Women in Early ChinaWomen in Early China

Ching, Julia,Ching, Julia, Chinese Religions, Chinese Religions, ““The Ancestral Cult and The Ancestral Cult and DivinationDivination””, pp 15-22; , pp 15-22; ““Sacrifice and KingshipSacrifice and Kingship””, pp. 33-50. , pp. 33-50.

O'Hara, Albert R.,O'Hara, Albert R.,  The position of women in early China:The position of women in early China:   according to the Lieh Nu Chuan, according to the Lieh Nu Chuan, "The Biographies of "The Biographies of Eminent Chinese Women."Eminent Chinese Women."   pp. 255-85. pp. 255-85.

Hinsch, Bret, Hinsch, Bret, Women in Early Imperial China, Women in Early Imperial China, pp 1-13, 15-26.pp 1-13, 15-26. Li, Chenyang, The Tao Encounters the West, “How a Care Li, Chenyang, The Tao Encounters the West, “How a Care

Ethics Could have Oppressed Women”, pp 108-114.Ethics Could have Oppressed Women”, pp 108-114. ““Reflections on Chinese Despotism and the Power of the Reflections on Chinese Despotism and the Power of the

Inner CourtInner Court””, Soulliere, Ellen F., 1984 in , Soulliere, Ellen F., 1984 in Asian ProfileAsian Profile, , 12.2:130-45.12.2:130-45.

““Imperial Marriages of the Ming Dynasty,Imperial Marriages of the Ming Dynasty,”” Soulliere, Ellen F., Soulliere, Ellen F., 1988 in Papers in 1988 in Papers in Far Eastern HistoryFar Eastern History, 37:15, 37:15­­42.42.

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Women in Early China

Discussion Question IntroductionIntroduction The role of women in Ancient Chinese Religion The role of women in Ancient Chinese Religion The Role of Royal Women in Early ChinaThe Role of Royal Women in Early China

– Royal women in the ShangRoyal women in the Shang– Royal women in the ZhouRoyal women in the Zhou

Confucianism and Women– Development of ConfucianismDevelopment of Confucianism– EducationEducation

Changing Status of WomenChanging Status of Women

Discussion Question

What are your impressions of a traditional Chinese woman in China?– List her characteristics?– Was the role of the woman the same at different

periods of history?– What gave you these impressions?

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Discussion Question (2)Discussion Question (2)

Is this the picture you have of the historical Chinese Is this the picture you have of the historical Chinese woman?woman?

– That women have always been powerless as the That women have always been powerless as the Chinese social system was patrilineal and Chinese social system was patrilineal and patriarchal?patriarchal?

– That women are victims and suffered in silence.That women are victims and suffered in silence.– Women had no legal rights, no rights within the Women had no legal rights, no rights within the

family; they could not own property and if they family; they could not own property and if they had any property, they could not dispose of their had any property, they could not dispose of their own property.own property.

– They had no right of divorce whereas men did?They had no right of divorce whereas men did?– That they had no choice in marriage – did men That they had no choice in marriage – did men

have a choice?have a choice?

Discussion Question (3)Discussion Question (3)

– That the women had to work indoors due to the idea That the women had to work indoors due to the idea of the separation of women (and their feet were bound of the separation of women (and their feet were bound to make sure they stay there).to make sure they stay there).

– Women were thought to be intellectually and morally Women were thought to be intellectually and morally inferior to men and needed guidance, care and inferior to men and needed guidance, care and control. control.

– Chastity was most important and so women’s activity Chastity was most important and so women’s activity was restricted to the family.was restricted to the family.

View of Chinese women during late 19View of Chinese women during late 19thth century: century:– The victimized woman represented the backwardness The victimized woman represented the backwardness

of China; solution – nationalism and strengthening of of China; solution – nationalism and strengthening of the state; westernization and feminism.the state; westernization and feminism.

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IntroductionIntroductionHistory and the Study of WomenHistory and the Study of Women

When we study Chinese women, we must When we study Chinese women, we must understand how we Discover what happened in understand how we Discover what happened in the past.the past.– The study of history is based on archaeology, The study of history is based on archaeology,

the linguistics, records and now DNA.the linguistics, records and now DNA. Archaeology: Skeletons and artifacts found Archaeology: Skeletons and artifacts found

in archaeological diggings such as writings in archaeological diggings such as writings on bronze vessels and oracle bones.on bronze vessels and oracle bones.

Linguistics: Languages spoken by different Linguistics: Languages spoken by different groups.groups.

Records: Compilations, made by historians, Records: Compilations, made by historians, of records previously available on bamboo of records previously available on bamboo and/or silk but have since rotted or burned and/or silk but have since rotted or burned in wars in ancient times.in wars in ancient times.

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Introduction Introduction History and the Study of Women: History and the Study of Women:

HistoriansHistorians Chinese historians were men who recorded or selected from Chinese historians were men who recorded or selected from

available materials what they thought were important available materials what they thought were important –– only one only one female historian of record: Ban Zhao.female historian of record: Ban Zhao.– They were male Confucian officials who believed that history They were male Confucian officials who believed that history

should provide lessons of instruction and so materials were should provide lessons of instruction and so materials were chosen to show examples of good practices and bad practices.chosen to show examples of good practices and bad practices.

– Historians were interested in recording government affairs and Historians were interested in recording government affairs and so non-governmental affairs were usually ignored.so non-governmental affairs were usually ignored.

Since Chinese history was written by male Confucian officials who Since Chinese history was written by male Confucian officials who were interested in history as lessons to be learned, women were were interested in history as lessons to be learned, women were mentioned either as models of virtue or as causes of disaster.mentioned either as models of virtue or as causes of disaster.

The public are then only familiar with controversial figures such The public are then only familiar with controversial figures such as Empresses Lü of the Han, Wu of the Tang, and Cixi of the Qing. as Empresses Lü of the Han, Wu of the Tang, and Cixi of the Qing. – They are pictured as evil women who usurp power; but, They are pictured as evil women who usurp power; but, – Empresses Lü and Wu are also recorded as good rulers.Empresses Lü and Wu are also recorded as good rulers.

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Introduction Introduction History and the Study of Women: History and the Study of Women:

Historians (2)Historians (2) There were many other Empress Dowagers (senior There were many other Empress Dowagers (senior

widows) who served as regents who were recorded widows) who served as regents who were recorded as being good rulers.as being good rulers.– If they were not good rulers, their maintenance of If they were not good rulers, their maintenance of

power would not be tolerated.power would not be tolerated.– The historians always felt that the regents should The historians always felt that the regents should

retire as soon as the emperors come of age but retire as soon as the emperors come of age but many great regents refused to retire but stayed in many great regents refused to retire but stayed in power until their deaths.power until their deaths.

– Some regents even named their successor regents Some regents even named their successor regents in their wills although this was usually ignored in their wills although this was usually ignored after the regent’s death.after the regent’s death.

Many empresses ruled in the names of their ill Many empresses ruled in the names of their ill husbands or advised him during his rule.husbands or advised him during his rule.

Introduction Introduction History and the Study of Women: History and the Study of Women:

Historians (3)Historians (3) Since history and literature only records the lives of Since history and literature only records the lives of

elite women – women in the upper classes – the elite women – women in the upper classes – the information we have is limited to this area.information we have is limited to this area.

For the lives of ordinary women, legal cases will have to For the lives of ordinary women, legal cases will have to be consulted.be consulted.

However, Chinese do not ordinarily like to resort to the However, Chinese do not ordinarily like to resort to the court or to the Yamen court or to the Yamen 衙门 衙门 except in unusual situations except in unusual situations or in the cases of the more well-to-do classes.or in the cases of the more well-to-do classes.

Due to the limitation of materials the view we have of Due to the limitation of materials the view we have of traditional women, before the Women’s Movement, is traditional women, before the Women’s Movement, is limited mostly to the elite women.limited mostly to the elite women.– Poor women who have to work for a living could not Poor women who have to work for a living could not

behave in the same way and still survivr.behave in the same way and still survivr.

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Introduction Introduction History and the Study of Women: History and the Study of Women:

Historians (4)Historians (4) An example of how distorted the image of women can be An example of how distorted the image of women can be through the study of available materials is “prostitution”.through the study of available materials is “prostitution”.

In reading Chinese literature and other records, one might In reading Chinese literature and other records, one might get the impression that prostitutes (courtesans) were well get the impression that prostitutes (courtesans) were well educated, led relatively happy lives and consorted (kept educated, led relatively happy lives and consorted (kept company) with the educated and the wealthy.company) with the educated and the wealthy.

They would be redeemed (bought) by these clients to be their They would be redeemed (bought) by these clients to be their concubines.concubines.– There is no mention of the fact that these women were There is no mention of the fact that these women were

bought by the brothels as poor children and educated to bought by the brothels as poor children and educated to entertain and to provide sexual services to the elite clients.entertain and to provide sexual services to the elite clients.

– Nor is there mention that Courtesans was a very small Nor is there mention that Courtesans was a very small percentage of the prostitute population.percentage of the prostitute population.

They are the “elite” prostitutes and were a very select group.They are the “elite” prostitutes and were a very select group.

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Introduction Introduction History and the Study of Women: History and the Study of Women:

Historians (5)Historians (5) Throughout Chinese history, there were two different Throughout Chinese history, there were two different

categories of prostitution.categories of prostitution.– PrivatePrivate– State managed.State managed.

The “courtesans” were those that were not managed by the The “courtesans” were those that were not managed by the state.state.

The lives of the other prostitutes (not managed by the state) did The lives of the other prostitutes (not managed by the state) did not live such romantic lives: They were: not live such romantic lives: They were: – Divorcees, widows, and discarded concubines who may have Divorcees, widows, and discarded concubines who may have

to support themselves by working out of temples disguised to support themselves by working out of temples disguised as nuns (temples were places where travelers stayed).as nuns (temples were places where travelers stayed).

– Wives or daughters of poor families who may work as part Wives or daughters of poor families who may work as part time prostitutes to help support their families.time prostitutes to help support their families.

Introduction Introduction History and the Study of Women: History and the Study of Women:

Historians (6)Historians (6) State managed prostitution, called yuehu State managed prostitution, called yuehu 乐户乐户 ,, existed existed

throughout Chinese history.throughout Chinese history.– It has been recorded as early as the Han dynasty (206 It has been recorded as early as the Han dynasty (206

BCE-220 CE) and was finally abolished by Emperor BCE-220 CE) and was finally abolished by Emperor Yongzheng Yongzheng 雍正帝 雍正帝 (r. 1723–1735) of the Qing dynasty (r. 1723–1735) of the Qing dynasty (1644-1211). (1644-1211).

– These prostitution houses were created to provide sexual These prostitution houses were created to provide sexual services to the soldiers.services to the soldiers.

– The prostitutes were the families of men who had been The prostitutes were the families of men who had been found guilty of crimes.found guilty of crimes.

– The status of prostitution was hereditary; that is, once The status of prostitution was hereditary; that is, once you are a prostitute your children and grandchildren and you are a prostitute your children and grandchildren and so on will always be prostitutes.so on will always be prostitutes.

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Introduction Introduction History and the Study of Women: History and the Study of Women:

Historians (7)Historians (7) When we study Chinese women, we must work from When we study Chinese women, we must work from

available materials.available materials. Most are written by Confucian scholars and officials Most are written by Confucian scholars and officials

who are not interested in writing about women and who are not interested in writing about women and whatever they write may show their preference for a whatever they write may show their preference for a male-dominated society.male-dominated society.

It is also difficult to study women as they left little It is also difficult to study women as they left little record of themselves.record of themselves.– Most of what the women wrote were poetry about Most of what the women wrote were poetry about

longing for their lovers or husbands or about their longing for their lovers or husbands or about their unhappy lives.unhappy lives.

Knowing these limitations we will move on and try Knowing these limitations we will move on and try and get a picture of what is the life of a traditional and get a picture of what is the life of a traditional woman.woman.

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IntroductionIntroductionView of Chinese women in the 20View of Chinese women in the 20thth

CenturyCentury In the early 20In the early 20thth century, Western as well as Chinese century, Western as well as Chinese men and women thought that China was backward, men and women thought that China was backward, compared to the West, and that it was due to the compared to the West, and that it was due to the social system. social system.

They felt that:They felt that:– Both men and women were oppressed by the Both men and women were oppressed by the

patrilineal and patriarchal system but that women patrilineal and patriarchal system but that women suffered more than men. suffered more than men.

– The crippling of women with bound feet meant that The crippling of women with bound feet meant that they produced weak children.they produced weak children.

The victimization of women therefore represented the The victimization of women therefore represented the backwardness of China.backwardness of China.

– Solution – liberation and education of women, Solution – liberation and education of women, strengthening of the state, and westernization.strengthening of the state, and westernization.

Men and women believed in the need to change the Men and women believed in the need to change the system and that the liberation of women, the mothers system and that the liberation of women, the mothers of the future citizens of China, was an essential part of the future citizens of China, was an essential part of the change.of the change.

IntroductionIntroductionView of Chinese women in the 20View of Chinese women in the 20thth

Century (2)Century (2) They felt that women have been static and oppressed They felt that women have been static and oppressed

for over 2,000 years.for over 2,000 years. Since then, archaeological studies as well as studies of Since then, archaeological studies as well as studies of

specific periods of history have shown that the role of specific periods of history have shown that the role of women:women:– Has not always been the same over the past 2,000 Has not always been the same over the past 2,000

years.years.– The woman was not totally subservient to the man.The woman was not totally subservient to the man.– The woman had legal rights in society.The woman had legal rights in society.– Women who ruled were not necessarily evil ones Women who ruled were not necessarily evil ones

who used beauty and charm to gain political and who used beauty and charm to gain political and economic power.economic power.

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The Role of Women in Ancient Chinese The Role of Women in Ancient Chinese Religion:Religion:

Creation mythsCreation myths Every culture has its creation myth(s) – its reasoning Every culture has its creation myth(s) – its reasoning for its coming into being.for its coming into being.

There are many creation myths in China.There are many creation myths in China. Many of us have heard of the Daoist version regarding Many of us have heard of the Daoist version regarding

Pan Gu who was hatched from a cosmic egg. Pan Gu who was hatched from a cosmic egg. – Half the shell is above him as the sky, the other half Half the shell is above him as the sky, the other half

below him as the earth. below him as the earth. – He grows taller each day for 18,000 years, He grows taller each day for 18,000 years,

gradually pushing them apart until they reach their gradually pushing them apart until they reach their appointed places. appointed places.

– After all this effort he falls to pieces. His limbs After all this effort he falls to pieces. His limbs become the mountains, his blood the rivers, his become the mountains, his blood the rivers, his breath the wind and his voice the thunder. His two breath the wind and his voice the thunder. His two eyes are the sun and the moon. The parasites on his eyes are the sun and the moon. The parasites on his body are mankind. body are mankind.

The Role of Women in Ancient Chinese The Role of Women in Ancient Chinese Religion:Religion:

Creation myths (2) Creation myths (2) In another Chinese creation myths we find a goddess, In another Chinese creation myths we find a goddess, Nüwa Nüwa 女娲女娲 , who was supposed to have made human , who was supposed to have made human beings beings from yellow clay:from yellow clay:– Sculpting each one individually and these became the Sculpting each one individually and these became the

nobles.nobles.– Tired, she dipped a rope in clay and flicked it and Tired, she dipped a rope in clay and flicked it and

blobs of clay landed everywhere – each became a blobs of clay landed everywhere – each became a person and these are the commoners.person and these are the commoners.

– Some of the figures melted in the rain while they were Some of the figures melted in the rain while they were drying and these were the sick or those with physical drying and these were the sick or those with physical abnormalities. abnormalities.

When When a male god broke the pillar attaching earth to a male god broke the pillar attaching earth to heaven Nüwa was said to have repaired the universe.heaven Nüwa was said to have repaired the universe.– So, in ancient times some thought that human beings So, in ancient times some thought that human beings

were made by a goddess and that a goddess restored were made by a goddess and that a goddess restored order.order.

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The Role of Women in The Role of Women in Ancient Chinese ReligionAncient Chinese Religion

Women were honored in ancient religion:Women were honored in ancient religion:– In Liaoning, archaeologists have dug up statues (1986) In Liaoning, archaeologists have dug up statues (1986)

of pregnant females surrounded by dragons, tortoises, of pregnant females surrounded by dragons, tortoises, birds and cicadas– that date back to 4,500-2,500 birds and cicadas– that date back to 4,500-2,500 B.C.E.B.C.E.

– Northeast of this site, they found a life-sized head of a Northeast of this site, they found a life-sized head of a female figure dating from 3,000 B.C.E..female figure dating from 3,000 B.C.E..

– Oracle bones, used in divination also referred to a Oracle bones, used in divination also referred to a “Western Mother” and an “Eastern Mother”.“Western Mother” and an “Eastern Mother”. References to these goddesses are also found in the References to these goddesses are also found in the

“Classic of Mountains and Oceans” written about “Classic of Mountains and Oceans” written about 400 and 300 B.C.E. 400 and 300 B.C.E.

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The Role of Women in Ancient Chinese The Role of Women in Ancient Chinese Religion:Religion:ShamansShamans

Shamans Shamans wu wu 巫巫 were those who were those who communicated communicated between the between the human world and spiritual one.human world and spiritual one.

Shamans were important in all primitive religions in Shamans were important in all primitive religions in different parts of the world – from the earliest times to different parts of the world – from the earliest times to the present day.the present day.

In China, the word In China, the word wu wu 巫巫 (shaman) originally referred (shaman) originally referred to females as women were to females as women were thought best suited for this thought best suited for this role due to their ability to give life.role due to their ability to give life.

Later, Kings took over the offerings of sacrifices and Later, Kings took over the offerings of sacrifices and the role of the shaman became less religious.the role of the shaman became less religious.

Once the king, a male, could assume the duties of a Once the king, a male, could assume the duties of a shaman; other men could also do so.shaman; other men could also do so.

The status of women was lowered as they were not the The status of women was lowered as they were not the only link between humans and the spiritual world.only link between humans and the spiritual world.

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The Role of Women in Ancient Chinese Religion (2)(2)

After the Shang dynasty After the Shang dynasty 商朝 商朝 (ca. 1600-ca 1046 B.C.E.)(ca. 1600-ca 1046 B.C.E.), the , the status of women in religion was further reduced as the status of women in religion was further reduced as the practice of divination practice of divination 占卜占卜 ; ; 预测 预测 lost some favor as lost some favor as intellectuals could not find answers to questions through intellectuals could not find answers to questions through divination.divination.

Rational (Rational ( 理性的理性的 , , 推理的推理的 , , 合理的合理的 ) ) philosophy philosophy 哲学 哲学 – – finding finding the meaning of life through reasoning rather than through the meaning of life through reasoning rather than through worship and inquiry of the spirits – further reduced the worship and inquiry of the spirits – further reduced the importance of shamanism.importance of shamanism.– During the Eastern Zhou several great minds – men such as During the Eastern Zhou several great minds – men such as

Confucius Confucius 孔子孔子 , Mencius, Mencius 孟子孟子 , Laozi , Laozi 老子 老子 and Zhuangzi and Zhuangzi 庄子庄子– – tried tried to solve the governmental problem of their times and their teachings. to solve the governmental problem of their times and their teachings.

– They focused on They focused on the place of human in the universe and on the need the place of human in the universe and on the need of finding social and natural harmonyof finding social and natural harmony..

– Increasingly, Increasingly, human destiny was associated with the activities of human destiny was associated with the activities of humans rather than with the authority of spirits and ghostshumans rather than with the authority of spirits and ghosts..

Shamans became less respected and the role of women was Shamans became less respected and the role of women was further reduced – however, there continued to be female further reduced – however, there continued to be female shamans for the common people.shamans for the common people.

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The Role of Royal Women in Early ChinaThe Role of Royal Women in Early ChinaRoyal Women in the Shang Royal Women in the Shang

[1766-1121 B.C.E. (644 years)] [1766-1121 B.C.E. (644 years)] Archaeological work near the Shang capital near Archaeological work near the Shang capital near

Anyang Anyang 安陽 安陽 uncovered 11 major royal tombs and the uncovered 11 major royal tombs and the

foundations of palace and ritual sitesfoundations of palace and ritual sites..– More than 20,000 inscribed oracle bones were More than 20,000 inscribed oracle bones were

discovered together with tens of thousands of discovered together with tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone and ceramic artifacts.bronze, jade, stone, bone and ceramic artifacts.

Shang society was already patrilineal and patriarchal. Shang society was already patrilineal and patriarchal.

The Role of Royal Women in Early ChinaThe Role of Royal Women in Early ChinaRoyal Women in the Shang (2)Royal Women in the Shang (2)

Under this system, royal wives and other women could Under this system, royal wives and other women could exercise considerable authority and had high status. exercise considerable authority and had high status. – Kings offered sacrifices to their female as well as Kings offered sacrifices to their female as well as

male ancestors.male ancestors.– Health of a royal consort was often the subject of the Health of a royal consort was often the subject of the

king’s divinations. king’s divinations. – Shang kings seemed to have practiced monogamy in Shang kings seemed to have practiced monogamy in

the beginning but later adopted polygamy. the beginning but later adopted polygamy.

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The Role of Royal Women in Early China:The Role of Royal Women in Early China:Royal Women in the Shang (3)Royal Women in the Shang (3)

King Wu Ding King Wu Ding 武丁 武丁 (c.1200-1181 BC) was said to have had (c.1200-1181 BC) was said to have had at least 64 concubines, not all of whom lived in the palace.at least 64 concubines, not all of whom lived in the palace.– Those he did not favor were given a piece of territory.Those he did not favor were given a piece of territory.– Some were ordered to perform sacrifices or to conduct Some were ordered to perform sacrifices or to conduct

military expeditions. military expeditions. – They traveled back and forth between the capital and They traveled back and forth between the capital and

the outlying regions on the king’s business, and were the outlying regions on the king’s business, and were trusted officers. trusted officers.

The wives of subject rulers may have presented tribute at The wives of subject rulers may have presented tribute at the Shang court on behalf of their husbands or the women the Shang court on behalf of their husbands or the women may in fact have been subject rulers themselves. may in fact have been subject rulers themselves.

The overall impression is that royal wives, and perhaps The overall impression is that royal wives, and perhaps upper-class women, were generally respected and held upper-class women, were generally respected and held positions of authority though Shang women typically positions of authority though Shang women typically occupied a position inferior to men. occupied a position inferior to men.

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The Role of Royal Women in Early China:The Role of Royal Women in Early China:Royal Women in the Shang (4)Royal Women in the Shang (4)

Tombs of three of Wu Ding’s royal spouses were foundTombs of three of Wu Ding’s royal spouses were found in one in one site.site. One, presumed to be that of Fu Hao One, presumed to be that of Fu Hao 妇好妇好 , Royal Consort , Royal Consort of King Wu Ding, was buried with large quantities of artifacts of King Wu Ding, was buried with large quantities of artifacts including bronzes and pottery. including bronzes and pottery.

According to archaeological findings, Fu Hao:According to archaeological findings, Fu Hao:– Was an active person who gave birth to at least three Was an active person who gave birth to at least three

children. children. – Was a hero among women.Was a hero among women.– Was a leader in both civil and military affairs and was Was a leader in both civil and military affairs and was

virtuous in civilian administration and able to pacify allies.virtuous in civilian administration and able to pacify allies.– Led military campaigns to the four border regions and Led military campaigns to the four border regions and

participated in almost all of the famous and important wars participated in almost all of the famous and important wars of the period.of the period.

– Presided over sacrifices.Presided over sacrifices.

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The Role of Royal Women in Early China:The Role of Royal Women in Early China:Royal Women in the Zhou [1122-221 B.C.E. Royal Women in the Zhou [1122-221 B.C.E.

(867 years)](867 years)]

History divides the Zhou into History divides the Zhou into the Western Zhou (1122-771 the Western Zhou (1122-771 B.C.E.), with its capital in B.C.E.), with its capital in Xian Xian 西安 西安 and the Eastern and the Eastern Zhou (771-221 B.C.E.) with Zhou (771-221 B.C.E.) with its capital at Luoyang its capital at Luoyang 洛阳洛阳 ..

The Eastern Zhou was The Eastern Zhou was divided into:divided into:– TThe Spring and Autumn he Spring and Autumn

Period (722-481 B.C.E.) Period (722-481 B.C.E.) and the Warring States and the Warring States Period Period 战国时代战国时代 ..

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The Role of Royal Women in Early China:The Role of Royal Women in Early China:Royal Women in the Zhou(2)Royal Women in the Zhou(2)

During the Western Zhou, royal wives had an active role During the Western Zhou, royal wives had an active role in government.in government.– Bronze inscriptions showed that queens had their own Bronze inscriptions showed that queens had their own

officers and were persons of status. officers and were persons of status. – The consort to King Cheng (c.1035-1006 BC) appears The consort to King Cheng (c.1035-1006 BC) appears

in several bronze inscriptions performing functions in several bronze inscriptions performing functions that normally would have been those of a king.that normally would have been those of a king.

The status of the royal women in the Eastern Zhou The status of the royal women in the Eastern Zhou appears to have been reduced as their duties are now appears to have been reduced as their duties are now limited in the palace.limited in the palace.– However, they had the same ranking and pay structure However, they had the same ranking and pay structure

as their male counterparts in the civil service.as their male counterparts in the civil service.

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The Role of Royal Women in Early China:The Role of Royal Women in Early China:Royal Women in the Zhou (3)Royal Women in the Zhou (3)

The King married 12 women at one time:The King married 12 women at one time:– OneOne state would send a primary bride accompanied state would send a primary bride accompanied

by a younger sister and a niece, while two related by a younger sister and a niece, while two related states would each send a secondary bride, also states would each send a secondary bride, also accompanied by a younger sister and a niece, accompanied by a younger sister and a niece, making a total of nine. making a total of nine.

– The primary bride became the primary wife, and the The primary bride became the primary wife, and the other women who accompanied her all became other women who accompanied her all became secondary wives. secondary wives.

– This ensured that even if the primary wife did not This ensured that even if the primary wife did not produce an heir there might still be an heir from the produce an heir there might still be an heir from the wifewife’’s natal/birth lineage, thus preserving the s natal/birth lineage, thus preserving the marital relationships.marital relationships.

– These wives were there to protect the interests of These wives were there to protect the interests of their natal states and produce heirs who would their natal states and produce heirs who would ensure long term friendship between the two states.ensure long term friendship between the two states.

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The Role of Royal Women in Early China:The Role of Royal Women in Early China:Royal Women in the Zhou (3)Royal Women in the Zhou (3)

The subject kings married 9; the nobles married lesser The subject kings married 9; the nobles married lesser numbers according to rank.numbers according to rank.

The harem of a ruler also included concubines and The harem of a ruler also included concubines and maids. maids.

There were at least 9 ranks.There were at least 9 ranks. They were distinguished according to titles.They were distinguished according to titles. A woman’s ranking determined the status of her children A woman’s ranking determined the status of her children

in the succession but it could change. in the succession but it could change. A concubine could be elevated to a primary wife and this A concubine could be elevated to a primary wife and this

would occur if she became his favorite or if her son would occur if she became his favorite or if her son became the heir. became the heir.

The size of the harem could run into the hundreds.The size of the harem could run into the hundreds.

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The Role of Royal Women in Early China:The Role of Royal Women in Early China:Status of Women in the ZhouStatus of Women in the Zhou

Gender roles became defined at birth as early as the Gender roles became defined at birth as early as the Zhou:Zhou:– In the Book of Poetry:In the Book of Poetry:

So he bears a son,So he bears a son, And puts him to sleep upon a bed,And puts him to sleep upon a bed, Clothes him in robes,Clothes him in robes, Gives him a jade scepter to play with.Gives him a jade scepter to play with. Then he bears a daughter, Then he bears a daughter, And puts her on the ground, And puts her on the ground, Clothes her in swaddling clothes,Clothes her in swaddling clothes, Gives her a loom-whorl to play with.Gives her a loom-whorl to play with.

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Confucianism and WomenConfucianism and Women

Confucianism Confucianism dominated Chinese thinking for about dominated Chinese thinking for about 2,000 years – throughout that time, Confucianism 2,000 years – throughout that time, Confucianism evolved and changed as the values of society changed.evolved and changed as the values of society changed.

It had a great influence on the status of women in It had a great influence on the status of women in China and as Confucianism changed, so did the status China and as Confucianism changed, so did the status of women. of women. – In the Confucian social order, human relationships In the Confucian social order, human relationships

tended to be hierarchical (ranked) and fixed.tended to be hierarchical (ranked) and fixed. Women lived in a patriarchal system and so were given Women lived in a patriarchal system and so were given

a subordinate role.a subordinate role.– The more Confucian a society was – the more The more Confucian a society was – the more

structured and hierarchical – the more subordinate a structured and hierarchical – the more subordinate a woman’s role was.woman’s role was.

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Confucianism and Women: Confucianism and Women: Development of Confucianism Development of Confucianism

Confucianism Confucianism 孔学孔学 // 孔教 孔教 refers to a philosophy and refers to a philosophy and religious tradition that is traced back to Confucius religious tradition that is traced back to Confucius 孔子 孔子(c.551-479 B.C.E.).(c.551-479 B.C.E.).– It is thought of as a philosophy as Confucius and It is thought of as a philosophy as Confucius and

those who came after him tried to find a rational those who came after him tried to find a rational answer to the questions regarding answer to the questions regarding life’s meaning and life’s meaning and order in society (rather than a spiritual reason).order in society (rather than a spiritual reason).

– It is thought of as a religion as Confucius It is thought of as a religion as Confucius had faith in had faith in Heaven and wanted to do the Will of Heaven Heaven and wanted to do the Will of Heaven 天天 ..

For Confucians, women were valued for the For Confucians, women were valued for the continuation of the family, allowing fulfillment of continuation of the family, allowing fulfillment of obligations to ancestors and future prosperity.obligations to ancestors and future prosperity.– Women were to be the teachers of the next Women were to be the teachers of the next

generation.generation.

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Confucianism and Women: Confucianism and Women: Development of Confucianism (2)Development of Confucianism (2)

During the Han dynasty, Dong Zhongshu During the Han dynasty, Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒 董仲舒 developed developed yin-yangyin-yang Confucianism which said that as Heaven Confucianism which said that as Heaven dominates Earth, Ruler dominates subject; father dominates Earth, Ruler dominates subject; father dominates son; husband dominates wife.dominates son; husband dominates wife.– Dong said that as the sun (“Dong said that as the sun (“yangyang”) is above the earth ”) is above the earth

(“(“yinyin”), the husband who is “”), the husband who is “yangyang” – the male force – is ” – the male force – is superior and to the wife who is “superior and to the wife who is “yinyin” – the female force .” – the female force .

– Therefore, even if the man is from a humble family, he Therefore, even if the man is from a humble family, he would be superior to the wife from a noble family.would be superior to the wife from a noble family.

These values gained prominence in China after These values gained prominence in China after Confucianism was chosen as the state doctrine/ideology Confucianism was chosen as the state doctrine/ideology during the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.).during the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.).– The role of women suffered and was diminished after the The role of women suffered and was diminished after the

development of development of yin-yangyin-yang Confucianism. Confucianism.

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Confucianism and Women: Confucianism and Women: Development of Confucianism (3)Development of Confucianism (3)

In time, Confucianism grew more conservative and so In time, Confucianism grew more conservative and so moe hierarchicalmoe hierarchical..

Neo-Confucianism in the Song Neo-Confucianism in the Song 宋宋 emphasized:emphasized:– The woman’s filial piety towards her parents-in-The woman’s filial piety towards her parents-in-

law rather than towards her parents.law rather than towards her parents.– The woman was a member of the husband’s family The woman was a member of the husband’s family

(rather than of her own natal/birth one).(rather than of her own natal/birth one).– The husband’s family owed her greater protection The husband’s family owed her greater protection

and her sons owed her special reverence since she and her sons owed her special reverence since she is part of their family.is part of their family.

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Confucianism and Women: Confucianism and Women: Development of Confucianism (4)Development of Confucianism (4)

– The Song emperor even ordered the princesses to pay The Song emperor even ordered the princesses to pay special homage to their parents-in-law and to follow special homage to their parents-in-law and to follow their family regulations despite their royal statuses.their family regulations despite their royal statuses.

An intolerance for widow remarriage was beginning in the An intolerance for widow remarriage was beginning in the Song period – but, there was no emphasis on widow Song period – but, there was no emphasis on widow suicide.suicide.– A neo-Confucian scholar said that poor widows should A neo-Confucian scholar said that poor widows should

not remarry as it is a small matter to starve to death not remarry as it is a small matter to starve to death but a larger matter to lose integrity. but a larger matter to lose integrity. But he believed that it was alright for the widower to But he believed that it was alright for the widower to

remarry as only women had to observe chastity.remarry as only women had to observe chastity. Despite these changes, the woman could still keep her Despite these changes, the woman could still keep her

dowry and take it with her should she remarry.dowry and take it with her should she remarry.

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Confucianism and Women: Confucianism and Women: Development of Confucianism (5)Development of Confucianism (5)

Under Confucianism, women were to follow the father in Under Confucianism, women were to follow the father in youth, the husband in adulthood, and the son when widowed youth, the husband in adulthood, and the son when widowed – the three – the three dependences/follows dependences/follows sancongsancong 三从三从 ..– To follow/obey her father as a child; To follow/obey her father as a child; – To follow/obey her husband as a wife; To follow/obey her husband as a wife; – To follow/obey the son as a widow.To follow/obey the son as a widow.

The tradition is developed from the dress code The tradition is developed from the dress code for women for mourning services.for women for mourning services.

– Before marriage her mourning dress was in Before marriage her mourning dress was in accordance to the rank held by her father. accordance to the rank held by her father.

– After marriage her mourning dress was in After marriage her mourning dress was in accordance to the rank of her husband.accordance to the rank of her husband.

– In widowhood, her mourning dress was in In widowhood, her mourning dress was in accordance to her son’s rank. accordance to her son’s rank.

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Confucianism and Women: EducationConfucianism and Women: Education

Elite women studied within the home.Elite women studied within the home. In addition to painting, calligraphy, and poetry, they also In addition to painting, calligraphy, and poetry, they also

had moral education such as the Four Classics (compiled had moral education such as the Four Classics (compiled during the Qing dynasty), and family regulations.during the Qing dynasty), and family regulations.

The first classic for women wasThe first classic for women was Lessons for Women Lessons for Women 女誡女誡 , , written by Ban Zhao written by Ban Zhao 班昭 班昭 (c.35-100), the Han historian (c.35-100), the Han historian (only female historian) who completed the Dynastic (only female historian) who completed the Dynastic History of the Former Han (Eastern Han) after her History of the Former Han (Eastern Han) after her brother’s death and went on to tutor the Empress and brother’s death and went on to tutor the Empress and Palace ladies. Palace ladies. – She wrote this for her granddaughter who was about to She wrote this for her granddaughter who was about to

be married so that the young woman would know how be married so that the young woman would know how to live within the new family.to live within the new family.

– It was written when she was about 60 years old.It was written when she was about 60 years old. It dealt with the proper behavior of women within a large It dealt with the proper behavior of women within a large

Confucian family and consisted of 7 chapters:Confucian family and consisted of 7 chapters:

Confucianism and Women: Education (2)Confucianism and Women: Education (2)

– Being humble and submissiveBeing humble and submissive– Husband and wifeHusband and wife– Being reverent and obedientBeing reverent and obedient– Virtuous conductVirtuous conduct– Concentration (on serving one’s husband)Concentration (on serving one’s husband)– Obeying (parents-in-law) selflesslyObeying (parents-in-law) selflessly– Being harmonious with one’s brothers-in-law and sisters-Being harmonious with one’s brothers-in-law and sisters-

in-lawin-law It emphasized the It emphasized the four virtues four virtues sideside 四德 四德 of womenof women::

– Women’s moral virtue Women’s moral virtue 妇德妇德 : to : to be modest in behavior be modest in behavior during her leisure time; to decently protect her virtue; to during her leisure time; to decently protect her virtue; to control herself; to maintain a sense of shame; and to control herself; to maintain a sense of shame; and to behave in acceptable ways in action and at rest. behave in acceptable ways in action and at rest.

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Confucianism and Women: Education (3)Confucianism and Women: Education (3)

– Women’s speech Women’s speech 妇言妇言 : to : to choose the words to say and not use choose the words to say and not use coarse language; to think first, then to speak, and not tire coarse language; to think first, then to speak, and not tire others. others.

– Women’s appearance Women’s appearance 妇容妇容 : to : to clean house; to wash away dirt; clean house; to wash away dirt; to keep her clothes and ornaments fresh and clean; to bathe to keep her clothes and ornaments fresh and clean; to bathe herself regularly in order not to be shamed by disgraceful herself regularly in order not to be shamed by disgraceful appearance. appearance.

– Women’s work Women’s work 妇工妇工 : to : to concentrate on sewing and weaving concentrate on sewing and weaving and not joke around; to neatly prepare the wine and food for and not joke around; to neatly prepare the wine and food for serving guests. serving guests.

The second classic was the Analects for Women The second classic was the Analects for Women 女论语女论语 ; it; it was was written during the Tang dynasty by two sisters surnamed Song. written during the Tang dynasty by two sisters surnamed Song. – They were gifted scholars and were summoned into the palace They were gifted scholars and were summoned into the palace

by Emperor Dezong (r.780-804).by Emperor Dezong (r.780-804). It was named “analects” as it was written in the style of the It was named “analects” as it was written in the style of the

Analects of Confucius Analects of Confucius 论语论语 , supposedly written by disciples , supposedly written by disciples in the style of questions and answers.in the style of questions and answers.

The Analects stressed the chastity of women.The Analects stressed the chastity of women.

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Confucianism and Women: Confucianism and Women: Education (4)Education (4)

The third classic, The third classic, Instructions for dwellers in the Inner Instructions for dwellers in the Inner Chambers Chambers 内训内训 ,, was written by Empress Renxiaowen, was written by Empress Renxiaowen, the wife of Emperor Chengzu/Yongle the wife of Emperor Chengzu/Yongle 永樂 永樂 of the Ming of the Ming dynasty.dynasty. It was written for the instruction of princesses and It was written for the instruction of princesses and

includes a chapter on how to serve the emperor.includes a chapter on how to serve the emperor. During the Ming dynasty, During the Ming dynasty, there was a strong interest there was a strong interest

in the publication of instructions for women.in the publication of instructions for women. That is, the woman who was at the center of the That is, the woman who was at the center of the

dispute – who needed the legitimacy – would sponsor dispute – who needed the legitimacy – would sponsor these publications to show that she was virtuous and these publications to show that she was virtuous and deserving of that position (Yongle had usurped the deserving of that position (Yongle had usurped the throne of his nephew).throne of his nephew).

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Confucianism and Women: Education Confucianism and Women: Education (5)(5)

A Prompt Record of Lessons for women A Prompt Record of Lessons for women 女范捷录 女范捷录 was written by a was written by a woman named Liu during the Qing dynasty who had been a woman named Liu during the Qing dynasty who had been a widow for 60 years and was given an official commendation by widow for 60 years and was given an official commendation by the court at the age of 90.the court at the age of 90.– Her son compiled her work together with the other three and Her son compiled her work together with the other three and

the compilation is referred to as the Four Classics for Women.the compilation is referred to as the Four Classics for Women. There were other important texts for the education of women:There were other important texts for the education of women:

– Book Of Filial Piety for Women closely parallels the original Book Of Filial Piety for Women closely parallels the original Book of Filial Piety Book of Filial Piety 孝经孝经 .. It was written by Ms. Zheng in Song/Tang, wife of an It was written by Ms. Zheng in Song/Tang, wife of an

official.official. She wrote it for her niece who was about to marry a She wrote it for her niece who was about to marry a

Prince.Prince.

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Confucianism and Women: Confucianism and Women: Education (6)Education (6)

– The primary goal of the book is to expand the message The primary goal of the book is to expand the message in the “Book of Filial Piety” to girls and women.in the “Book of Filial Piety” to girls and women.

– It presents filial piety as the most important virtue and It presents filial piety as the most important virtue and women who never leaves their homes can exert a women who never leaves their homes can exert a moral influence through her influence within the moral influence through her influence within the household by transforming others.household by transforming others.

Family regulations were also a requirement for the Family regulations were also a requirement for the education of elite women who had to first study those of education of elite women who had to first study those of her own family, then those of her husband’s family.her own family, then those of her husband’s family.– The family regulations were instructions on the correct The family regulations were instructions on the correct

behavior of different members of the family. An behavior of different members of the family. An example:example:

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Confucianism and Women: Education Confucianism and Women: Education (6) (6)

Except for the girls under 8 and daughters-in-law Except for the girls under 8 and daughters-in-law who have not been married more than three who have not been married more than three months, all women in the house should be taught months, all women in the house should be taught to read the moral guidebooks for women and the to read the moral guidebooks for women and the Lienü Zhuan (Biographies of Virtuous Women) so Lienü Zhuan (Biographies of Virtuous Women) so that they will understand womanhood.that they will understand womanhood.

They should not write, and they should not be They should not write, and they should not be allowed to study the classics and literature.allowed to study the classics and literature.

These moral guidebooks were read until recent history; These moral guidebooks were read until recent history; example can be found in the novel “Family” Ji example can be found in the novel “Family” Ji 家 家 by Ba by Ba Jin Jin 巴金 巴金 in 1931.in 1931.– In this novel, a little girl, in addition to having her In this novel, a little girl, in addition to having her

feet bound by her old-fashioned mother is forced to feet bound by her old-fashioned mother is forced to read the Four Classics for women.read the Four Classics for women.

Changing Status of WomenChanging Status of Women

Women’s status changed through time.Women’s status changed through time. The changes were due to:The changes were due to:

– The reduction of the importance of the belief in the The reduction of the importance of the belief in the spirit world and the rise of rational philosophyspirit world and the rise of rational philosophy

– The impact of ConfucianismThe impact of Confucianism– The impact of the religionThe impact of the religion– The impact of lawThe impact of law– The impact of politics: The Mongolorization of ChinaThe impact of politics: The Mongolorization of China

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The Changing Status of Women: The Changing Status of Women: Impact of Law, Religion and PoliticsImpact of Law, Religion and Politics

Ching, Julia,Ching, Julia, Chinese Religions, Chinese Religions, ““The Ancestral Cult and DivinationThe Ancestral Cult and Divination””, , pp 15-22; pp 15-22; ““Sacrifice and KingshipSacrifice and Kingship””, pp. 33-50. O'Hara, Albert R.,, pp. 33-50. O'Hara, Albert R.,  The The position of women in early China:position of women in early China:   according to the Lieh Nu Chuan, according to the Lieh Nu Chuan, "The Biographies of Eminent Chinese Women.""The Biographies of Eminent Chinese Women."    pp. 255-85. pp. 255-85.

OOR:R: Hinsch, Bret, Hinsch, Bret, Women in Early Imperial China, Women in Early Imperial China, pp 1-13, 15-26.pp 1-13, 15-26. Ch’u T’ung-tsu, Law and Society in Traditional ChinaCh’u T’ung-tsu, Law and Society in Traditional China Tai, Yen-hui, “Divorce in Traditional China” in Buxbaum, ed., Chinese Tai, Yen-hui, “Divorce in Traditional China” in Buxbaum, ed., Chinese

Law and Social Change, pp. 75-106.Law and Social Change, pp. 75-106. Despeaux & Kohn, Women in Daoism, Ch. 1-5 pp 244-251Despeaux & Kohn, Women in Daoism, Ch. 1-5 pp 244-251 ““Observations on Marriage and Inheritance Practices in Early Mongol Observations on Marriage and Inheritance Practices in Early Mongol

and Yuan Society with particular reference to the Levirate” in and Yuan Society with particular reference to the Levirate” in Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Northern China. Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Northern China. pp III, 127-192.pp III, 127-192.

Paul, Diana Y., Women in Buddhism, “Introduction”, “Conclusion”.Paul, Diana Y., Women in Buddhism, “Introduction”, “Conclusion”.

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