Austria.

Source: Many countries have both a lower and upper house (bi-cameralparliaments) with different election rules for each one. For countries withbilateral parliaments the percentages shown here refer to the total of bothhouses. Inter-Parliamentary Union ( IPU): www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm.

Further reading:Jtting, J. P., C. Morrisson; J. Dayton-Johnson; D. Drechsler (2006) ,Measuring Gender (In)equality: Introducing the Gender, Institutionsand Development Data Base (GID), OECD Development Centre WorkingPapers, No. 247, OECD, Paris.

0

10

20

30

40

50

6070

80

90

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

y = 0.6336x + 43.028

R2 = 0.3573

Percentage of women in parliament

Percentage of women in employment

OECDaverage

TUR

JPN

HUN

ITA

FRA

GRC

IRL

KOR

USA

SVK

CZEGBR

POL

CAN

PRT

LUX

MEX

AUS

CHE

DEU

NZL

ISL

AUT

BEL

ESP

NLD

DNK

FIN

NOR

SWE



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W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Political and economic power

23

Managerial and professional posts

There are huge differences in the percentage of employeeswho are managers across countries, reflecting differences inhow different workers see themselves in different countries.Nevertheless, there is a gender gap in managerial posts in allcountries. The gender gap is particularly high in the United

Kingdom, Norway, Finland, the Netherlands and Denmark. Gapsare much smaller in eastern Europe.

Percentage of employees in managerial posts2004 or latest year available

Did you know?In all OECD countries for which data are available, higherpercentages of men work as managers or directors compared towomen.

On the other hand, a greater percentage of women who work do soin occupations for which a professional qualification is requiredthan men. However, because more men work than women, thisdoes not mean that there are more professional women thanmen.

Professional posts are those for which a formal qualification isusually required. They include most occupations in the health careand education sectors and in services such as accountancy andthe law. In about two-thirds of the countries shown in the chartbelow, the percentages of the female labour force in professionalposts exceed the percentages for males, with the gender gap infavour of women particularly high in Belgium, Ireland, Greece andPoland. Part of the explanation is the preference among women towork in the health and education sectors.

Percentage of employees in professional posts2004 or latest year available

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Women Men

Spain

Gree

ceIta

ly

Luxe

mbo

urg

Portu

gal

Germ

any

Denm

ark

Swed

en

Czec

hRe

publ

ic

Slov

akRep

ublic

Polan

d

Neth

erlan

ds

Finl

and

OECD

ave

rage

Fran

ce

Norw

ay

Belg

ium

Hung

ary

Icela

nd

Irelan

d

Unite

dKi

ngdo

m

Unite

dSt

ates

Source: European Labour Force Survey and March Current PopulationSurvey for the United States.

Further reading:OECD (2002-2004), Babies and Bosses Reconciling Work and Family Life,series, OECD, Paris.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Women Men

Norw

ayIta

ly

Germ

any

CzechRe

public

Fran

ce

Unite

dKi

ngdo

m

Portu

gal

Denm

ark

Slov

akRep

.

Icelan

d

OECD

ave

rage

Hung

ary

Spain

Luxe

mbo

urg

Finlan

d

Neth

erlan

ds

Swed

en

Polan

d

Unite

dSt

ates

Gree

ce

Irela

nd

Belgiu

m

5W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Social issues


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24

Life satisfaction

In over half of OECD countries, more than three-quarters of bothmen and women reported above average scores (7 to 10) for lifesatisfaction. However, the percentages were 50% or less in the

four eastern European countries and in Korea and Japan.Percentage of people who feel an above average level

of satisfaction with their livesYears between 1999 and 2002

Did you know?The World Value Surveys ask respondents to rank their feelings ofsatisfaction with their lives on a scale from 1 to 10. The surveysnow cover 80 countries and use standardised questionnaires.The latest wave of surveys took place between 1999 and 2002.

Test your prejudices. In two of these countries UnitedKingdom, Turkey, Norway and Korea women are significantlymore satisfied with their lives than men. Which were they?

Answer. In Turkey and Korea, women report greater lifesatisfaction than men. Women report lower life satisfaction thanmen in the United Kingdom and Norway.

There is some correlation between life satisfaction and per capitaincome, though some people argue that the correlation becomesweaker when comparisons are limited to the richest countries.Over time, societies which get richer do not report greater lifesatisfaction.

In most countries more men than women reported feelingsatisfied above average with their lives. The chart below showsthe percentage of satisfied men minus the percentage of satisfiedwomen. The satisfaction gap favours men in twenty countries.Do women tend to apply higher standards than men in assessingtheir life satisfaction? Or do cultural and economic factorsconspire to create less satisfying lives for women in most OECDcountries?

The satisfaction gapPercentage of satisfied men minus percentage of satisfied women

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Men Women

Hung

ary

Turkey

Slov

akRepublicKo

rea

Polan

dJapa

n

Greece

Portu

gal

Fran

ceSp

ain

CzechR

epublic

Italy

Unite

dKing

dom

OECD

ave

rage

Norw

ay

NewZe

aland

Unite

dStates

Swed

en

Mexico

Austr

alia

Belgi

um

Germ

any

Luxe

mbou

rg

Cana

da

Austria

Switz

erlan

d

Irelan

d

Denm

ark

Finlan

d

Icelan

d

Neth

erlan

ds

Source:OECD (2005), Society at a Glance, OECD, Paris; EFILWIC (2003), Quality ofLife in Europe: an illustrative report, European Foundation for the Improvementof Living and Working Conditions, Dublin; World Value Surveys.

Further reading:OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth 2006 Edition,OECD, Paris.

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

Turkey

Austr

aliaKo

rea

Japan

Finlan

d

Icelan

d

Germ

any

Belgi

umSp

ain

Cana

da

NewZeala

nd

Czech

Republi

c

Hung

ary

Polan

d

Slovak

Republi

c

OECD

ave

rage

UnitedS

tates

Mexico

Greece

Nethe

rland

s

Luxem

bourg

Swed

en

Denm

ark

Irelan

d

Austria

Portu

gal

Fran

ceIta

ly

Norw

ay

Switz

erlan

d

United

King

dom



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25

Social isolation

Among the 21 OECD countries for which data are available,percentages of respondents (all adults regardless of gender) in the

never or rarely categories exceeded 10% in Mexico (where womenfeel particularly isolated) and Japan (where it is a male problem).

Percentage of persons who rarely or never spend time with friends,colleagues or others in social groups

Did you know?The World Value Surveys ask respondents about their contactwith other people in their normal daily lives. In the latest waveof surveys (1999 to 2002) 56 countries supplied information onwhether respondents rarely or never had contact with friends,

work colleagues and other acquaintances in places of worship,and in sports and cultural associations.

In 12 out of the 21 OECD countries for which data are available,men reported greater social isolation than women.

Very low percentages for all respondents were reported by theAfrican countries in the surveys. The highest percentages werereported in Russia, China and Chile.

Total rates under 4% were reported in Sweden, the Netherlands, theUnited States, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Germany and Ireland.

The chart below show the gender differences in social isolation:positive values above the line mean that more men than womenanswered rarely or never while negative values show more

social isolation among women. The chart suggests that socialisolation is more often a man than woman problem, although thegender gaps are not large except in Iceland, Japan and Finland(social isolation among men) and in Mexico, Spain and Austria(social isolation among women).

Gender gap in social isolation

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Men Women

Swed

en

Neth

erlan

ds

Unite

dStat

es

Denm

ark

Irelan

d

Gree

ce

Germ

any

Icela

nd

Unite

dKing

dom

Belgi

um

Cana

da

Finlan

d

OECD

ave

rage

Fran

ceKo

reaSp

ain

Austr

iaIta

ly

CzechR

epublic

Portu

gal

Japa

n

Mexico

Source:OECD (2005), Society at a Glance, OECD, Paris; EFILWIC (2003), Quality ofLife in Europe: an illustrative report, European Foundation for the Improvementof Living and Working Conditions, Dublin; World Value Surveys.

Further reading:OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.

-8

-10

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

Mexico

Spain

Austr

iaIta

ly

Portu

gal

Korea

CzechR

epublic

OECD

ave

rage

Irelan

d

Swed

en

Germ

any

Belgi

umFr

ance

Unite

dKing

dom

Gree

ce

Neth

erlan

ds

Cana

da

Denm

ark

Unite

dStat

es

Finlan

dJa

pan

Icelan

d



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26

Prison population

In all OECD countries except Portugal, Spain, the Netherlandsand the United States less than 7% of prison populations arewomen. The commonest crimes for which women are convictedinclude prostitution, drug abuse and fraud. These offences are notpunished by prison sentences in most countries although the highpercentage of women in American prisons is partly explained byprison sentences for economic crimes such as cheque and creditcard fraud.

Female prisoners as a percentage of total prison populationIncluding pre-trial and remand prisoners 2004 or latest year available

Did you know?The Prison Population Rate is the number of people (adults as wellas those under 18) in prison per 100 000 population.

In every country far more men are in prison than women butthere are large differences between countries. For instance, there

are the same number of female prisoners per 100 000 populationin the United States as female and male prisoners combined inJapan.

Half of the OECD countries have less than 100 people in prisonper 100 000 inhabitants. Thirteen have between 100 and 200. Twocountries exceed this Poland with 230 and the United States withmore than 700. The US rate is the highest in the world followedby Russia with about 600 per 100 000 inhabitants. Except in theUnited States imprisonment rates for women are negligible.

Prisoners per 100 000 inhabitantsIncluding pre-trial detainees and remand prisoners


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Polan

d

Turke

y

Irelan

d

Franc

e

Belgi

um

Slova

kia

Denm

ark

CzechR

epublic

Italy

Luxe

mbou

rg

Cana

da

Mexic

o

Germ

any

Norw

ay

Swed

enKo

rea

Austr

ia

Switz

erlan

d

OECD

ave

rage

Engla

nd&

Wale

s

Hung

ary

Gree

ceJa

pan

Icelan

d

New

Zeala

nd

Finlan

d

Austr

alia

Portu

galSp

ain

Nethe

rland

s

Unite

dStat

es

Source: International Centre for Prison Studies, Kings College, London,website: www.prisonstudies.org and then select World Prison Brief.

Further reading:OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and SocialStatistics, OECD, Paris.OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.

0

50

100

150

200

250

Women Men

Icelan

d

Turke

y

Irelan

dJa

pan

Franc

e

Denm

ark

Portu

gal

Belgi

um

Swed

en

Norw

ay

Switz

erlan

d

Finlan

d

Germ

anyIta

ly

Gree

ce

Cana

da

Austr

ia

Nethe

rland

sKo

rea

Slova

kRep

ublic

OECD

ave

rage

Engla

nd&

Wale

s

Mexic

o

Luxe

mbou

rg

Austr

alia

CzechR

epublic

Hung

arySp

ain

Polan

d

New

Zeala

nd

Unite

dStat

es

724 total

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27

Life expectancy at birth

For the OECD total, the life expectancy gender gap in favour ofwomen is now just under six years; it is eight years or more inHungary, the Slovak Republic and Poland and is lowest in theUnited Kingdom, Iceland and Sweden.

Why do women live longer than men? Differences in longevity

can in part be explained by their different behavioural, lifestyleand working patterns. Women are also thought to have a possiblegenetic advantage which makes them more resistant to a rangeof conditions.

Life expectancy at birth (2004)

Did you know?Japan, Iceland, Spain and Switzerland have the highest lifeexpectancies in the World just over 80 years. Botswana, Malawi,Zimbabwe and Zambia have the lowest all under 40 years. Thelowest regions are all Sub-Sahara Africa at 47 years and the

Indian sub-continent at 64 years.In virtually all countries life expectancies at birth are higherfor women than for men. For the world as a whole female lifeexpectancy is currently about 6% higher than for men.

Since 1960 life expectancies at birth have been rising in allcountries. The chart below shows that the increase has been mostmarked in Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Japan and Portugal where lifeexpectancies were low at the beginning of the period. In recentyears men have been raising their life expectancies faster thanwomen in most countries. This seems to be due to a reduction

in risk factor behaviour by men notably smoking and alcoholconsumption and an increase in these risk factors for women.

Average annual percentage growth in life expectancy1960-2004 or nearest years available

65

70

75

80

85

90

Men Women

Turkey

Hung

ary

Mexico

Slov

akRepublic

CzechR

epublic

Polan

d

Denm

ark

Unite

dStates

Portu

gal

Irelan

d

Unite

dKing

domKo

rea

Luxe

mbo

urg

OECD

ave

rage

NewZe

aland

Germ

any

Greece

Neth

erlan

ds

Belgi

um

Austria

Finlan

d

Norw

ay

CanadaIta

ly

Icelan

d

Sweden

Austr

alia

Switz

erlan

d

Fran

ceSp

ainJapan

Source: OECD (2005), Health at a Glance OECD Indicators 2005, OECD, Paris;OECD (2006), OECD Health Data 2006, OECD, Paris; OECD Development

Centre, Gender, Institutions, and Development database (GID),www.oecd.org/dev/institutions/GIDdatabase; Measures of Australias progress2004, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004, p. 32.

Further reading:OECD (2004), The OECD Health Project: Towards High-Performing HealthSystems, OECD, Paris.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Men Women

SlovakRep.

Denmark

CzechR

ep.

Netherlands

Canada

Norway

UnitedKingdom

UnitedStates

Hungary

NewZealand

Iceland

Sweden

Belgium

Poland

Luxembourg

Ireland

Australia

SwitzerlandItaly

Germany

Greece

Finland

France

Austria

OECD

ave

rage

Spain

Portugal

Japan

Mexico

TurkeyKorea

6W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Health


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28

Causes of death

Men are more prone to die from circulatory diseases than womenin all OECD countries, once adjustments are made to reflect thedifferences in age structures. Mortality rates from circulatorydiseases are particularly high in the Slovak Republic, Hungary,the Czech Republic and Poland and are lowest in Japan and France.

Clearly, diet explains at least part of these differences.Deaths from circulatory diseases

Number of deaths, standardised for differences in age structures,per 100 000 population (2003 or latest year available)

Did you know?For the population as a whole, the four main causes of deathare circulatory diseases such as strokes and heart attacks, cancers,respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and emphysema, andexternal causes such as suicide, homicide and traffic accidents.

At any given age, men are more likely to die from one of theseconditions than are women. However, eventually these samesources of mortality are the reason why most women die as well they are just more likely to strike women at an older age.

Cancer is the second leading cause of death in most OECD countries,accounting for between 25% and 30% of deaths among men andwomen. In all countries, mortality rates from cancer are higheramong men than among women. The gender ga

Women in Parlament 2005

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