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WOMEN, GENDER ANALYSIS AND AGRICULTURE IN ERITREA:

WOMEN AS EFFECTIVE AGENTS OF CHANGE

By

BELAINESH SEYOUM SAARE

Integrated Studies Project

submitted to Dr. Jane Arscott

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts – Integrated Studies

Equality Equity Studies

Athabasca, Alberta

November 9, 2009

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Acknowledgements

Intellectual development is characterized by an accumulation of many debts: intellectual,

financial, material and spiritual. This Research Project work has benefited from many minds,

much advice, time, input and support from numerous people, to all of whom I am greatly

indebted. Without you the task of carrying out this work would have been unbearable. Thank

you!

Thank you to Professor Jane Arscott, for your mentoring, advice and support from the

very beginning of this research, and for providing me with intellectual stimulation, guidance

and critical suggestions.

I greatly thank NUEW for the opportunity and support to continue my studies.

Thanks to the National Union of Eritrean Women (NUEW) for the opportunity to

provide me with the use of all its documents in the organization as well as its library,

To the staff of the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) in the Head Office in particular the

Statistics Office and Administration Personnel Management in the MOA for cooperation in

different aspects of helping to check and doublecheck the Ministry’s data and other relevant

information, thank you.

The Ministry of Agriculture’s Zoba [Regional] Offices provided me with relevant

materials Individuals due particular gratitude include: Mr. Bahta Tedros, Mr. Haile Gde, Mr.

Jaber Ahmed, Mr. Meseret Abraha, Mr. Tesfu Gebremeskal and Dr Yonus Woldu, in the

Zoba in Eritrea for your collaboration in providing me the relevant documents, help with the

data collection process and other critically important issues in relation to this paper,

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NUEW’s staff in all the six regions of Eritrea work tirelessly to coordinate the women

farmers in the Zobas. Thanks to you for selecting the role models and relevant materials on

women farmers in the undershed development project areas.

The Ministry of National Development (MOND) provided me the PRSP paper and

other documents related to the women in development from the Ministry, and for this

assistance I am grateful.

I am grateful to UNDAF (through UNDP) for fully financing my studies. Without

the organization my studies would not have been possible.

UNDP and World Bank as well as the staff in each of the institutions provided support

and access to the internet from the beginning to the end of the program.

My family in general, and my sister Elsa Seyoum and her husband Mr. Gebrenegus

Zere, I thank particularly for your persistent encouragement in my studies. They patiently

helped my Dad and my Mom who need much care at this stage. Their doing this important

work on my behalf while I was completing my graduate studies at a distance in Canada from

September 2005 up until July 2009

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Table of Contents

Cover …1

Acknowledgements …2

Table of Contents …4

List of Acronyms …6

CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND TO A CASE STUDY .. 8

Thesis Statement ..12

Research Methodology ..15

CHAPTER TWO: RESEARCH-RELATED CONSIDERATIONS ...16

Practical Considerations … 21

CHAPTER THREE: THE POLICY DIMENSION …24

Factors Relevant to Women and Farming …28

Other Factors: Traditional and Social …37

Education Skills, and Women`s Capacities for Farming 39

Financial and Other Opportunities for Women Farmers … 42

NUEW ‘s Role …43

Strategies for Gender Mainstreaming … 44

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS …47

Opportunities …47

Challenges …48

Case Study Exemplifying Women’s Empowerment …49

Recommendations …53

Conclusions …54 References …54 Appendix I: Operational Definitions 59

Additional Materials 62

Appendix II: List of Tables

1. Gender Distribution Employed in High Posts, Low Posts (Women) in Education,

Profession, and in Decision in the MOA …26

2 College of Agriculture Graduates By Gender …40

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3 Gender Distribution in College of Agriculture in Hamelmalo College of Agriculture..41

4 Gender Distribution in Different Male Dominated Faculties …41

Appendix III: List of Illustrations:

1. Women’s traditional ploughing system- A woman farming with a camel …9

2. A Woman in male dominated field constructing a dam in Zoba Debub ...32

3. Women in Maekel laying ground to construct a Dam ̀ ..32

4. Gerset Dam in Gash Barka among the many dams constructed and Its Fish Production in

Eritrea ..33

5.Women Farmers in Zoba Debub farming and their production ..34

6. Women and Role Models from the six zoba in Eritrea During a Focus Group Discussion

And Individual Farmer Mrs. Zahra from Gash Barka, a role model ..51

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List Of Acronyms

APFA African Platform of Action And the Beijing Forward Looking Strategies (1995)

CEDAW Convention of the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women

EASSI East African Sub Regional Initiative

ECA Economic Commission for Africa

ECDF Eritrean Children Development Fund

EPLF Eritrean People’s Liberation Front

ERITV Eritrean Television

ERREC Eritrean Relief and Rehabilitation Commission

FHHH Female Headed Households

GAD Gender and Development

GBA Gender Based Analysis

GSE Government of the State of Eritrea

GSFW MDG Global Strategic Frame Work Millennium Development Goals (2004)

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

MDG Millennium Development Goals

MOA Ministry of Agriculture

MOASO Ministry of Agriculture Statistics Office

MOJ Ministry of Justice

MOLWE Ministry of Land Water and Environment

MOND Ministry of National Development

NGAP National Gender Action Plan

NGO Non Government Organization

NSOE National Statistics Office Eritrea

NUEW National Union of Eritrean Women

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PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

RWA Rwandan Women Association

UNDAW United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women

DESAUN Department of Economics and Social Affairs.

UNDP United Nation Development Program

UNESCO United Nation Education Social and Cultural Organization

UNICEF United Nation’s International Children’s Emergency Fund

WID Women In Development

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CHAPTER ONE:

BACKGROUND TO A CASE STUDY

World-wide experience has shown that by marginalizing women a society locks up

half of its potential, and thereby denies itself a chance for genuine development.

[Therefore,] gender rights must become an integral part of basic human and cultural

rights. And all human beings, irrespective of their gender, must learn this lesson,

early from their childhood.(UNESCO, 1995)

Eritrea is a small country in the Horn of Africa, covering 47,740 sq miles, which makes it

approximately the size of England. It has some 1000 miles of coastline along the Red Sea,

giving the country a strategic geographic position along one of the world’s busiest shipping

lanes. This advantageous position for the transportation of goods by water made it a coveted

possession. For more than a century from 1890 through1991 foreign powers’ interest has

impacted the country’s national aspirations, for example, most recently, a border war erupted

in 1998-2000. (Border Commission, 2000) Eritreans have experienced more than a hundred

years of colonization involving suppression, domination, violence and abuse of human life.

All the fertile lands were taken by the colonizers and Eritrean labor was then used to market

their produce outside Eritrea. During the colonial era, the people of Eritrea were considered

second-class citizens in their own country. They were prohibited from owning land and other

resources. Recruited by force to fight alongside the colonizers in defence of the land taken by

the colonizers, approximately half a million people, the majority of them women and children,

sought refuge in neighboring countries such as the Sudan from the start of the liberation

struggle that occurred from 1961 until 1991 (EPLF Charter 1994). The majority of these

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refugees have been repatriated to different parts of the country in particular in Gash Barka, the

fertile agricultural area in Eritrea. The first batch of approximately 4000 people,

the majority of them women and children, returned from the Sudan in 1994 where the

Government of the State of Eritrea, the GSE, through the Eritrean Relief and Rehabilitation

Commision (ERREC) rehabilitated them by giving them land for agriculture and housing and

other necessary social services such as schools, and nearby clinics (Mehreteab, 2007).

Eighty percent of the population of Eritrea depends on agriculture for its livelihood. Fifty

percent of those whose living comes from agriculture engage in subsistence farming.The

majority plough their land by using oxen and in some parts they use camels.

Illustration 1: Women`s Traditional Ploughing System- A Woman Farming using a camel

Source: NUEW, 2009

Farmers are pasturalists who rear animals, and whose mainstay is limited to looking after the

livestock, milking goats and cows and processing milk into butter and cheese. Or, they are

agro pasturalists, also called semi-pasturalists, who mix both animal rearing and farming to

support their families as occurs in the lowlands of Eritrea,. Women’s role in agriculture is

extensive, although their roles as agriculturalists varies throughout the country. In the

pasturalist communities, women tend not to participate in agricultural activities. Women in

the highland areas of Eritrea participate in all the activities usually associated with agricultural

work including planting, weeding, harvesting, threshing, winnowing and storage (MOA,

2001).

Men and women’s gender identities are extensively differentiated. Women’s status has

traditionally been defined relative to their male counterparts. Women are considered to be

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weak in mind and body. They are regarded as nurturers and caregivers, and teach these

gendered roles to their daughters. Men, on the other hand, are viewed as being physically and

mentally strong. They are regarded as leaders and decision makers in both the public and

private spheres. As a result of this social construction of gender roles, women and men are

valued differently in agricultural activities, and thereby have unequal opportunities and access

to resources and positions, including land for agriculture, in decision-making, education and

training as well as employment. What is deemed appropriate work for either sex is based on

these ideals and is otherwise known as the sexual division of labour. Such divisions are not

new but have been practiced for thousands of years almost universally, including in Eritrea.

As a result women make up one of the most oppressed social groups in society. In developing

countries of Africa, this is viewed as being the consequence of a dominant order of

discrimination that has been passed from generation to generation, by means of traditionally-

defined negative attitudes, cultural values and beliefs. Gender oppression is reflected in day-

to-day family life and in texts.

In order to combat these oppressions, “women’s movements have been organized

amidst the struggle for independence (i.e. Eritrea’s EPLF; [Mozambique]’ FRELIMO). Some

of these movements like NUEW have become autonomous organizations and continue their

mission by conducting an intensive awareness campaign, advocacy work, lobbying on gender

equality and equity at all levels in political, economic, social and cultural life” (NUEW,

2004). The majority of the 85% women farmers in Eritrea are illiterate, and unskilled in

scientific agricultural know how due to wars, poverty, displacement and lack of access to land

and resources and opportunities during the colonial period that impacted them for several

years afterward.(Gebray, 2001)

The new government of Eritrea, the GSE, has been intent on rehabilitating the lost

hopes of the past decades. Since independence laws have been changed that discriminated

against women, including women’s land rights for agriculture. Based on Article 8 of the

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Eritrean Constitution, concerning political, economic and social development, women are

accorded the right to participate in decision-making in policies and matters affecting them

including access to resources and equality of opportunity. “The State shall strive to create

gender opportunities to ensure the fulfillment of citizens’ rights to social justice and economic

development and to fulfill their material and spiritual needs. The State shall work to bring

about a balanced and sustainable development throughout the country, and shall use all

available means to enable all citizens to improve their livelihood in a sustainable manner,

through their participation” (p 7).

The purpose of this study is to explore the extent to which formal equality is

substantiated regarding women’s opportunities and accesses to decision-making and to

resources in the Ministry of Agriculture that could in turn impact women farmers’ in

cooperative farming. Making use of the agricultural policy documents, organizational and

institutional arrangements, the legal frameworks and its implementations as interpreted

through a gender lens perspective, the study assesses areas of achievement and areas for

possible improvement.

This assessment has been conducted in areas where women farmers are active,

namely, Gash Barka, Debub, and Maekel. For example, what can be learned from the

participation of young female students’ in the newly established Hamelmalo College of

Agriculture, and how might they impact women employees in agriculture and farmer’s basic

and strategic need?

After stating of the problem, the objectives and research design of the project, its

significance and limitations of the study are considered in addition to relevant literature,

concepts and practices of gender and gender concerns of women in the agricultural sector.

The paper then turns to government policy and its implementation in the agriculture sector in

relation to political, economic social and cultural factors that impact women in agriculture in

relation to the motivation and circumstances for women farmers, their skills and capabilities

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as exemplified in the implementation of the under water shed development projects in

selected areas where the majority of the poor women farmers live. NUEW’s role in

implementing the gender approach in the sector is also discussed. The final chapter analyses

the research findings. Focus group discussions provide the basis for recommendations for the

future use of gender mainstreaming for empowering women economically. Materials

presented in appendices provide background material prepared in the development of the

project which, though broadly relevant, have been used in preparing the final document. The

project draws primarily on official documents produced by the GSE, non-governmental

organizations, principally the NUEW, in addition to print sources listed in the bibliography.

Thesis Statement

Gender mainstreaming in the agricultural sector empowers women economically by creating

opportunities for their participation in land right, decision-making and access to resources.

Additional attention to gender mainstreaming in agriculture can be used to extend and deepen

this economic impact in the future.

Legacies of colonialization, long periods of wars, conflicts, dislocation among the

majority of the population and drought are all factors that have increased gender gaps in

Eritrea. In response the national government has put in place non-discriminatory policies

based on gender. This paper considers the extent to which agricultural policy in Eritrea

addresses gender issues, and identifies gaps as well as challenges to gender equality along

with possible areas for improvement. It concludes by recommending several ways in which

women decision makers in the agricultural policy sector as well as women farmers can be

further empowered economically to transform the agricultural sector by becoming more

significant actors in society. To date the agricultural sector has not been the subject of

research using the gender perspective. Doing so will be relevant to the Ministry of Agriculture

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and NUEW as the basis for incorporating these findings and recommendations into future

activities.

The scope of the paper is limited to institutional and organizational documents and

implementation analysis of gender issues in agriculture in the case of Eritrean women

farmers. It identifies policy impacts on women employees in several leading initiatives in

agriculture that provide government-sponsored opportunities for women farmers. In spite of

the small scale on which these initiatives have occurred so far, the prospects for learning from

these initiatives in their initial implementation makes it possible to produce recommendations

that can be used in the future to assist women’s economic empowerment.

The study has not dealt with agriculture in general, as that is too broad a subject for

present purposes. Nor does it discuss individual women farmers or women farmers who

depend on rain fed agricultural areas or on women who support their husbands’ farming

where land is allotted to the head of the family, usually the man is the head of the family who

owns, controls and manages it. (Woldeghiorghis, 2001). Twelve women farmers from six

zobas (localities) have shared their experience in farming. Although this is a small sample

size, the initial inquiry provides valuable feedback about how the initiatives are being

received and what benefits and drawbacks are being identified by participants. Ideally the

findings could be tested in a larger study involving a larger number of the 53 Sub Zobas

throughout the country. The present purpose is to demonstrate that making use of a gender

perspective generates much-needed information about the effectiveness of gender policy in

agriculture. Although it is not possible based on current information to compare the range and

number of diverse groups involved in cooperative farming, ventures are sprouting where

many dams are being built all over the country to lessen agriculture’s traditional dependence

on erratic rainfall. The participants in the watershed farming projects may indeed not be

representative of the majority of the women farmers in each region or of women farmers

working in the irrigated lands. However, they do provide insights into women’s economic

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empowerment that can be generalized to other areas of agriculture and tested in follow-up

studies later.

This paper concerns a small number of women participants in watershed development

farming who are involved in farming due to their involvement in initiatives to assist women

farmers. Because the gender dimension in agricultural policy has not been studied, these

participants provide a means of reflecting on what a gender mainstreaming perspective might

yet bring to the sector and where further steps need to be taken to generalize from their

experience.Next to no documentation of women’s participation in agriculture yet exists and,

as a result, the literature review turns up primarily informal sources produced from group

discussions and interviews compiled by the researcher. Next to no sex disaggregated data

exists concerning agriculture in Eritrea, further impeding this study. Then too technology

presents additional limitations. The lack of access to the internet in most locations, and the

shortage of up-to-date reference materials in the country, makes local research difficult. In the

end this study brings to light barriers to women employees in decision making in the sector as

well as to small farmers’ participation and successes in water shed development farming

The findings could then also be used as the basis for further study to consider possible

solutions to the challenges women farmers face. By exploring these barriers, one can

determine where they lie and how they could be addressed to foster women in decision

making as well as women farmers’ participation and economic empowerment. Specifically,

this study could provide insights to policy makers to engendering the sector through a more

consistent use of gender mainstreaming that would take women’s concerns into account. It

could raise awareness among academics, development actors, policy makers and the women

farmers themselves concerning gender mainstreaming and women’s self reliance for

economic empowerment so that it will play a greater role in poverty reduction strategies in the

future.

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Research Methodology

As indicated in the previous section the materials used in the project have involved theoretical

material, national government documents, documents sponsored by elite international

agencies, and targeted feminist studies. In addition, the methodology used for the original data

collection involves a triangulation, of mainly qualitative data analysis; in depth interviews,

observations in natural settings, and descriptive information. Instruments used to carry out the

action research include: discussion with key informants and focus groups discussions in

addition to policy documents. Discussions were held with government officials, from

ministries and departments, who are responsible for policy formulation as well as

implementers in the regions. The author also held one focus group discussion. Two

representatives from six zobas participated. An attempt was made so that diverse nationalities

were included. Some are women headed, returnees, internally or externally displaced. The

group formation included women of different ages. The majority are illiterate or with a low

educational background. The discussion was open and used a learning process. A specific

case study of a success story of women farmers from Gash Barka will be presented. The paper

will conclude that women in the sector if provided equal opportunity are not different than the

‘other,’ but can actually be empowered using a gender mainstreaming strategy. Because the

research involved the surveying and interviewing of respondents, care was taken to ensure the

confidentiality of the data collected and the anonymity of those involved. Consent forms were not

required and a plain language statement informed respondents of the research being undertaken.

Anonymity was ensured.

The next chapter concerns the theoretical and practical considerations that have informed the

project.

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CHAPTER TWO:

CONCEPTUAL CONSIDERATIONS

This literature review identifies nine sources that have been most influential in the preparation

of this paper beginning with two theoretical positions, one concerning equality and the other

concerning gender mainstreaming. Anne Phillips’ argues that equalities that matter are substantive and

real matters that lead to social and economic change (1999). In the case of Eritrea poverty reduction by

empowering women in their effective participation in agriculture would realize Phillips’ theoretical

insights by giving them a practical application. Gender mainstreaming has a thirty year history that

must be viewed with a critical eye, according to Rebecca Tiessen (2007). Its ties to feminist analysis

remain crucial to good policy-making, she maintains. A second group of studies concern poverty

reduction, agriculture and policy initiatives. Arens and van Beurden’s study (1978) of women’s

empowerment discusses the importance of access and control of resources, most notably land, to

reduce poverty. Two general studies connect agriculture and gender mainstreaming in the Sub-Saharan

context (Pehu et al. 2009; Hannan 2000). Policy documents produced in Eritrea set a course for future

policy development (Gebremedhin 1996; Ghebray 2001) Applying theoretical insights to policy

analysis relevant to agriculture and the Sub-Saharan region provide background to particular strategies

that have been recommended for application to empower women in Eritrea (Sibanda 2007; Gisela

2007)

Phillips connects the case for political and economic equality without sacrificing the political

recognition of difference in the face of entrenched inequalities of material and political resources. In

Which Equalities Matter? she maintains that “the gap between formal and real, merely ‘political’ and

substantive equality, was evident enough to any one who cared to see” (p124). Were claims to equality

to be recognized as deeply significant in political and policy terms, they would have to be allied to

major programs of social and economic change. Phillips notes that energy which used to go into

promoting economic equality now goes into deepening and extending equalities in the political sphere,

and to her way of thinking this emphasis is misplaced. This core idea is very relevant to the author’s

topic in that the idea of women’s economic empowerment lies at the heart of the political decisions,

commitments, and implementation.

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Rebecca Tiessen takes a critical view of gender mainstreaming, noting its evolution over the

past thirty years since the UN Conference on Women held in Mexico City in 1975 (2007).

Provision of land rights on its own will be insufficient to effect change; the measures must be

accompanied by a deconstruction of patriarchal norms of institutions and organizations, with

the next step being the design of policies and strategies to induce gender equality and

women’s economic empowerment. For gender mainstreaming to be effective attention needs

to be given to the distribution of power. Maintaining this focus is difficult to achieve because

it requires a deeper commitment to changing organizational norms and procedures ( p. 2). The

present project has been based Tiessen’s multi-pronged analysis that ties policy development

to feminist analysis.

The following authors are relevant to my paper`s analysis providing a basic analysis of

Eritrean women farmers situation; women`s poverty results in part from lack of accesses and

other opportunities related to land and resources (Arens and van Beurden). The remedy

proposed by Sibanda that of gender mainstreaming to make women effective agents of change as

outlined by Hannan informs what is recommended here. The International and national

conferences (Beijing Platform of Action), has been enshrined in the Eritrean constitution, the

World Bank`s publication in relation to rural development and the use of gender analysis to

reverse the present situation (Gebremedhin ) makes food insecurity relevant as well. The land

base remains a key to ensuring sustainable development (Gebray) highlighting that it is one of the

many resources to empower women. Gisela`s argument on the National Gender Action Plan, to use

gender mainstreaming to achieve these ends, is taken up here.

Arens and van Beurden’s study of poverty at the village level in Bangladesh concluded that

lack of access to and control over the means of production such as land excludes women from owning

other goods such as wealth, income, and power (1978). Lack of access and control of the resources

needed to be successful in agricultural production affected all farmers by causing them to sell their

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labour cheaply, thereby increasing their economic insecurity. Women were especially affected by their

multiple roles in domestic, agricultural and reproduction that increased the difficulties they

experienced in attempting to participate in farming on the same footing as men. The author’s emphasis

on land ownership and access by women relates to the situation in Eritrea in so far as women have

increased their access to land as a result of “land right” guaranteed by the constitution, but they

continue to encounter barriers to the effective use of their access due to the demands placed on them

by their multiple roles. NUEW has played a role in removing barriers to effective participation in

farming by women and has a policy role to play in identifying how such barriers can be identified,

addressed and overcome.

The most recent publication concerning agriculture, rural development and gender is

sponsored by the World Bank, and is likely to be influential in policy debates for some time to come

because it originates from an internationally recognized authoritative body (Pehu et al., 2009).

Women’s exclusion from participation in agriculture is acknowledged to result in continued poverty

for the entire population and for women and children in particular. Examples of good practices and

lessons learned have been compiled to guide practitioners and policy makers in “integrating gender

dimensions into agricultural policies, programs, projects, and implementations need[ed] to incorporate

integrated approaches to meet basic and strategic needs of women in the agricultural sector” (96).

“Gender mainstreaming is identified as a step to revitalizing a gender equality agenda by bridging the

gap between the macro and micro levels. It offers a stake in policy for effective inclusion of women as

well as for women’s economic empowerment through increased earning capacity” (296). This analysis

provides a general framework for what is being attempted in Eritrea. The document will carry weight

in policy debates and provide authority and expertise when proposing particular applications to

national agricultural policies developed in the MOA in Eritrea.

Hannan’s evaluative study summarizes efforts made since 1995, with the adoption of the

Beijing Platform, to put gender mainstreaming into operation. In analyzing poverty from a gender

perspective women should not only be seen as “victims,” she maintains (2000). Rather they can be

regarded as effective agents for change. For this to occur, supports may be needed to empower them.

By linking gender mainstreaming to empowerment she reasserts the rationale that the principal reason

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that gender mainstreaming is beneficial is because it holds out the prospect of substantively improving

women’s lives, most often through economic empowerment. Making this link between the gender lens

strategy for analyzing policy and results on the ground must be the main reason for pursuing equality

goals. In the case of Eritrean women farmers Hannan’s view of empowerment can be applied as

follows: Gender mainstreaming is worth supporting in policy terms not only because the Constitution

affirms equality (though it does), not only because it is mandated in policy documents (though it is), or

because a gender policy exists among the high-level policy priorities (which it does), but primarily

because this approach supports making women’s lives better by assisting them to increase their

economic power in terms of wealth, assets, food and resources. Empowerment positions women to

make their own decisions for themselves. The contention of this project is that gender mainstreaming,

economic empowerment and decision-making combine to strengthen women’s position in society and

this strength will reduce poverty and contribute to the achievement of national goals.

Gebremedhin’s study of agriculture in Eritrea in the post-independent period takes account of

the colonial legacy in terms of the multiple harms caused by the displacement of half a million

Eritreans inside and outside the country, a majority of whom were women and children (1996). The

extended legacy of colonial dependence after political independence has necessitated the GSE’s

support for self reliance inherited during the long years leading up to liberation. Supports in the form

of food aid, shelter, water and other necessities were provided to returnees for the first period after

independence. Redressing the colonial legacy has addressed sexual equality by making use of

“structures, policies and laws” to assist returnees as well as the portion of the population that was not

dislocated” (Gebray, 2001). “If gender differences and the implications of policy interventions for

women are not explicitly incorporated at each stage of policy measures and for all sectors,

development not only bypasses women,” Gebremedhin maintains, indeed their situation will worsen

(p. 57). Knowing this to be the case, through my work with NUEW, the challenge is to develop

appropriate supports to forestall such conditions and to use the policy process as Gebremedhin

recommends to advance women’s equality in the agricultural sector by introducing measures that

empower women farmers.

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Dr Ghebray’s paper establishes the economic importance of agriculture to GNP (2001). In his

capacity as a consultant in the production of this strategic planning document the paper indicates that

the majority of the country’s population was (and is) engaged in agriculture. Moreover, agricultural

production remains a major contributor to the country’s GNP as well as its export income (p.36). Food

insecurity is a major national challenge due to factors such as the wars and drought and their

aftereffects in terms of high levels of poverty and severe environmental degradation resulting in

malnutrition. Overall improvements are difficult to achieve under these conditions. In response to

this general situation the strategic planning document has recognized the sustainable use of the land

base to be a key to ensuring sustainable development. A concerted and a joint effort is needed to

promote sustainable land use at the national level. The promotion of improved sustainable land use,

gender mainstreaming and increased use of an integrated approach to sustainable land use figure

among the proposed strategic solutions (p 34-35) which are very relevant to the position taken here.

This planning document provides the ‘policy opening’ for NUEW’s involvement in contributing to the

anticipated integration approach and to position the organization as a valuable resource for developing,

implementing and evaluating gender mainstreaming in agriculture generally and with regard to women

farmer’s in particular.

Sibanda presented a workshop sponsored by NUEW on gender mainstreaming to ministries in

Eritrea (2007). During one of the sessions, she discussed the fact that the lack of access of

opportunities and control to the means of production such as land excludes women from owning other

goods and assets. Relations of power can be changed with time and inequalities could be remedied (4).

Lack of access and control of the resources and opportunities impacts both women and men living in

poverty that in turn makes them heavily dependent on farming, including selling their labor cheap.

Their situation is characterized by a high degree of insecurity and economic dependence typified by a

lack of economic self-sufficiency and exclusion from decision-making. Sibanda’s analysis affirms the

groundwork already completed by NUEW and supports the major policy trend to tie gender

mainstreaming, economic empowerment and decision-making as related elements in the advancement

of equality for women.

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Gisela drafted the Eritrean Gender Profile in 2007. Her research assessed the specific

objectives of the National Gender Action Plan of Eritrea. Because women undertake the lion’s share of

domestic responsibilities they have little time, training and capacity to introduce improvements in

farming techniques. As a result women farmers still depend on traditional farming that relies on

natural rainfall and cultivation by hand. For example, the use of oxen and of iron tipped ploughs

remains the preserve of men only (2007, p.23). Villagers retain collective control over local land and,

due to the land proclamation, women have access to land for farming more than before as part of a

national poverty reduction strategy (PRS). The strategy envisions further advancements in the status of

women in key economic, political, and social aspects of life. It specifies measures to improve

women’s access to public and private sector employment, credit and skill training. Gisela’s study

maintains that, for the strategy to be effective, empowering women in decision-making in the

agriculture sector will also be necessary, a point taken up in the present project. Other measures that

would support the overall strategy, Gisela pointed out, would involve easing the workload of women

through such measures as improving the supply of safe drinking water, increased access to resources

needed for production, such as land for farming, adding value to products prior to sale and marketing

in this case, as well as access to credit technology and skills training The development of micro- and

small-scale enterprise would also benefit women farmers. How this might occur has yet to be

determined. NUEW has a role to play as do policy analysts who are familiar with gender

mainstreaming.

Practical Considerations

Eritrean policy encourages women’s equal participation, however, the traditional sex

roles prevent women [farmers] from equal access to education, training, jobs, credits,

and business. (Mebrahtu, p.19)

Agriculture plays a very crucial role in the Eritrean economy as it does in many

countries around the world. Half of the world’s population is composed of women in

developing countries like Eritrea. However, the majority of them have long been regarded as

inferior to men in terms of physical strength and stamina (Gebremedhin, 1996), and this

22

gender bias has been reproduced in law and theology to further justify their subordination to

men. For example, women often could not own property in their own names, preventing them

from cultivating their own land for food and other resources. Based on traditional, patriarchal

attitudes, women and men are defined in different ways in different societies. The relations

between the sexes constitute what is known as gender relations as socially constructed by a

range of institutions such as the family, legal systems, or the market (Sibanda, 2007). “Gender

relations are hierarchical relations of power between women and men and tend to

disadvantage women. These are often accepted as ‘natural’ but are socially determined

relations, culturally based, and subject to change over time” (UNDP, 2006).

Eritrean women farmers have triple roles due to their involvement in productive,

reproductive and community work that occupies them with work for 15 to 16 hours a day, At

home they take care of the household, including the elders and the sick; in the fields they

farm, and they bear and raise children. Women continue to carry most of the domestic

responsibilities as well. Historically the demands of this work contribute to preventing them

from participating in education and training. As a result traditional farming has generally not

given way to commercial farming. For the same reason child care and family responsibility

has not been assimilated into professional practices and expectations, according to Gisela

(2007, p7). However, the work they do in agriculture is categorized as supporting their

husbands and they themselves are not known as farmers or pasteuralists nor do they own land

in their name, and therefore they do not control what they produce (NUEW, 2004).

Different aspects of women’s work and lives are so intertwined that it makes little

sense to try to deal with one aspect in isolation. Thus, rural farming projects should not be

dealt with separately from water supply, rural energy supply, education and health provision

projects. Furthermore, “policies/programs and implementations that incorporate measures to

reduce the time women spend in subsistence activities should have components that facilitate

women’s increased involvement in decision and in income-generating activities. Integrated

23

approaches are needed if women’s strategic and practical needs are to be met

effectively”(Pehu et al, p 297). However, reaching women with labor-saving technologies is

only half of the battle. Experience shows that outcomes are not always as expected and that

any short-term practical benefits can sometimes be lost if the use of the technologies does not

lead to longer-term strategic changes. (Source Book, 296)

For its part NUEW maintains that an analysis of the present social standing of Eritrean

women and the function of their activities within a developing agricultural economy is rooted

not only in the nature of traditional society but also on the impact of the colonial conquest that

affected the process of social change. (2001). Some anthropologists also argue that it is

difficult to ascertain to what extent some social and familial structures of land holdings today

are a mirror of tradition rather than a product of colonization in the way women and men

participate in public and private life. (Wilson, p. 34). In addition, the glass ceiling impedes

women from moving up to senior management implied because they are women. Many

women reach the glass ceiling and, once this level has been reached, become frustrated at the

lack of promotional opportunities (Sibanda, p. 8). Inequalities related to the gender gap then

widens further demonstrating that neither formal nor the substantive equality exists as yet.

In contrast, “substantive equality places greater priority on ensuring equal opportunity

and equal outcomes” (Workshop Report, 2007). Neutrality of decision-making then is not the

only consideration. Who benefits is also relevant. Is it the men who earn cash or the women

who weed, collect and store food and, or, crops? Pehu et al regard gender issues in agriculture

as “a step towards revitalizing attention to gender equality in the agricultural sector”(p 48).

How these factors come together in policy is the subject of the next chapter.

24

CHAPTER THREE: POLICY DIMENSIONS

Based on the GSE’s commitments to social justice and equality, it developed the Macro

Policy Document in 1994 and amended all discriminatory clauses, in particular clauses that

discriminated against women to accesses and opportunities in life such as in decision making

and managerial posts. The government adopted a reserved 30% quota system in parliament

for women (Constitution, 1997). It has also affirmed land rights for farming, housing and

commercial activities irrespective of gender, sex, race, religion, class or ethnic group

(MOLWE, 2003). Eritrea has adopted the African and Global Platform for Action, committed

to the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action, Beijing +5 and +10, ratified

CEDAW, and theUN Millennium Development Goals (2005), which is enshrined in its

constitution to achieve gender equality and women`s economic empowerment.

The GSE policies are set out that aim to ensure: “all efforts will continue to be

undertaken to sensitize and enhance the awareness of society... the decisive role of women for

the socio-economic, political and cultural transformation of the country. The equal rights of

women will be upheld and all laws that subtract from this right will be changed and

participation of women in education and economic activities that empower women will be

expanded” (Macro Policy, 1994: 43-44). NUEW has been actively working towards the

advancement of women. To this end, there has been a holistic approach to incorporate gender

matters within all government sectors. (EASSI, 2005) As a result the mainstreaming of gender

was identified as the most critical mechanism to reach women`s empowerment where NUEW

is officially mandated as a national machinery as well as an NGO to fight negative traditional

practices.

As a result, the National Gender and Action Plan (NGAP) is drafted, ratified and

circulated all over the country affirming the commitment of the government to gender

equality. (NUEW, 2004) The changes that are taking place now in Eritrea in women’s private

25

and public lives is the result of a “ revolution within a revolution.” Within the revolution of

national liberation “the woman question” arose during the EPLF struggle for independence to

the effect that true equality can be established only through equal participation in the struggle

for liberation. And triumph of the Eritrean Revolution stimulated the hopes of activists and

intellectuals throughout Eritrea. Eritrea is now the standard bearer for the liberation of the

region from underdevelopment, exploitation and domination (EPLF Charter, 1994). However,

gender gaps still remain.

According to Gebremedhin, “the struggle for colonial legacy changed the situation

with strategies encompassed in structures, policies and laws to address sexual equality and

difference for Eritrean women’s betterment” (1996) such as equal employment, pay, equal

accesses and oportunities in decision and resource allocation such as land rights for

agriculture (Constitution, 1997)

Mebrahtu, concurs with Gebremedhin’s argument in her paper presentation during the

NUEW’s 20th Anniversary of 1999 that the Eritrean government is committed to gender

equality and has ratified relevant international conventions. She indicated that the Eritrean

policy encourages women [farmers] to equal participation in development.” Mebrahtu also

emphasized the need to transform the Eritrean women, farmers in this case, through education

and training. The colonial legacies along with the traditional attitudes negatively impact the

majority of the Eritrean women’s economic empowerment at all levels in decision-making,

and resource allocation opportunities (2002).

The government of the state of Eritrea`s “Strategic objectives and actions formulated

to deal with discrimination or discrepancies in women’s participation in decision making

positions is in place. (Beijing +5, 1995) However, does the formal equality on quota system

work when applied in the Ministry of Agriculture to place more women in decision,

managerial posts, as well as to accesses and opportunities?

26

In the Ministry of Agriculture, although the commitment is in place, there are still very few

women employed in the Ministry, in administrative or decision making positions due to

several factors. “Tackling gender issue and its handling is a recent phenomenon in the

country” and is now seriously being looked into through NUEW’s efforts. (Sibanda, 2007).

As can be seen below in the table, there are no women at higher echelons in the ministry of

agriculture, and women compose 14% at low level in decisions as unit heads. The number of

men with PHD`s, MA`s, BA`s is not available (MOA, 2009)

Table One

Gender Distribution Employed in High Posts, Low Posts(Women) in Profession, and in Decision in the MOA

Total

Employed

Women

Employed

Number

and %

Women

In High

Posts

Women

Unit Head

Wome

n in

High

Profess

ion

PHD

% of

Women

with MA

% of

Women

with BA

% of

Women

12+3;+2;+

1

% of women

below 12th

grade

3204 886

(27.65%)

0% 14% 0% 3.6% 9.6% 36.5% 66.3%

Source: MOA 2009

In the selected areas of study in Debub, Gash Barka and Maekel women employed compose

20 to 22% of women employed by the MOA. There are no women in decision making not

only in the selected areas of study, however. In all the zobas and sub zobas in Eritrea there are

none. Women are mostly trained in Home Economics (91%) (MOA, 2009).This is

“considered women’s profession related to domestic work (Sibanda, 2007).

The Ministry of Agriculture has not yet addressed affirmative actions or quota system

in its policy ratified in 2005. The commitment to the establishment of one new “gender focal

person” in the Ministry of Agriculture at the end of the year is promised. (MOA, 2009)

Mongela argues, “Women’s choice is not only to wipe out the colonial domination and

discrimination but also the traditional sex roles that impinge women’s progress”(p. 32).

27

According to Irigaray, it is not replacement of patriarchy with matriarchy but the

coexistence of two genealogies (p. 23) in all workforces for better input and sustainable

life that is needed. It is not only through procedures (like promotion practices), but also

through rhetoric that the psychic prison operates.

The presence of women professionals in extension organizations and their

representation in decision making is critical. Progress has been made in increasing the number

of female employees (professionals and educated women in agriculture) as well as the

proportion of women farmers in extension training in the Ministry of Agriculture.

“Difficulties still continue to abound, both for women professionals and for the organizations

that wish to increase their presence in decision making and other managerial posts due to the

sex roles” (Interview with Semere Amlesom, 2009).

In addition the most important type of formal and informal policy that affects the

participation of women is the strengthening of the public image (such as has negatively

impacted Kim Campbell’s leadership in Canada in 1995) of women and their identification

and activity as role models to reinforce their visibility in leadership positions at national, zoba

and local levels (NUEW, 2002). If women doing agricultural science, teaching in universities,

speaking about new findings, and making decisions that affect agriculture are not visible in

the media or in research organizations and extension offices, it is doubtful that women

primary and secondary school students will become inspired to prepare for careers in

agriculture, let alone in agricultural research and extension.(NUEW Advocacy Manual, 2008)

According to Pehu a second important policy issue is that of mentoring women who would

like to become active in the field of agricultural research and extension. Although mentoring

exists informally, education, research, and government organizations need to organize and

support mentoring processes for their women students and staff so that they can contribute

more effectively to organization building over time ( 272).

28

Philips also argues that when differences are located in a political, cultural, or legal

domain, it is apparent enough that societies can revisit their political or legal arrangements in

order to address the resulting inequalities. She also shares her view that political and legal

arrangements have also come to the fore as a way of addressing inequalities more obviously

situated in social and economic life. Even when inequalities are closely bound up with social

and economic conditions, it is “through politics we make a difference…. where inequalities

are bound up with group difference, political (and legal) arrangements can have considerable

remedial force” (p.31). She argues that political reforms cannot substitute entirely for

economic and social ones, but can certainly provide the enabling conditions.

Pehu for her part argues that development policy which focuses on the macro and the

micro level attempting to “bridge the gap emphasizes its importance to the livelihood options

of communities and individuals in particular to gender issues” (p. 96). She stresses the need

for higher-level policy development and planning to be informed through lessons learned and

insights gained at the local level. This simultaneously gives “local people a stake in policy

and increases overall effectiveness that aims at comprehensive inclusion of women and men

by drawing in relevant partners active in rural areas” such as those in (the government, civil

society, the private sector as well as at the local, national, and international levels ( p.6).

Factors Relevant to Women in Faming:

Factors relevant to women in farming include poverty, the need for peace and land

ownership. Poverty is among the most common factors affecting women farmers in Eritrea as

in many developing countries in Africa. Eritrea did not inherit a sound institutional set up

from its previous colonial masters. This political situation actually made them poorer.

“Peace is a prerequisite to development and equality to women in the agricultural

sector“ (Bejing +5) Not only the consecutive wars and droughts but also its aftereffect such as

illiteracy, low levels of education, and traditional patriarchal attitudes impacted the majority

of the Eritrean Population in general and poor women farmers in particular.

29

Currently, about 65% of the population in Eritrea is classified as poor; and 37% of the

poor are extremely poor. On average female employees earn less than half what males earn

because of low education levels and other socio economic barriers. The number of female

headed households has increased from 30% (1995) to 40% in 2000 due to border wars. As a

result; tens of thousands, the majority of them women and children, have either been

displaced internally or have sought refuge in neighboring countries due to the aftereffects of

the wars. The extreme poverty and households headed by women created a large proportion of

households headed by women that have no or few assets such as livestock. (PRSP, 2004)

Deforestation also affects agriculture in terms of soil quality. A century ago Eritrea

had extensive forests (30%), which declined to 5% by 1960. In 1995, forest covers less than

1% of the land mass. (MOA, 2009) In addition, “simple farming technologies, such as

traditional oxen-drawn, iron-tipped ploughs and wooden tools are still widely used in Eritrea”

where only men use tractors and other technologies. Women cultivate solely by hand, and

occasionally have the use of a camel. Traditional rain fed agriculture accounts for more than

90% of the estimated 500,000 ha of cropped land” (Gisela; 2007) Economically, the thirty-

year war caused decades of lost development as well as the destruction of economic and

social infrastructures

Poverty reduction strategies attempt to alleviate these factors. An advisor to the

MOND, Dr. Girmay Abraham, explains, immediately after independence, “the MOND

drafted and ratified the Interim-Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (I-PRSP), and formulated a

comprehensive economic revival program aimed at reinvigorating economic growth by means

of a gender perspective. It recognizes that the achievement of rapid, broad-based and

sustainable growth and poverty reduction among women and men requires enhanced

investment (p.9) in sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing and tourism, where

Eritrea has a comparative advantage (2003). Abraham stressed that since gender inequality is

part and parcel of the process of causing and deepening poverty in society, it must therefore

30

constitute part and parcel of measures to eradicate poverty in particular among women in

Eritrea. The issue of gender inequality structures the relations of production and reproduction

in agriculture in Eritrea as occurs in different societies in the world. (2004).

Pehu concurs with Dr. Abraham that gender inequalities limit agricultural productivity

and efficiency and in so doing, undermine development agendas. Failure to recognize the

different roles of men and women is costly because it results in misguided projects and

programs that impede the production of food and nutritional security and therefore results in

high levels of poverty ( p.1). Maximizing the impact of agricultural development entails

enhancing women’s roles as agricultural producers as well as the primary caretakers of their

families. This requires addressing gender in agriculture. Unless the vital and often

unacknowledged role women play in agriculture is critically handled in policies, it could

endanger household-level improvements in food and nutritional security. (MOA, 2004)

As Linda Trimble and Jane Arscott have indicated, policy is one of the means

available to bring about social change that would improve the prospects for women. Women’s

poverty, generally poor health, lower social status, financial dependency, and lower lifetime

earnings, make it difficult for women farmers to provide sustainable cash crops to commercial

markets as well as nutritious food for themselves and their dependent family members. (P2).

Women owning land rights comprise just one aspect of the larger problem. Access to land

also figures large for women farmers.

In most developing countries, land is a critical asset, especially for the urban and rural

men and women poor. Land rights—whether customary or formal—act as a form of economic

access to key markets, as well as a form of social access to non market institutions, such as

the household relations and community-level governance structures. In addition to economic

and social access to women farmers’ rights to land also often confer rights to other local

natural resources, such as trees, pasture, and water. Depending on the norms governing

intrahousehold decision making and income pooling, however, women may not fully

31

participate in these benefits if they do not have independent or direct rights over land in the

household. There is evidence that improvements in women’s independent property rights have

positive economic benefits. Comparative analysis of data from Honduras and Nicaragua, for

example, suggest a positive correlation between women’s land rights and their overall role in

the household economy: women gain greater control over agricultural income, gain higher

shares of business and labor market earnings, and more frequently receive credit (Katz and

Chamorro, 2003). Land is a particularly critical resource for a woman in the event that she

becomes a de facto household head as a result of migration by men, abandonment, divorce, or

death.

Crowley indicates, ownership of land is politically significant and directly associated

with power. Command over property is, arguably, the most severe form of inequality between

men and women today. Land rights increase women’s power in social economic and political

relationship. Rural women claim that secure land rights increase their social and political

status, and improve their self esteem, confidence, security and dignity (p2). In Eritrea too,

access to land when it is available, is the source of a lifetime security of earnings for about

70% of the population of Eritrea of whom 50% are women farmers, and 35% are women

pastueralists or agro pasturalists. (Zerai, 2001)

Proclamation 58/1994 prohibits discrimination in land rights for farming based on

gender, race, class and religion. The proclamation states that every person, male or female,

has a usufruct right to farmland provided s/he is 18 years or above, resident in the area, and

dependent on agriculture. These rights allow no form of distinction based on sex, religion or

social standing”. (Constitution, 1997) The village land committee, which must include women,

allocates the land by means of a lottery system. (NUEW, 2007) “The village still collectively

controls its own grazing area, woodlands and roads, and retains its water rights. Unlike many

other African countries, no distinction is made between men and women in the provisions of

the law for access to land for domestic housing, farm land or land for industrial use (Gisela,

32

2007) where the land proclamation repeals transitional land tenure systems (article 39).

According to the Statistics Office of the MOA, the typical objectives of land tenure policy of

Eritrea include achieving economically efficient allocations of land and conditions of tenure;

ensuring equity (fairness) in allocations of land; helping reduce rural poverty by providing

poor families with a productive asset; and promoting sustainable environment management

and conservation of land resource. (p 16) The author disagrees with Gisela because although

the proclamation formally guarantees women`s rights to land; however, it did not implement

it for “it is still practiced in many parts of the country because the proclamation is not yet

fully implemented” (MOA, 2004). Enforcement in addition to proclamation is needed.

After independence the GSE planned to assist agriculture by constructing dams and

diversion canals as well as reservoirs to make agriculture more viable given the pattern of

erratic rainfall. Water collection and diversion is used for agriculture and for animal feed and

crop production throughout the country.

Illustration Two:A woman in a male dominated field constructing a dam in zoba Debub

Source: NUEW, 2009

Women and men are participating in the construction of dams and have already started

farming under the watershed development projects where the government with other

stakeholders are financing it to build dams and water diversion canals. (2009)

Illustration Three:Women in Maekel laying Ground to Construct A Dam

Source: MOA, Zoba Maekel, 2009

33

Men and women are also actively engaged in laying ground to construct dams and in

reforestation all over the country.

Many dams have been constructed all over the country, the majority of them in Gash

Barka. According to reports from the Agriculture Branch in Zoba Debub, in particular, 131

big dams, 254 reservoirs and 8 diversion canals have been built since independence; and

women and men farmers have started to replace the traditional rain fed agriculture to modern

farming through canal irrigation for the first time.

Illustration Four: Gerset Dam in Gash Barka, Among the Many Dams Constructed and Its Fish Production in Eritrea

Source: MOA, Head Quarter, 2009

As a result, there are 31 cooperative women farmers flourishing in the zoba who are

registered under the MOA zoba Debub Branch. The Early Childhood Development Projects

(ECDP) has provided them with 57 water pumps free of charge in 2009. Women farmers

actively engaged in horticulture under the watershed irrigation projects have increased from

8% to 15% from 2005-2008 and have shown an increase of 12% in four consecutive years. In

Gash Barka Women Cooperative Farmers’ participation by women in under water shed

projects-located on land close to the irrigation projects, is 15.8% in the four sub zobas of Gash

Barka- Forto, Hiakota, Mogolo and Guluj surroundings, a marked increase compared to the

rest of the other zoba such as Anseba, Maekel, Northern Red Sea, Southern Red Sea Zobas of

34

Eritrea. (Workshop Reports, 2009) These activities are the first of its kind since

independence.

Illustration Five: Women Farmers in Zoba DebubFarming and Their Production

Source: MOA, Zoba Debub, 2009

According to Bahta Tedros, head of the branch office in zoba Debub, although there

are many women who owned land in this area, the majority of the women who got land for

agriculture lease their land to men, as they are unable to farm it themselves (June 2009). This

is due to the sex roles and the traditional division of labour. The majority of the women

farmers in zoba Debub lack skills and capacity due to high illiteracy rates, low education

levels, and lack of accessibility to agricultural information. Besides, women lack extension

services and training, as they have no time to join the men during training sessions, due to

their family responsibilities. They tend to have 5 or 6 children on average.

In addition, Tedros states that in zoba Debub in 2005-2006 alone, land was

redistributed to 68,844 (44%) women farmers who head families and 82,733 men (56%). that

will enable women and men farmers to transition from traditional to commercial farming.

Women farmers in the three zobas besides farming, in particular in zoba Maekel, women

farmers have started animal production, milk and milk products, poultry, honey, beehives

flowers, and women have accessed the male dominated sector, another first for women

farmers in Eritrea. Women can access materials such as water pumps, fertilizers and quality

seeds as well as basic agricultural training from the ministry of agriculture to increase their

production.(NARI, 2009)

35

In 2008, with the support of the administration and the agricultural branch of zoba

Debub, in ploughing, provision of seeds, fertilizers etc. women farmers produced 4% of the

production of men by means of rain and well-fed agriculture. In comparison, in the watershed

farm area women produced 6% of the crops, while still much less than men farmers, was

more than produced by non-irrigated women farmers (Zoba Debub, 2009). What women

produce is much lower in quantity and quality that enables them only to feed their children

due to work loads, lack of information, skills, training and education as well as resources

allocation as land alone is not a solution to women’s concerns. Women farmers` issues need

to be looked through a gender lens perspective to succeed in the agricultural activities. Men

in the same area produce more and are able to market and transfer their farming practices to

modern methods. Women discouraged by their sex roles are forced to rent their agricultural

land to men and sell their own labour cheaply.

Comparatively women are far behind men farmers’ production due to workloads-

family responsibilities, low level of education and illiteracy, lack of information, skills and

capacities (Debub Report, 2009

The Food Policy Analyst from Action Aid, Magdalena Kropiwnicka, highlights that “women

produce up to 80% of the food in some developing countries on a day to day basis, but they

own 2% of the land and receive only 1% of the resources allocated to agricultural enterprise.”

(Kropiwnicka 2008). There is no overall data available concerning the situation in Eritrea to

confirm these findings. Based on general NUEW’s information the generalization is likely to

apply. It would be useful to be able to compare women’s land use of land rights in relation to

crop production. At present this information is not gender disaggregated.

Currently, land allocation for farming is provided to widows, divorcees, internally

displaced persons or returnees in women family headed house holds (WFHH). However it has

been pointed out that village committees resist allocation of land to such categories of women

too. Resistance is particularly strong with regard to agricultural land allocation to women. In

36

fact, evidence suggests that men have been the main beneficiaries of the land reform. Married

women are subsumed under male household heads to which land is allocated. In case of

divorce matrimonial shares can only be obtained via court orders. Women members of land

committees are not always gender sensitive and do not always oppose the allocation of land to

men only.( Zerai, Un-Habitat 2002, MoLWE)

Another constraint for removing gender discrimination in land allocations is that

women farmers eligible to receive land rights frequently are not aware of their entitlements.

They may receive half of the household’s land in case they divorce or become widows. In the

case of married women, the land registration is in the name of the head of household only. In

fact even the collection of gender disaggregated data is difficult since a wife’s right is

subsumed under husband’s right. The position of women in polygamous marriages also has

not been solved since husbands can claim land for one wife only. And in cases where they

have received land for farming under the water shed development projects, it has become

clear that they need tools as well as assistance with land clearing if it has not been done

already (MOA, p. 26).

The experience of Eritrea shows that women lack the supports to optimize their

entitlements to land.(Woldegiorgis, 2001) This, compounded by relative lack of privilege in

relation to education, health and finances makes land, quite literally, a site of contestation

essential to their economic empowerment (Gisela, 2007). In practice, the Proclamation is

implemented on the basis of family-heads and on the basis of prioritizing, and only men are

considered as family-heads of married couples. So far, young girls have not yet joined the self

agricultural cooperative farms, as the land is given to poor women with children (discussion

group Report, 2009), although the proclamation of Eritrea stipulates equal land right to all.

Because this trend protects patriarchal structures and attitudes, if it is not remedied soon, it

will be a significant lost opportunity for mainstreaming gender. These terms remain open to a

variety of different understandings. It is valuable to reflect on what concept of equality one is

37

seeking to advance or achieve. (Woldeghiorghis, 2001) Thus land for agriculture in Eritrea

(except for commercial farming where every man and women are legible to get it), is stalled

in a transition phase to the majority of married women and unmarried young, except to poor

women, women who head families and to returnees, where, in large part traditional systems

of land tenure continue.(MOA, p16) This is one of the many factors that impacts women’s

economic empowerment.(Sibanda, 2007).

Oxfam Journal (2000) argues, women are empowered economically, when they

control the resources, land, power, wealth, and services, education, financial and material,

through their presence in government. Control gives them opportunities to allocate those

resources so that women and men benefit equally. Similarly, Tiesen concurs with Tedros’s

argument that the provision of land rights to women farmers in itself is not enough. As she

clearly states, identifying the patriarchal norms of institutions and organizations is the first

step in designing policies and strategies for gender equality(p.15). Additional steps will be

required to achieve genuine empowerment.

Other Factors: Traditional and Social

Tradition and culture are other factors that play a very important role in Eritrean

society in particular among women farmers. The positive aspect is the commitment to do

things for their self reliance to avoid dependency. The negative aspect is the patriarchal,

religious and negative beliefs that constrains women’s advancement, sex roles and the

assigning men and women`s work among them. There are also certain other major influences

that have an impact on the farming behavior on women`s motivation to start farming. These

include factors such as government macro policies and investment laws, gendered attitudes

and affirmative action, economic and social values such as health, education religion, family,

age, role model, work experience, and marital status, including child care (PRSP, 2004).

However, According to NUEW (2002), “women farmers`social networks and organizations

38

could reverse the negative aspects and strengthen and enhance social opportunity to their

farming successes.

Gender inequalities impose large costs on the health and well being of men, women

and children, and affect their ability to improve their lives.(MOH, 2006) It also reduce

productivity in farms and enterprises, thereby lowering prospects for reducing poverty in

ensuring women’s economic empowerment. Gender inequalities also weaken a country’s

governance, and thus the effectiveness of its development policies (Sibanda, 2007).

Zerezghi Gebreselasie in his research paper ‘Women and Informal Business Sector in

Eritrea argues social capital is a key ingredient for development. He refers to institutions,

relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society’s social interactions.

Social cohesion is known to be a critical determinant of successful development, especially

for societies like Eritrea where it will be important for women farmers to prosper in order for

national development to be sustainable. Social capital is not just the sum of the institutions,

which underpin a society, it is a glue that “holds them together” (2003) as are the women

Cooperative Farmers in Debub in Dirko, in Gash Barka in Gerset, and in Maekel in Mdri Zien

farming cooperatives - the selected areas of study.(Interview with Saliha, 2008)

Women’s family obligations also bar them from becoming successful farmers in both

developed and developing nations as in Eritrea. ”Having primary responsibility for children,

home and older dependent family members, few women can devote all their time and

energies to their farming business”(NUEW, Annual report, 2008) In addition, the traditional

and patriarchal attitude made women subordinate to males who are privileged as well as

‘untouchable’ castes (Mongela, p31) in as much as they own and control all the properties

even if the woman sweat for it.

Certain entrenched beliefs such as, women farmers cannot produce as much as men,

and may lack appropriate skills related to farming remain the norm. And even if “they

produce, it would be taken away by wind because women can not farm as they are disgraced

39

by God which is still entrenched in some of the very far rural community’s attitudes”

(Farmers group Discusion, 2009). Copying the negative attitudes and cultures, it “should be

possible, without destabilizing cultures or impossing values foreign to the national cultures, to

enhance or to re-enhance women’s dignity at the social level, and allow the emergence of a

more balanced image of the capacity of men and women to particiapte in the management of

both private and public affairs. (Interparliamentary Union, 2000) Although these attitudes still

exist, there is an improvement with NUEW`s campaign against traditional attitudes among

rural communities.

Education, Skills and Women’s Capacities for Farming

Nearly 74% of rural women in Eritrea have not attended school; many women leave

school at an early age due to marrige about 40% and due to illness about 10%. In addition,

rural households are often poor and support large families, consisting of 6 persons on average.

This impacts them in their agricultural activities and production capacities. They are also less

likely to get income generating employment in farm and non farm activities. (MOND, p7)

According to the information gathered from the group discusions with women farmers

from the six zobas held in Mendefera city in June 2009, of Eritrea, the majority of women

farmers allotted land in each of their zobas are either illiterate, or have low levels of

education. This is because the manner in which the young are conditioned from an early age

towards education.

Saliha Adem, the head of NUEW in Gash Barka, also concurs with the group

discusants concerning women`s opportunities to advance the education and skills of women

farmers in Gash Barka. According to her, not only do women farmers lack the opportunity to

participate in education, but many were also displaced for five to ten years contributing

thereby to their poverty and lack of knowledge and skill in farming. NUEW comes into play

in conducting anti-literacy campaigns in Gash Barka in concert with the Ministry of

Education to encourage women farmers actively engaged in farming to pursue education as

40

well. As a result, the number of female participants in the local literacy campaign in 2006 was

81.2% and male participation was 18.8%. This activity helped the farmers to do the financial

accounts on their farming activities. Saliha stressed that they need to create an awareness on

their young students to continue in the agricultural college at Hamelmalo.

Hamelmalo Agricultural College was established in 2005. Few women study

agriculture compared to men. The overall portion of female graduates from the college is only

11.2% for the degree and 22.4% for the Diploma and in the male dominated fields women

comprise only 5.6% and 14% for degree and for diploma respectively (Hamelmalo College,

2009).

Similarly, since independence, although girl student participants in schools has increased in

number, there is a marked decrease of female students in the male dominated faculties in

Hamelmalo compared to males as they move to higher levels as is seen in the table below.

.

Table Two

College of Hamelmalo, Over All graduated of 2009

Year 2009 Total

Graduates

Females Female %

Hamelmalo

College

Degrees 116 13 11.2%

Hamelmalo

College

Diplomas 156 35 22.4%

Source: Hamelmalo College

41

Table Three

Hamelmalo Female Male Degree and Diploma Graduates in Different Male-Dominated

Faculties, 21 July 2009

Bachelor’s Degree Diploma total Diploma+ Degree

Departments Male Female Female

%

Total Total Male Female Female

%

Total

Agricultural

Engineering

16 0 -- 16 24 23 1 4. 40

Agronomy 19 3 14 22 25 88 0 -- 47

Animal

science

-- -- -- 29 30 24 6 2 59

Horticulture 20 2 9 22 32 18 14 4. 54

Plant

Protection

23 1 4 24 27 20 7 26 51

Veternary

Science

-- -- -- -- 38 32 6 16 38

Total 101 6 5.6% 107 175 142 34 14% 289

Source: Hamelmalo College

The under-representation of women grads of agriculture programs negatively affect

women employed in the agricultural sector and in decision making bodies as well as

detracting from women’s economic empowerment in the sector (Sibanda, 2008). As was seen

earlier in Table One above the education level of female employed in the MOA is low from

12th grade to PHD’s- the higher the level of education the fewer the women. Women with

PHD (none); MA (4%); BA 10%); grade twelve (37%) and below 12th grade (53%) indicates

a sharp decline as they move to higher professional levels. “This greatly impacts women at

higher echelon in decision making in the agricultural sector as well as women in the farming

sector in particular in the transition to medium and large commercial agricultural sectors”

(MOA, 2009). As a result, few women are formally qualified for managerial roles.

42

The Dean of the College of Agriculture in Eritrea Mr. Semere Amlesom in his

interview with the author indicated that women’s participation in the newly established (2005)

Hamelmalo Agricultural College in Eritrea has increased in the years that followed its

establishment. However, women are still constrained from joining the College and continuing

in the field of work due to the negative traditional and patriarchal attitudes about sex roles.

However, the number of women with MA’s and BA’s in the agriculture sector in Eritrea has

increased by tenfold after independence. This could certainly lead to increased opportunities

for women in the decison making in the Ministry of Agriculture as well as to women’s

economic empowerment.in the future. (Interview with S. Amlesom, 15 June 2009)

Financial and other Opportunities for Women Farmers

A strong legal environment with regard to gender issues is reflected in the GSE

commitment to invest in sectors of particular importance to women. The issue of access to

finance versus ownership and control relates directly to the distinction between meeting

practical and strategic needs of women in the sector.(Abraham, 2003). However, many

projects result in practical benefits, such as reduced time spent in collecting water or wood

fuel (NUEW, 2009), but fewer of them meet strategic needs in terms of changing the balance

of power within the household or increasing women’s ability to negotiate effectively with

local decision makers. An effective way of increasing women’s status within the household

and community is to increase their earning capacity through financing women`s projects and

programs, thus strengthening the argument for labor-saving technologies that provide women

time to engage in income-generating activities.(Pehu, p.296)

Financing of small farming businesses in the short and long term creates additional

problems for women farmers. So to is access to credit from banks, term loans, and

government loan guarantees ordinarily made to small farmers.(ECDF, 1998) For e.g.“Women

farmers who wanted to expand their small range farming activities to commercial farming

need access to micro credit loans from financial institutions such as the National Development

43

Bank of Eritrea.This Bank provides funds to any one who wants to start a firm. However,

women are not aware of it. They also fear loans to start their own commercial farming

(NUEW, 2001). About 1300 people received loans for agricultural activities in 2006-2008.

though the number of women and men received that loan is not clearly addressed.(PRSP for

Beijing +10, 2004) of lack of sex disaggregated.

Sibanda argues, widespread and “secure access to land for farming and other resources

such as finance to women is one of the most vital ingredients for women’s economic

empowerment” and land alone is not sufficient to transform them (p. 27). Finance then

remains a major factor in future attempts to empower women’s economic empowerment.

Elison notes that gender responsive budgets narrow the gender gaps by promoting greater

accountability to women, who are more marginal than men in decision making. A gender

responsive budget aims to produce a separate budget for women. Its precise impact on the

reduction of gender inequality remains to be documented (Elison, p 17). According to the

MOA, one third of the budget of the sector goes to women’s economic improvement, such as

training, and the purchase of seeds and fertilizers (2009). Poor women, female headed

households who have started farming in areas where the GSE is building diversion canals and

dams have access to these supports. But current information does not indicate the exact

percentage of funds allocated by gender. They still remain disadvantaged in many respects.

Eritrean women have started gaining unprecedented access to resources, which is a positive

sign for the future.

NUEW’s Role

Although finance to women farmers is a determinant factor, without an awareness of

how to finance farming operations how to use it, NUEW believes, the support will be

ineffective. And since NUEW`s establishment in 1979 amidst the liberation struggle, its

objective has been to campaign, lobby and advocate on behalf of women concerning gender

equality and equity and women’s economic empowerment. Its commitment is visible in its

44

operations, where three main dimensions are considered: economic empowerment by

enhancing women’s access to and control over productive resources; strengthening their

participation in public decision-making processes; and enhancing rural people’s well-being by

improving their access to basic rural infrastructure and services, which is another opportunity

that women farmers have in Eritrea. (NUEW Report, 2007)

Since independence NUEW has adopted the objective approach of Gender And

Development (GAD). It attempts to build on “the practices and models of the indigenous

group where women have strong roles (NUEW, 2004) rather than “importing abstract

concepts from the outside” (World Bank, 2001). The current programs and policies of NUEW

are oriented towards women’s development stem from this solid basis. (NUEW for ECA

Report). Due to NUEW’s intensive campaign for women’s equality and equity, a lot has been

achieved, but more remains to be done as the trend so far is a WID approach. NUEW’s action

is guided by the principle that development initiatives should incorporate the priorities and

needs of both women and men and gives them equal opportunities to access benefits and

services including finances materials, and psychological supports. In this way, NUEW seeks

to address the structural inequalities that prevent women from realizing their potential as

human beings, producers and agents of change to empower women in decision and

economically in the farming sector.

NUEW in its operations aims to expand women’s access to and control over

fundamental assets such as capital, land, knowledge and technologies; to strengthen women’s

agency especially their decision-making role in community affairs and representation in local

institutions; and to improve well-being and ease workloads by facilitating access to basic rural

services and infrastructures. (PRSP Gender Evaluation Workshop 2004) Entrenched

traditional attitudes, however, have been slowing women’s access and opportunities, although

NUEW continues its advocacy programs to mainstream gender in all government institutions

since its inception and, in particular, after independence. NUEW hires consultants from

45

Eritrea and abroad. In particular in 2007 and 2008 it conducted an intensive awareness

campaign on gender and gender mainstreaming to many ministries in Eritrea- Agriculture,

Information, Education, Health, Land Water and Environmentl, Statistics and is campaigning

to help identify strategies for achieving greater effectiveness to empower women

economically and at all levels in particular in the agricultural sector as well as in attaining the

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), particularly MDG1 (poverty eradication) and

MDG3 (gender equality), and for reinforcing the gender dimension in NUEW’s Strategic

Framework 2007-2010.

In 2002, for example, fifty legal officers from various parts of the country were trained

and are employed in the Ministry of Justice in different regions in Eritrea to advocate for

women’s right including land ownership (MOJ, 2002). NUEW has “continuously assessed the

Platform of Action nationally, regionally and internationally where each country stands in its

efforts to gender issues and to fill the target of the MDG’s by the year 2015).(EASSI, 2009)

National gender strategies were also prepared and identified gender as a crosscutting theme

for operations (National Gender Action Plan, 2002).

Strategies for Gender Mainstreaming

Gender mainstreaming is a means, and not an end in itself, but it is relevant at this

juncture (Sibanda, 2007) in the Ministry of Agriculture. It can be used to enhance equality and

equity among men and women in decision-making and equal opportunities for all and

accesses to opportunities, which in turn will play an important role in the reduction of poverty

in Eritrea (PRSP, 2004) Planning and institutions had to be reformed so as to encourage

increased participation of the poor in decision making processes (Young, p.8).

The realization of these broad policy ideas along with their full use of strengths and diversity,

especially among rural people and their institutions animate further policy development. The

Ministry also manages the risks and challenges associated with rapid changes in the sector to

ensure that economic growth reaches poor women and men.

46

The plan needs to focus on improvements inside institutions like the MOA. Were it to

revisit its gender policies through gender mainstreaming increased impacts on the lives of

women in the sector, including women farmers could be readily achieved. Gender sensitive

implementation is facilitated by good design of projects and programs, a statement of the

centrality of gender concerns and discussion of gender from the first policy draft and an

integrated gender emphasis throughout on gender issues. More systematic coverage of gender

issues in evaluation could yield important lessons for the design and implementation as well

as its evaluation of new projects and for the adjustment of existing programs. Designing the

agricultural sector to fit development strategies that capitalize effectively on the unique

properties of agricultural growth and rural development can involve women and men so as to

have a high-impact on women’s economic empowerment as well as contributing strongly to

poverty reduction. “Gender equality and women’s economic empowerment, and the

associated principles have the potential to make a difference in the lives of hundreds of

millions of rural poor.”(Pehu, xiii)

CHAPTER FOUR

FINDINGS

Despite the positive gender policy environment and commitment to gender equality,

and despite the Ministry of Agriculture`s attention to women’s issues, the findings of this

paper show there are no women in decision-making roles at the higher echelons in the

Ministry, and there are only 14% women at lower levels such as unit heads. Less than 2% of

directors in the sub zoba in the ministry are women. There are increased percentages of

women students enrolled in programs at the Agricultural College, unlike in previous years

when there were none. In addition, a number of poor women- who head families, and who

were formerly displaced are actively engaged in farming under the watershed development

47

projects all over the country although the total number of women farmers engaged in these

kinds of projects is not available from the ministry’s reports (MOA, 2009). In particular the

number of women farmers in the selected areas of study, in the water shed areas has increased

in zoba Debub from 8% to 15% an increase of 12% and in Gash Barka 15.8% and no data is

found from zoba Maekel of Eritrea due to lack of sex disaggregated data. The women who are

farming are still not fully empowered economically, nor are they included in the decision

making and other managerial posts. Traditional patriarchal attitudes and the aftereffects of the

wars, droughts, low levels of education and high illiteracy rates among women, especially in

the farming sector, combine to negatively influence women`s prospects for economic

empowerment. (NUEW Report, 2004) Accordingly, this study concludes that women in the

agricultural sector are not included in policy making. Gender mainstreaming would alleviate

the present situation by placing men and women farmers on a more equal footing in policy

development as well as agricultural production.

Opportunities

The government of Eritrea`s formal policy-Constitution, macro and micro policy, the

PRSP strategy, land rights support gender equality in Eritrea. The International Convention

ratified such as the Beijing +5, +10, African Global Platform of Action, CEDAW, are all

enshrined in its constitution. The government has also formulated and circulated the National

Gender Action Plan all over the country. This has resulted to women’s participation and

involvement in all the branches of the agricultural sector- in colleges, in land allocation to

women farmers as well as in participation in the lower levels of decision making

As a result an increasing number of poor women in general and women who head

families in different areas are creating farming cooperatives. Unlike former times the

conditions of peace in the country opens up new opportunities to women.

Challenges

48

In many parts in the world, and in Eritrea too, women in the agricultural sector face many and

varied challenges depending on the particular political, economic, social and cultural situation

of each country. Based on the study and from the focus group discussions, challenging factors

included: gender insensitive policy programs and implementation, and lack of effective

evaluation, in particular, in decision-making. As well, women lack adequate access to

production resources such as land, labour, farm tools and inputs, education and vocational

training, as well as access to services, credit and equal participation in agricultural projects.

Moreover, the lack of affirmative action, or a quota system of any sort in the MOA, and no

gender expert or focal person to monitor gender policies, program and implementations using

a gender perspective makes it unlikely any progress will occur in the short term without

supports like these. The absence of gender disaggregated data in the sector to identify gaps

and prioritize which ones to tackle first would facilitate seeing the problem clearly. There is

also lack of gender budgeting at all levels in the ministry. In addition the after effect of the

consecutive wars, drought, poverty, illiteracy, and low level of education among the women

in the sector and women`s housework loads that take up 15 to 16 hours a day, performing

triple roles constrains women in the sector at all levels. Their triple burden related to

production, reproduction and community work negatively impacts their capacity to do more

than they already do.

Factors that play negatively into women’s economic empowerment have been shown

to include traditional patriarchal and cultural attitudes that also deter women’s involvement in

decision and opportunity for access and opportunities to resources. Sensitization to the

negative impact of these factors among women and men in the sector needs to be amplified so

as to be generally understood. In addition, the fact that the majority of the women farmers in

the group, with the notable exception of Ms Zahra Said, who markets her production to large

cities, farm on a small scale. Said holds a diploma Home Economics compared to the vast

majority of women farmers who are illiterate or have low levels of education in comparison to

49

most men farmers. Women farmers tend to operate small-scale farm businesses and earn

lower income from agriculture than men. Women farmers’ aspirations are often blurred by the

vicious cycle of poverty. Women retain traditional modes of economic activities which tend

to reduce productivity, thereby providing an important explanation for why women are

frequently associated with lower productivity in agriculture and the misconception about

women’s productivity in agricultural and non agricultural sectors. Women are therefore

unable to compete with men and only tend to sell their labor cheaply for big farm owners

(MOA, 2009). A short case study hears out the general points making them concrete.

Other challenges faced by women farmers include lack of transportation to and from their

farm areas, lack of kindergartens in their area as their agricultural field is far from houses.

Case Study Exemplifying the Empowerment of Women Farmers

The Gerset Women's Cooperative Farmers (GWFC) was established in September 2005 by 12

women returnees from the Sudan. Most of them are illiterate or have low levels of education

(below grade 12 competition) and were non skilled in agricultural activities and mostly heads

of households having incomes below the poverty line.

The GWFC project is found in the largest and fertile region of Eritrea, that of Gash

Barka. With assistance from NUEW in the form of an intensive awareness campaign, GWFC

organized to fight unequal opportunities. Women were mobilized to gain access to land right

in agriculture to supply their own needs in the family. NUEW and GWFC collaborated to

mobilize women to exercise their land entitlements (NUEW Reports, 2008) Previously, few

women in other regions of the country had been given plots of land to use to grow food for

their families through rain fed agriculture. With the introduction of the construction of new

dams, the government and NGO’s like NUEW support their efforts to be self-reliant, helping

women to familiarize themselves with agricultural activities in the underwater shed

development projects in Gerset. One World Problem (1976), made the point that women

50

needed support to ease their work burden, and they also needed to be recognized as

independent economic actors. (Young, p. 20).

The author met the women farmers of the GWFC twice once in 2007 and again in

2009, conducting interviews with the women head Ms. Asmeret Gebremariam.

According to Asmeret Gebremariam, “We are able to earn food to feed our children and send

them to school, particularly our girls who had no right to go to school during our stay in

refugee camps in the Sudan because we cannot pay our children’s exercise books, who have

now the access to go to school. We are able to get nutritious food for our family and we are

healthy now. We thank the GSE for constructing dams in our area to get water for our fields.

We also thank NUEW for creating a conducive environment through an awareness campaign

to start these projects. We used to think that agriculture activities of these types of projects are

meant only for men. Formerly, we thought we cannot do what is considered men`s jobs.”

Asmeret noted that other women who live nearby had learned from their example and they

then demanded land for the same purpose, thereby turning the project into a wider social

learning process. According to Campfens, when women find their voice in effective ways to

create change, “it is the voice that creates excitement and enthusiasm, it ‘hooks’ people

because the energy behind the voice is so encompassing, and it provides vision and model for

other women to reach out and find encouragement from” them. (p.75)

Since the GWFC women are traditional farmers, with the success of the individual production

in supporting themselves from their own field, they came together and discussed about an

extension of more hectares of land for more production of vegetables and fruits in order to

market improved products.

Women Role Models from the Six Zoba (Group Discusion, 2009) and Ms.Zahra

51

Photo Six, Source NUEW, 2009

Semira Adem, who is the head of finance of GWCF, indicated that the mobilization of the

individual farmers by NUEW not only “helped us to be self reliant for our family but also

helped to fight the traditional and patriarchal attitudes as we are engaged in proactive

activities and not sitting in the traditional dark kitchen doing the house workloads.”

For the second extension of land to produce more vegetables and fruits, the twelve women

farmers grouped together and discussed the issue and asked NUEW for guidance. (Social

Mobilization) The meeting of women of GWFC and NUEW`s experts resulted in demanding

not only land, but also more training on agricultural know how and agricultural extension,

supports in the form of tools such as water pumps and seeds. NUEW understood the concerns

and contacted all the stakeholders including; the Ministry of Agriculture, Land, Water, and

Environment, and elders in the community. Elders have discussed and reached consensus that

these women are hard working women and that their problems have to be solved. They have

also the advantage of a stream of water that passes their land at one end, making it easy for

them to use a water pump that is provided by the Early Childhood Development Project

(ECDP). (Social mobilization and Social transformation) Following the meeting, the women

were given land and are now preparing the land for harvesting fruits and vegetables not only

for their families but also for market. Their former vegetable production profits make them

more self reliant, support their families better and improve their farm fields.(NUEW

Brochure, 2007). Furthermore, GWFC has implemented a management structure in their day-

to-day activities. They are involved in decision-making, management, finance/administration

and marketing, control and evaluation as well as a traditional cafeteria management. Each

52

committee conducts activities, switching functions every six months in order to share the

workload.

According to Asmeret, the cafeteria committee plays a vital role for the women and

school children. “Our children arrive at the cafeteria after school and we feed them from our

production.” The cafeteria is located under a big tree where students sit on rocks and receive

their portions. Children who are not school age yet, relax comfortably under the tree while

they eat snacks and are entertained by the women cooks and the green agricultural scenery.

They have prepared traditional beds under the tree where they can take a nap and/or be taken

care of when they get sick. The scheduled women cooks take care of all the kids in the

cooperative as their own. This is relevant because no woman farmer or her children need to go

long distances to and from home without their mother.

All the women meet every week after they finish their day to day activities to discuss

social issues, production and quality control. Decision-making is both vertical and horizontal

and it shifts every six months so that the decision-making is participatory, democratic and

transformatory. Based on their experiences and training on capacity building from NUEW`s

staff, they learned how to assess their problems, analyze and involve various strategic allies

to support and strengthen their efforts. Strengthening women farmers economically became a

day-to-day phenomenon in the cooperative. (NUEW's Reports, 2006) This shows that, “ they

applied their skills and abilities to …complex undertakings… regardless of education and

training, [and] became self-directed learners.” (Campfens, p.75)

One final reflection is in order. The author agrees with Friedmann that a healthy social

system cannot remain the prisoner of only one mode of linking knowledge to action. Building

on lessons learned in local communities, where the power of collaboration is a cornerstone

should be built on one another because there is a strength in unity. (75)

Recommendations

53

The experience of Eritrea shows there is a need to “move away from Women in

Development (WID) women’s welfare development into a Gender and Development (GAD)

approach” in order to be inclusive of women in policy and decision making such as in project

formulation, implementation and monitoring. In this way women would be employed in the

ministry in general and women farmers in the country could exercise their equal rights and

opportunities in the agricultural sector. (NUEW Training Manual, 2007). Unrealized potential

for women to contribute to the work of the Ministry of Agriculture remains in policy areas

affecting sustainability, gender mainstreaming and future policy directions. NUEW in

particular has the experience and expertise to assist effectively in this important activity. For

these reasons revisiting the policy of the agricultural sector to commit the Ministry to the

adoption of a strategy that would take an integrated approach to women’ empowerment in

agriculture would be a first step in that direction. Tying the strategy to a Gender and

Development approach at all levels of the Ministry through the use of gender mainstreaming

in the sector would then devise an affirmative action plan in particular to support the women

students and graduates studying at the college of agriculture to increase the number of women

at the college and revise the Hamelmalo College`s curriculum to make it more inclusive of

women’s presence and participation in agriculture. A second step would be to hire an

individual who would be responsible for the introduction of a gender focus in the Ministry

hierarchy itself.

Ensure gender focal person in the Ministry

This individual would ensure gender budgeting and resource allocation for gender sensitive

programmes, and projects in areas such as in higher education, extension training and capacity

building related to gender analysis along with its policy, programs and implementation.

Conclusion

54

In conclusion, “development is impossible without gender equality. As long as women are

excluded from the development process, development will remain weak and lopsided.

Sustainable human development implies engendering the development paradigm” in

agriculture (Sibanda, 2007). There is a need to integrate women into the totality of the

development effort which, in its turn, requires women’s involvement in all levels of policy

making, programs and projects both as women employees as well as farmers and as the

explicit focus of policy decisions. Sensitizing those in charge of the organization and

management of development projects to the need to hire women project staff and to involve

village women in community participation exercises, as well as to consider the short and long

term effects of any technical or economic inputs on women’s lives can make huge strides by

supporting small incremental change. In particular “analyzing poverty from a gender

perspective is important that women should not only be seen as victims but could be effective

agents for change if empowered”(Caroline, 2000). The potential to strengthen economic

outcomes and democratic processes simultaneously makes gender mainstreaming a win-win

strategy.

55

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60

Appendix

Operational Definitions

Agriculture is ‘the sector most affected by changes in climate patterns (destruction of

vegetation and drought) and will be increasingly vulnerable in the future," according to the

FAO in a press statement. "Especially at risk are developing countries, which are highly

dependent on agriculture and have fewer resources and options to combat damage from

climate change." See

www.who.int/hpr/youth/html/yt-rar/Chapter_6.html - 25k -

Empowerment involves about people taking control of their lives, pursuing their own goals,

living according to their own values, developing self-reliance, and being able to make choices

and influence – both individually and collectively the decisions that affect their lives (IFAD

Source Book 2008).www.who.int/hpr/youth/html/yt-rar/Chapter_6.html - 25k –

Equal Opportunity- or equality of opportunity, may be defined as ensuring that everyone is

entitled to freedom from discrimination.

Equal opportunities, or equality of opportunity, may be defined as ensuring that everyone

is entitled to freedom from discrimination

Equality of treatment is concerned with treating everyone the same. Thus, in an

organizational context it recognises that institutional discrimination may exist in the form of

unfair procedures and practices that favour those with some personal attributes, over others

without them. The task of equal opportunities is therefore concerned with the elimination of

these barriers. Equality of outcomes focuses on policies that either have an equal impact on

different groups or intend the same outcomes for different groups.

Farming is most dependent on a stable climate. "The most serious threats will not be

occasional severe drought or heat waves but subtle temperature shifts during key periods in

61

the crop's life cycle, as these are most disruptive to plants bred for optimal climatic

conditions," Danielle Nierenberg and Brian Halweil in a Worldwatch report.(Source Book)

Gender- is a man-made subordination phenomenon, resulting from all the socially

constructed attributes (such as roles, activities, and responsibilities) that make a person

perceive, think, and act as a male or female. Since this is a man-made ideology, unlike sex, it

can be changed with time only if the real causes of inequalities are identified and remedied

properly (Whitehead 1979, Mukhopadhyay et.al 2000: 17, 18).

Gender Equality- refers to women and men’s equal opportunities, or life chances, to access

and control socially valued goods and resources. This does not mean that the goal is for

women and men to become the same, but it does mean that we will work towards equal life

chances for both sexes

Gender Equity is the fair treatment for both women and men, according to their respective

needs. This may include equal treatment or treatment that is different but that is considered

equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities. In the development

context, a gender equity goal often requires built-in measures to compensate for the historical

and social disadvantages of women.(PRSP; 2004)

Gender Mainstreaming involves assessing the implications for women and men of any

planned action, including legislation, and ensuring that their concerns and experiences are

taken fully into account in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all

development activities. (Beijing +5)

Livelihoods are defined as comprising “the capabilities, assets (including both material and

social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable

when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its

capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource

base.”(Source Book)

62

Needs- are those which could be met through individual efforts- food, shelter, clothing- and

those which should be met through public provision- health, sanitation, potable water,

transport, education. (Young, p. 8).

Power- is defined as domination and control that is power over. Power is therefore, a property

or quality that particular people possess situationally. And according to Oxfam Journal (2000)

Power is about increased control over resources (p30) (www.who.int/hpr/youth/html/yt-

rar/Chapter_6.html - 25k -)

Social Justice - enabling people to claim their human rights, meet their needs and have

greater control over the decision-making processes which affect their lives.”(Source Book)

Streotype- Pre-judgement or assumption-making about particular individuals. This may

result in discriminatory behaviour. it is when characteristics conventionally associated with a

particular group are applied to the individuals perceived to be of that group. It happens all the

time, whenever generalizations are made about people. Stereotyping can be both positive and

negative, and either can be equally ill informed.

Substantive equality

The substantive equality starts from recognition that discrimination is based on the

characteristics of a group of persons and results in collective disadvantage and involves taking

steps to produce equal outcomes regardless of gender.

Meanings:

Zoba- Region

Additional Material

1 Eritrean Flag

63

2. Map of Eritrea

Source:NUEW Documents