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Title: Women and online learning in Zimbabwe:

A study of the University of Zimbabwe

Authors: Buhle Mbambo-Thata

Elizabeth Mlambo

Precious Mwatsiya

Address: University of Zimbabwe Library

PO Box MP45

Mount Pleasant

Harare

Zimbabwe

E-mail address: mbambtb@unisa.ac.za

Submitted to GRACE

12 October 2010

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

A Introduction………………………………………………………………. 4

Background……………………………………………………………… 5

Gender and ICTs at the University of Zimbabwe………………………. 6

Definition of terms……………………………………………………… 7

B Review of the literature………….…………………………………… 9

Education……………………………………………………………… 9

Barriers………………………………………………………………… 10

Gender at UZ…………………………………………………………… 11

C Research Methodology………………………………………………… 12

History of the study……………………………………………………. 13

Research instruments………………………………………………….. 13

Data analysis exercise…………………………………………………. 16

D Findings……………………………………………………………. .. 16

Observations…………………………………………………………… 16

Focus group………………………………………………………… 17

Deviant cases………………………………………………………. 18

E Analysis……………………………………………………………. 22

Observation………………………………………………………… 22

Interviews…………………………………………………………… 22

F Concluding statements……………………………………………… 29

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Recommendations………………………………………………………….. 29

Conclusion………………………………………………………………….. 30

References ………………………………………………………………… 31

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Gender segregated PC bookings……………...........................................17

Table 2 Dreams and aspirations of respondents………………………………….18

Table 3 Interview responses……………………………………………………...19

Table 4 Responses of deviant cases………………………………………………21

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WOMEN AND ONLINE LEARNING IN ZIMBABWE

A INTRODUCTION

This research seeks to build on the body of knowledge on women’s usage of ICT in

higher education. It specifically focused on women’s usage and their experience of

online learning tools. It further explores the extent to which this process is empowering

to women learners, while investigating barriers to usage of the tools. Finally,

recommends mechanisms for intervention where necessary.

Research on women’s usage of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in

higher education in Africa is minimal. Available research focused on schools and the

work done by Worldlinks and Schoolnet (Gadoid 2000; Isaacs 2002). Hargittai (2002)

states that while there is a digital divide in usage of computers in learning, no study has

investigated the causes of this divide.

Carston and Colman (1996) indicate that female students are inhibited in the acquisition

of computer skills in the presence of male students. (This study was carried out with

students from colleges and universities in North America.) Kirk (1992) states that

socialisation of males and females may reflect on skills acquisition more significantly

than biological differences.

Rajagopal and Bojin (2005) indicate that female students in higher education emphasized

access to education as the most significant value of computers in education. However,

the same study found that both sexes agreed that ICT has made learning easier and

improved their productivity as students.

Isaacs (2002) asserts that introduction of and usage of ICTs in the education of women is

the most strategic way of using ICTs to empower women. Education is perhaps the most

strategic area of intervention for the empowerment of girls and women in any society.

However, she further observes that any study of women’s empowerment through ICT has

to deal with the following contextual issues:

(a) educational and development issues;

(b) ICT issues and gender issues; and

(c) the interaction of (a) and (b).

The study was conducted at the University of Zimbabwe (UZ) and focused on graduate

students. While the target was engaging with 30 students, in the end 27 constituted the

population. The study utilized qualitative research methods to gather data. In particular

it used the free attitude interview technique. However, due to constraints of time the

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study fieldwork was compressed into the months of January to March, since that was

when the researchers were available.

The observation made by the researchers was that the majority of the students at work at

the PCs in the library and in computer laboratories were male. The questions raised were

the following: Where are the female students?; Are they benefiting from the electronic

resources?; and Where is their learning occurring? These form the basis of the research.

Background

The background statements provide a context within which the research was undertaken.

It is hoped that the statements will also enlighten the reader on the condition of higher

education, ICT and women students in Zimbabwe. It further seeks to give a clearer

picture of how Zimbabwe has embraced ICTs.

Map of Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country with a population of about 14 million. It has a literacy

rate of 75%. http://www.cinsa.info/portal/pdf/countryprofilezimbabwe, accessed in

March, 2005, indicates that Zimbabwe has following statistics:

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Population 12.1 million

GDP per capita US 620

Telephone subscribers 250 000

Mobile subscribers 328 800

Public phones 4766

Internet accounts 20 000

Regulatory authority Ministry of Information Posts and

Telecommunications

Clearly the telephone density per 100 people is very low. That itself has implications for

access to the Internet generally, and access to the Internet for learning, which is the focus

of our study.

A national ICT policy was approved by government in November 2005 and can be

located at http://www.ict.org.zw/ICTPolicy_framework.pdf. The ICT policy addresses

gender issues in the same breadth as other disadvantaged groups as youth, disabled and

aged. However, in the implementation strategies it is silent on gender, but states that no

group will be disadvantaged. The national ICT policy has been adopted by government. It

does not identify gender as a separate agenda but adopts a mainstreaming approach that

seeks inclusion. The fact that the policy is quiet on gender analysis is a cause for

concern. One wonders if it is being assumed that all sectors will benefit, and input

equally into the information sector.

It is hoped that our findings will inform and influence the policy on gender issues in

terms of access to and usage of ICT in higher education.

Gender and ICTs at UZ

UZ was the site for our study. The university is located in Harare, the capital of

Zimbabwe. It is the oldest university in the country, with just over 50 years of existence.

In its second strategic plan, 2004-2007, UZ states that its graduates will be information

and communication literate. In order to achieve this goal UZ has invested in

infrastructure by providing a campus-wide network and networked classrooms and

laboratories. It has developed equipped and secure computer laboratories for teaching and

learning. It has acquired state of the art library management software, INNOPAC, and

acquired online database and related products. It has created several indigenous

knowledge databases. In 2004-5 the University introduced e-learning programmes to

facilitate continuous education beyond lecture hours.

UZ has created this online-based learning environment to enhance learning at UZ as well

as prepare students for employability after graduation. The question is, with a national

ICT policy in place, and a strategic plan that seeks to graduate ICT-literate

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graduates, to what extent are women learners benefiting from and utilising ICTs,

and are they being empowered by ICT in their education?

ICT provides various opportunities and challenges for improving and revamping the

learning experiences of students and lecturers (Chikasha, Tugarira and Van Petengem

(2006). A good education is one that produces individuals that are capable of viewing the

world in a holistic manner and can appreciate the diversity of humankind while being

able to develop their full potential. UZ has embarked on programmes which encompass,

among other things, gender empowerment, and ICTs.

For many higher education students, teaching and learning using ICT is completely novel

and challenging. It also calls for new skills, which need to be developed in the students

themselves. Currently UZ students have access to computers through a computer

laboratory managed by the Computer Centre. The Computer Centre, which is open to all

students from 08h00 to 20h00, has a number of computers. There is always a long queue

of students waiting to use the computers. The process of gaining access into the

Computer Centre involves a lot of hustling and bustling to get number tags, which they

use to form the queue.

The Computer Centre and the laboratory are located at the Faculty of Science, which is

far away from other faculties and the halls of residence. It can be a bit unnerving to walk

alone at night to visit the labs.

The current UZ administration through its five-year strategic plan 2003-2007, is strongly

committed to the implementation of information technology in all areas of academic

activities. In addition, emphasis will also be given to ICT competence and ICT training

will become compulsory for all students regardless of which discipline they are taking. It

seeks to implement its five-year strategic plan through compulsory information literacy

skills training courses for all students entering the university.

This research sought to establish the extent to which women students benefitted from and

were empowered by use of ICT in their learning process generally and by online learning

in particular.

Definition of terms

These definitions have been included to give an understanding of the terms used in this

research.

Empowerment is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as “giving power to”.

Gender is socially defined differences and roles of women and men. Sex roles are

biologically defined and refer to those roles of women by virtue of being female – like

childbearing. Gender roles are the socially ascribed roles of men and women.

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Gender empowerment has generally been understood to have two major aspects: a) a

transformational aspect that seeks to change the patriarchal structure and attributes, and

(b) a social welfare aspect that seeks to improve the life of women within their

subservient patriarchally defined position. While this research notes these lived

empowerment paradigms, it also left the definition of empowerment to the respondents. It

was each individual’s responsibility to say for herself how the process empowered them

or not.

Below is the Longwe framework, which outlines five levels of gender empowerment. The

framework helps the researchers and readers to contextualise the empowerment process

at various stages at which people feel empowered. It also helps individuals locate their

own empowerment in the process in the continuum.

The ‘Empowerment framework’: Welfare, access, conscientization, mobilization, control.

Welfare is defined here as the lowest level at which a development intervention may hope to close a gender

gap. We are here talking about women being given these benefits, rather than producing or acquiring such

benefits for themselves.

Access - the first level of empowerment – is the opportunity to make use of ICTs – both in terms of

technology and information and knowledge. Control refers to the power to decide how ICTs are used, and

who has access to them. Women’s access to ICTs and control of them (or lack thereof) is dependent on

many factors. Factors such as gender discrimination in jobs and educations, social class, illiteracy and

geographic location (North or South, urban or rural), influence the fact that the great majority of the

world’s women have no access to ICTs or to any other sort of modern communication system, and possibly

will not in their lifetime. It is logical to deduce that as information dynamics accelerate their migration

towards the Internet, people without access are bound to suffer greater exclusion. But there are also voices

that insist that connectivity in itself is not enough, and that providing women with computers and modems

is not sufficient for them to resolve their development problems.

Conscientisation is defined as the process by which women realize that their lack of status and welfare

relative to men is not due to their own lack of ability, organization or effort.

Mobilization is the action level which complements conscientization. Firstly it involves women’s coming

together for the recognition and analysis of problems, the identification of strategies to overcome

discriminatory practices and collective action to remove these practices.

Control is the level that is reached when women have taken action so that there is gender equality in

decision making over access to resources, so that women achieve direct control over their access to

resources.

Therefore these five levels are not really a linear progression, as written above, but rather circular: the

achievement of women’s increased control leads into better access to resources, and therefore improved

socio-economic status.

In evaluating a project we need to ask ourselves whether the project is intervening merely at the level of

providing improved welfare and access to information, or is it enabling women’s participation in a process

for increased conscientization and mobilization as a means for increased action and control.

Source: S. Longwe, The process of women’s empowerment

http://www.sarpn.org.za/documents/d000055/page6.php

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Women empowerment. The concept of ‘empowerment of women’ itself needs discussion.

Huyer and Sikoska (2003.4) propound that the meaning should be ‘transformatory

empowerment of women’. Traditionally the debate has been between empowerment

meaning ‘capacity building to cope with the requirement of life’ versus ‘capacity building

to transform the conditions of life’. The difference between the two statements lies in

that, while one seeks to ‘transform condition of life’ thus challenging a system, the other

calls for ‘coping’ with life, which is a micro level intervention. It can be at a personal

level. ‘Capacity building to cope with the requirement of life’ maybe viewed as micro

and smoothing circumstances for the benefit of individuals or groups of individuals,

while ‘capacity building to transform the requirements of life’ denotes challenging the

system of power relations between men and women or patriarchy. There is a sense in

which women’s struggles are at both levels. Women’s empowerment aims at enabling

women to transforming the system of power relations, as well as creating an ability to

cope with micro level requirements in individual lives. In this work, empowerment is

understood by the researchers as empowering at both the transformation of system level

and in individual lives to make informed decisions.

Online learning is defined in the Encarta as “learning directly connected to a computer”.

In this research, while we accept the broad definition above, we also let the respondents

define for themselves what online learning meant to them. Their experience with online

learning was therefore limited to retrieving learning documents from the Internet. In a

few cases it also included submitting scripts online.

B REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This literature review examines the positioning of women in relation to ICTs in higher

education. It will explore the socio-cultural position of women in relation to education,

ICT, and how these impact on women generally and Africa in particular, to participate in

and utilise ICT for learning.

Women the world over are generally disadvantaged in terms of access to and opportunity

in science and technology. African women have the world’s lowest participation rates in

science and technology education at all levels, and this has implications for their

participation in ICT (Zwizwai, 2006).

A study by Runhare (2003) revealed gender inequalities in access to and achievement in

science and technical education, especially at secondary schools and tertiary levels.

Zimbabwean girls were found to be under-represented and under-achieving in science

and technology-related subjects (Runhare, 2003). This is a reflection on the cultural

values that give preference to boys’ as opposed to girls’ education. The values are

reinforced at home and at schools, creating a defeatist attitude (Mashingaidze, 2006)

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Various authors suggest that women locate the Internet as a problematic site for

themselves (Brayton, 1999). Several factors can contribute to this scenario. Runhare

(2003) argues that women the world over are generally disadvantaged in terms of access

to and opportunity in science and technology. This is caused by differentiation of female

and male social roles. The social roles are constructed through socialization agents like

the family and education (Runhare, 2003). Other factors that influence the differential

access to the Internet by women and men include high illiteracy among women, low

education for women and low incomes for women (Zwizwai, 2006).

The teaching and learning at UZ is made hostile to women academics because the

institution is largely a masculine one (Chagonda, 2001). UZ male students (University

Bachelors Association) have tended to affirm their masculinity through activities such as

heavy drinking sprees and sexual exploits. The ways in which the male students exhibit

their masculinities have tended to impinge on and subvert the rights of female students

(Chagonda, 2001).

Ndlovu (2001) asserts that there is instability in institutions of higher education as males

continue to safeguard their privileged position in the university community. Women, on

the other hand, struggle sometimes unsuccessfully for equal opportunities such as at the

cafeterias, the sports facilities, the library and other common services. Ndlovu (2001),

Gaidzanwa (2001) and Combe (1991) highlight their concerns on issues of democracy in

institutions – “women have generally been under represented in universities and society

in general” (Gaidzanwa, 1985). At UZ until 1997 no female occupied any of the top three

posts in the Student Representative Council; however, the first female Secretary

General’s stint was shortlived as she resigned from the post in April 1998 due to

harassment by male students and lack of support from female students (Mashingaidze,

2006). It is in this context that this study seeks to investigate women’s interaction with

techno-pedagogy.

Barriers

Main barriers to ICT access in general in Africa relate to the small number of computers

relative to the large number of teachers and students per school (Isaacs, 2002). Notably,

girls are further limited from the school computers in some countries in the context of

social and cultural barriers. A study commissioned by World Links for Development

found that in reality it is harder for girls to access computer labs, particularly in Uganda

and Ghana and especially after school hours (Isaacs, 2002).

Ochieng (2002) claims that the majority of women who have access to ICTs in Africa are

those in academia, ICT professionals and elite activists from non-governmental

organizations. Ochieng further asserts that it is these individuals that have often tried to

utilize available opportunities fairly aggressively to ensure that women are not excluded

from the information revolution.

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Gender analysis shows that women are marginal users of ICTs; 25% of the users are

women on average (Toumbara-Diawara, 2002). The major setback is that women in the

cultured construction of genderness are largely absent from the realm of what counts as

technology. Observations made in Zimbabwe are that women are more concentrated in

non-technical careers (Batezat and Mwalo, 1989). The reasons behind women’s unease

and refusal to participate is complex and often interwoven with cultural barriers (Brayton,

1999).

These theoretical arguments point to the existence of gender disparities in societies the

world over. Zwizwai (2006) points out the constraints faced by women’s participation in

ICT as lack of dependable infrastructure (in terms of reliable electricity and telephone

lines, especially in rural areas), high cost of equipment, basic information technology

such as personal computers, low purchasing power and lastly the high cost of access to

telephone lines and Internet connectivity. Brayton (1999) further supports this argument

when she asserts that at a basic level, women’s ability to be actively involved with the

Internet is troubled by the financial costs connected to the Internet. Purchasing

equipment and software, paying monthly Internet server costs and training costs for

classes and upgrading all require an investment financially from the user.

Cottes (2003) explains that much of persistent gender-structural inequalities constitute

barriers to women’s access to and use of ICTs. E-Knowledge for Women in Southern

Africa (EKOWISA) (2006) categorically spells out that currently ICTs do not carry the

content that meets the information needs of women in a form they can use. If gendered

issues are not articulated in ICT policy, it is unlikely the girls and women will reap the

benefits of the information age (EKOWISA, 2006).

Gender at UZ

Issues of gender equity are increasingly being viewed as the major factor in ICT

development in higher education by most universities in Africa, UZ included. Institutions

of learning in Zimbabwe primarily seek to promote learning environments in which

democracy and human rights are fostered (Kajawu, 2001). The Zimbabwean Government

at independence formulated policies which sought to redress the social inequalities that

existed during the colonial era. Although enrolment levels of black children rose from

800 000 to 2 million (Kajawu, 2001), the issue of gender stereotypes were not redressed

and areas regarding gender equity are still a cause for concern. Students’ enrolment at UZ

by gender was skewed in favour of males, who comprise 75% of the total university

enrolment (Gaidzanwa, 1993).

Theories on patriarchy (male power/domination control and female subordination) place

the family at the centre of gender relations. Gender “scripting” is born within the family.

Women are generally perceived as the custodians of “national” values and the national

identity, as mothers and child carers and occupants of the domestic space (Jirira, 1993).

The cultural constructions of manhood and womanhood translate into an educational

advantage for boys over girls, which comes out as better educated, more skilled, more

preferred men over less educated, less skilled and less preferred females (Maboreke,

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1997). Maboreke’s assertion justifies the greater enrolment percentage of men compared

to females. According to statistics given by the Students’ Records and Admissions as of

May 2006, UZ had a total enrolment of 8472 male students against a total of 3877 female

students.

Gore (2001) claims that the university is run by men, largely for the benefit of men, and

men outnumber female students and staff. Given the fact that UZ is male-dominated in its

enrolment and staff, it is difficult for females to penetrate such a system, as men tend to

support men and exclude women from the corridors of power by any means necessary.

Men predominantly occupy most of the executive posts, such as those of deans, bursars,

registrars, pro-vice chancellors - out of more than 12 universities in the country, only the

Zimbabwe Open University and the Women’s University in Africa have female vice

chancellors (Mashingaidze, 2006).

Chagonda (2001) further claims that the masculinities of the male university students

have a bearing on the use of university facilities such as the library. The library’s seating

capacity is 1200 against a total student population of over 13 000 students. A lot of

shoving and pushing takes place during examination time, as they are all scrambling for

the limited space. By their very superior strength, male students force their way into the

library before the female students to secure the most sought after textbooks and the

secluded cubicles (Chagonda, 2001).

As a result, the toughness or masculinity of the university male students works against

female students in the learning environment. Females get scared when they are embroiled

in physical contact with male students in any facilities provided at the university, for

example at sports.

Although in principle gender equity is viewed as a major factor, generally there is little

regard for gender-equity, democracy and human rights at UZ in practice. Gender-biased

activities are very prevalent at UZ and thus gender discrimination is made by many male

students and staff to seem natural. Research by Ndlovu (2001) has proved that one’s

sense of self at any given time is inevitably gendered. Men and women structure their

masculinities and femininities according to their contexts, class, age, ethnic and religious

backgrounds. It is these gender considerations that shape the teaching and learning

experiences of these students.

The institutions of higher learning are perceived as promoters of gender equity - but what

female students experience in and outside the institutional environment throws into doubt

the basis of such beliefs (Somerai, 2001). Somerai further claims that although doors

were opened by the ‘education for all policy’, which was adopted by the government at

independence, what was overlooked was the fact that the policy did not analyse some of

the cultural hindrances faced by females in the process of acquiring education. The

promotion of a girl education even at university level is problematic because of the

conservatism of the socially constructed gender identities.

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Because of the gross inequalities that exist between male and female students, UZ came

up with the Affirmative Action Policy, which was implemented in 1995. There was a

realization that female staff and students were generally under-represented across all

faculties at UZ, comprising only 255 of the total enrolment (Chivaura, 2001).

C RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A qualitative approach to gather data was used for this research, mostly taking a feminist

stance which centres on women and is informed by women’s experiences of the world.

Feminist research gives authority to the voices of women using the experiences of

women as a valuable research resource. It begins with the standpoints and experiences of

women, which is what GRACE Zimbabwe is looking at, the experiences of women

learners with online learning. This was done to avoid misrepresenting women’s opinions

and experiences. Bryaton (1997) notes that the concern of feminist research is to ensure

the accuracy of the research in depicting women’s lives and experiences. She highlighted

the importance for the researcher to take the finalized information back to the participants

for verification, since they are the experts and owners of their own personal experiences.

Strauss and Corbin (1998) note that one reason for choosing a qualitative approach is the

nature of the problem or study. For him research that attempts to understand the meaning

or nature of experience of persons lends itself to getting out into the field and finding out

what people are doing and thinking. It is a research about people’s lives, lived

experiences, behaviour, emotions and feelings. This makes qualitative research of

specific relevance to the study of social relations, and this study in particular.

One of its advantages is that it uses a variety of data sources such as interviews,

observations, documents and recordings in one study. It also takes the researcher’s

communication with the field and its members as an integral and explicit part of

knowledge production (Flick, 2002). As Flick notes, “the researcher’s reflections on their

actions and observations in the field, their impressions, irritations and feelings become

data, forming part of the interpretation and are documented in research diaries.”

Qualitative research among other things offers procedures that researchers can use “to

interpret and organise data which consists of conceptualising and reducing data,

elaborating categories in terms of their properties and dimensions, and relating through a

series of prepositional statements”, which is often referred to as coding (Strauss and

Corbin, 1998). The data would be coded for analysis in a manner that allows a non-

mathematical process of interpretation carried out for the purpose of discovering concepts

and relationships in the raw and then organising these into a theoretical explanatory

scheme.

Selection of research participants

Graduate female students were sampled spontaneously from the various departments on

UZ campus. A total of 27 graduate female students were sampled and interviewed. The

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process of selection was more of self-selection where the students were introduced to the

research by the research team members as individuals or a group of postgraduate students

coming to the library or gathered around campus, and would either accept or refuse to be

part of the research. Those who were willing to participate offered their contact details so

that they could be contacted for the interviews. Students who could not participate

indicated that they had other commitments which were taking most of their time.

The student population for the study was drawn from the graduate students. The choice

for engaging this group was based on the time they would have spent at college, the

assumption being that they would have been exposed to online learning more than the

undergraduates. Graduate students would also be better placed in articulating issues, as

they would have passed a number of stages at college. Some would have had a chance to

write final-year dissertations where they have to defend their line of thinking; such

people are more comfortable talking about their experiences.

Research instruments

Focus group discussions, interview techniques, the free attitude interview and non-

participant observation were used to gather data.

1) Focus group

Graduate students did not all arrive at college from vacation at the same time. As a result

three focus group discussions were held to accommodate this. The focus group

discussion was essential in order to:

(a) create a shared understanding of the objectives of the projects;

(b) create a transparent atmosphere that reduced suspicion; and

(c) begin to gather data on women’s experiences with ICT and their education.

The first meeting was held on 18 January 2006. Fifteen participants were present

including the three researchers. The programme for the day was:

(a) sharing the project objectives;

(b) African context of the research;

(c) individual exercise on women and ICT aspirations; and

(d) report back on individual exercise.

The second focus group meeting was held on 14 February. The group comprised

Graduate Diploma in Education students. The programme for the day was similar to that

held for the first group. The Grad. D.E. students comprised female students who are

teachers both in the rural and urban areas of Zimbabwe. These different backgrounds

would help the research to obtain data on diverse experiences.

The third focus group was held with a group of master’s students from the Women’s Law

Project on 7 March 2006. The focus group meeting was carried out at their places of

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residence in a relaxed environment. The programme for the day was changed to suit their

time as they were working on their theses and preparing to submit them within a short

period of time. The discussion focused on:

a) sharing project objectives; and

b) sharing their experiences with online learning at UZ.

2) Free attitude interview

In this study the free attitude interview technique was used to explore ways in which

women use online learning at UZ. The free attitude interview is a verbal technique to

obtain information concerning personal opinion (Busken, 2005) and a type of a non-

directive controlled depth interview. It is non-directive in the sense that “participants and

not the interviewer defining the direction of the exchange and they are controlled in the

sense that the interviewer contains the process and keeps the process aligned to the

purpose” (Buskens, 2005).

Being non-directive in nature, the free attitude interview opened the space for the

researcher to intervene where the researcher had a chance to ask clarifying questions and

reflect on what the participant would have said and for the participant to respond flexibly

and sensitively. It gave an opportunity for the researcher and the participant to assess and

negotiate issues of reliability and validity during the research process.

The free attitude interview enabled the interviewee to talk all they likde in the framework

of the exploratory (starting) question. It allowed the participants to freely express

themselves, which was a plus in this kind of a study where the research is seeking

personal opinion. The technique gave room for the participants to speak their mind

without much restriction. The participants had a platform to explore their experiences

with online learning without much interruption.

The interviews: These were held with the sampled population of 27 female graduate

students, conducted at a time and place convenient for the participants where possible.

The interviews were tape recorded to allow the researcher to pay full attention to what the

participant was saying and to maintain eye contact, a crucial aspect of non-verbal

communication.

Each interview started with an exploratory question that sought to establish the

participant’s understanding and experience with online learning. The researcher would

then draw further probing and clarifying questions from what the participant raised,

keeping at the back of her mind the research questions that needed to be answered. The

interviews were conducted at varied times by the research team and the members had to

keep checking with each other on the scheduling to enable sharing of the tape recorder.

The researchers held two feedback meetings with the respondents where issues that

emerged from the interviews were discussed. More issues were raised and clarifications

were made from the feedback discussions.

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3) Non-participant observation

Non-participant observation was another technique used to assess the usage of the

computers by female students. Visits were made to the Faculty of Education postgraduate

and Law Library labs, and the Computer Centre, which is the hub of all Internet

activities, on an almost daily basis, observing students using computers in the library’s

main hall.

4) Deviant cases

The ‘deviant cases’ were identified from labs, where one or two female students were

found using the labs in an environment which was dominated by male students. The

interviews were carried out with female deviant cases that were using the labs despite

their level of education. Efforts were made to identify, among other things:

a) why these females defied all odds to make use of the labs;

b) Their general feelings towards the use of the labs where males are dominating;

c) what benefits they accrued from the use of the e-learning; and

d) the driving force behind their usage of these ICTs where the majority of female

students are absent.

A total of seven deviant cases were interviewed from different labs on campus, and all

were undergraduates.

Data analysis exercises

The researchers carried out various reflexivity exercises in the process of carrying out the

research. Focus was mostly on conceptualising the self in relation to the research. It was

important that we drew our experiences from the data that we collected of other women’s

experiences, taking into account that in doing research with women, the researcher’s

“social location plays a role in shaping the research process”(Fossey et al., 2002).

The exercise was meant to aid data analysis and it was through this that the idea of

deviant cases was mooted and agreed upon. The exercise offered an effective analytical

approach to explore the data, comparing and contrasting different parts of the data as well

as exploring the meanings, patterns and connections among data, at the same time

involving the researcher’s own thoughts, reflections and intuition.

D FINDINGS

We had several sources of data, as indicated in the research methods section. These

were:

(1) focus group;

(2) (a) observations (b) booking sheets analysis;

(3) free attitude interview with major informants; and

17

(4) free attitude interview with “deviant” cases.

Observations

As indicated in the literature review, UZ has several computer rooms, referred to as

laboratories or labs, set aside for student usage. The library’s computers are in the lobby

and therefore an ideal observation spot as one comes in or leaves the library. However,

for the purposes of this study we also observed the behaviour patterns in the laboratories

outside the library.

a) Queuing for booking

The queues for booking computers contained male students in the majority. Very

few female students were queuing to book PCs for use.

b) Usage of PCs

When female students were working on the PCs, they would be working in

groups. One informant indicated that “we would be helping each other”. The

male students would be the ones in control of the mouse and the keyboard. All

the students making these bookings were undergraduate students.

c) We had occasion to interview the few women students working at the computers,

reported on later under “deviant cases”. They were undergraduates. They did not

realise that they were in the minority; they wanted to find e-journals.

(d) Computer bookings

The library has kept a gender-segregated computer booking sheet. The table below

illustrates the patterns of booking of PCs for use by students.

Table 1: Gender-segregated PC bookings

Month Male Percentage Female Percentage Total

October 2005 8293 93% 577 7% 8870

November 2005 6772 92% 571 8% 7343

December 2005 260 85% 45 15% 305

January 2006 360 81% 86 19% 446

February 2006 781 88% 108 12% 889

March 2006 4721 84% 897 16% 5618

In all months males outnumbered female students. Female students amounted to 12%

and male students 88% on the booking sheets on average.

Focus group

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The introductory meeting was aimed at allowing the informants to explore. They

explored their own dreams in relation to ICT and communicated these dreams on paper.

They had been given the broad context and objectives of the study, which was focusing

on women and ICT in education in general, and women and online learning at UZ in

particular.

Their aspirations were all positive, focusing on the potential of ICT to positively impact

women’s lives in education, wealth creation, farming, business and enhancing self-

reliance.

The table below summarises the aspirations of women graduate students in terms of what

ICTs could do for them, excluding deviant cases.

Table 2: Dreams and aspirations of respondents

Respondent Aspirations

1 Wants to enter and conquer the patriarchally dominated technological world

2 Aspires to own shops where computers are used for better management

3 Aspires to be able to use ICTs and teach her children as well

4 Dreams of teaching children on the importance of ICTs at a young age (catch

them young)

5 Aspires to be a confident woman who understands and knows how to use

technology. Wants to catch them young as well

6 Confidence in using ICTs in the workplace, home and at school

7 To be successful in business through the use of ICTs

8 Aspires to be a very prominent person in society

9 To be liberated, self-empowered, enlightened and a successful woman

10 Self-improvement and empowerment through use of ICTs

11 Her aspirations include empowerment of women regardless of educational

background, professional status, age; to catch them young (let’s catch the

little girls too); to have unlimited access to computers, and believes ICTs is

the future.

12 Aspires to advance her education and career through ICTs and to help the

underprivileged through information gained through ICTs.

13 Aspires to be a confident person through education. Believe ICTs can open a

world of endless opportunities and encouraged catching the children while

they are still young

14 Believes in the power of computer technology to change her world

15 Aspires to reverse the societal beliefs in male power, making it a world

where she will be taking the lead and by the click of a mouse would be able

to diagnose her kids’ ailments

16 Be able to use the Internet

17 She aspires to hold one of the top posts either in business or in politics

through ICTs and would like to own a computer

18 Aspires to use ICTs for her designing and interior decor business

19 Aspires to live a pretty life

19

20 Getting a good job over the Internet

21 Wants to be a self-reliant, self-confident and self-sufficient woman who has

benefited from use of ICTs

22 Aspires to be a self-conscious woman who researches on nutritional values of

different foods on the Internet and maintain a balanced diet for her family

23 Wants to move from a traditional woman to a modern career woman through

use of ICTs

24 Aspires to use all sorts of ICTs in her business.

23 She wants to discover the value of information technology

While their dreams remained positive, the realities of the online learning for graduate

women students were revealed in the interviews.

Interviews

Interviews were our main source of opinion. As indicated in the research methods

section, we utilized the free attitude interview. Table 3 below illustrates the findings

Table 3: Interview responses

The names have been changed to protect respondents

Name Emerging issues Theme

Betty Online learning improved her access to learning

information. Saved her time in queues. UZ

computers are few and therefore there is

competition. Women are disadvantaged in access

by societal values and also by lack of training.

“Using this technology in teaching would give me

access to a better type of life”; “When I accessed

resources online I scored high marks”

While online learning

improves access to current

information, societal values

and women’s limited

knowledge make it difficult

for women to access

knowledge

Babalwa Does not have time to learn to use computers. Not

interested in learning to use computers. Needs

motivation to learn

No interest in ICT

Cecilia Blames self for not learning to use computers.

Expensive to access PCs at Internet cafes. Has

been empowered by e-mail and ability to search.

Would advocate for introduction of computing in

school

While Cecelia has been

empowered by usage of e-

mail to communicate, she

blames herself for limited

knowledge of computers

Evelyn School head locks away computers. School head

has no confidence in women teachers teaching

computers. He is a male chauvinist. He believes

women are not capable of learning to use

computers. Does not know how to use computers

effectively. Interruption of technical issues like

power cuts and Internet down, interfere with

Constant referral to unfair

access to computers in

school, to persevere and

prove that women are

capable of using ICT as well

as men can

20

scheduled training time

Dorothy Computer illiterate. Rural-urban gap in knowledge

pronounced. Women working in rural areas more

often computer illiterate than those in urban.

Advocates for classes for women to reduce

abdication to males, to teams and asking for items.

Multi-tasks reduce time spent on learning

computer. If taught as part of curriculum it would

enhance their chances of learning

Rural-urban divide in

learning. Male-female

divide in knowledge of

computers. The digital

divide in rural-rural urban

and male-female is

pronounced

Khaya Rural schools had no computer. Advocates for

computer labs for women students because males

look down on female students who do not know

how to use ICT

Male domination of

computers Limited rural

exposure to PCs in rural

school

Kgomotso Limited knowledge of computers. Limited

computers. Individualistic access to e-mail.

Private and password protected. Encourage use of

computers at home and in schools. Empowered by

the possibility of accessing computers. Not

comfortable with first-time usage. Limited

computers

Women in graduate school

met computers for the first

time

Juliet Online retrieval of information providing access to

current information. Women now having access to

electronic gadgets that may have been the preserve

of men. Not owning own computers. Role

conflict, other duties at home are demanding of

time. Cultural misrepresentation

Cultural representatives of

women’s role inhibit

women’s experimentation

Tabetha First-time users. Not adequate training time.

Learning time-table tight. No time demands of

other roles, so that there is no time for practice.

“Maybe after 5 pm, a man can continue until after 8

pm, as a woman, I can’t do that. I have to rush

home”. Not enough time.

If there was sufficient time to

do multiple roles, and still

use computers

Mary-Jo Searching for books and e-journals saves time.

Limited access to computers. Needs more training

time. Increase the ratio of computers to one per

five students

Computers are few in

number and need to be

increased

Fatima No knowledge of computer. Had no interest and

knowledge. Had some training which she enjoyed.

Able to access recent information. No

discrimination in access. Wants to be able to

access computers easily

Computers are limited.

Training time is limited

otherwise beneficial

Ntombi

Has taught herself to surf the ’net. Finds current

information in that process. Time saving. More

computers required. When working with male

colleagues “they make you feel like you do not

know what you are doing”

Computers save time.

Intuitive, you can teach

yourself

21

Sihle Only just learning to use computers. Has learnt that

online retrieval is faster, and easier and “the boys

do not check out the books before we do”. Online

learning empowering in that “Women also are able

to use the technology”

Taamsanqa Uses the Internet to access current information.

Accesses computers at UZ. Congestion in the

computer lab reduces explanation. Advocates for a

woman’s laboratory where they can explore.

Advocates for extended access over the week.

“Internet search is like magic”

Computer labs at UZ are few

and congested

Hanna One lab for students in Social Science departments.

First come, first served basis, but women’s other

responsibilities come first. No open discrimination.

Computers save time. Open opportunity for

women. Mastering machine has boosted their

confidence, which comes with knowledge. Pages

that are slow. Encouraging ownership of

computers. When there is pressure there is pushing

Computers are insufficient

for students

Shirley Learning online easy access to information. Easier

on her eyes than print. Limited time to use

computers. Has changed her life and her

knowledge about issues

Online learning made her

learning easy. Access to

resources and ability to

manipulate a computer

Deviant cases

While we had not initially planned to interview those students that were actually working

on PCs, the team agreed at analysis stage to include this group to find out their

experience. The free attitude interview question and the process was utilised. Table 4

below summarises the findings.

Table 4: Responses of deviant cases

Emerging issues Theme

Respondent 1 Appreciates the value of a

computer

Has problems of access

Males dominate the labs

Male domination

Respondent 2 The guys dominate the labs

Will make use of the lab if she

gets a chance

Can do her research work

Can communicate with family

and friends

Can do Internet searches

Appreciates the value of the

Internet and online access

22

Respondent 3

Perseveres and is prepared to go

back to the lab

Finds the Internet useful

Has problems of access but is

prepared to do it all over

again until she gets what she

wants

Respondent 4

Sees the value of the computer

Is scared to book at night

Will let the boys do it

Sees the boys as taking the

lead and will grab a chance to

join them because of the

value they see in computers

Respondent 5 Has interest and has had

experience with computers from

high school

Claims other females do not use

computers because of their rural

background

Too shy to ask for help as most

do not know

Others do not bother themselves

about the Internet

Cheaper way of communicating

Rural-urban divide is a

hindrance

Females ignorant of the

importance of the computer

Communication is made easy

Respondent 6

Advocates for a lab for ladies

Claims its ‘unlady like’ to be

pushing for computers with the

guys

Limited printed resources – opts

for online resources

Male domination but will not

push herself around

Respondent 7 Advocates for labs for

undergraduates in the faculties

and departments

Has problems of access

The computer centre is closed

earlyc- they need more time

Connectivity is a problem.

Problems of access and some

technical problems of

connectivity

E ANALYSIS

Observation

As indicated under findings, our observations noted that female students were

outnumbered in computer laboratories. They were in the minority. The analysis of the

booking sheets confirmed our observation. Booking sheets over a 4-month period

indicated that female students were only 12% of those that reserved PCs for their use.

Where then are the female students accessing online learning resources?

23

The analysis of computer booking statistics corroborated our observation that the PCs in

the computer labs are largely used by male students. This had been a concern and indeed

what drove us to engage in this research. For a university whose male : female ratio

includes one- third females, this is problematic. Even though female students are fewer

on campus, that same ratio would be expected to be represented in the booking statistics.

Interviews

The responses have been grouped into five sections by establishing emerging themes,

which are economic issues, socio-cultural, technical, political and those not interested.

The issue have emerged as causes of barriers to access to computer aided learning.

The interview process yielded deeper insights, experiences and processes of PC access,

usage and learning of female students.

a) Economic issues

It was reported that while there is congestion at computer labs at UZ, it was

expensive to purchase equipment and in the short-term accessing PCs in Internet

cafes was equally expensive.

This study was done during an economic meltdown in Zimbabwe. Inflation was

at 800%. Considering that these were women students, most of them studying

part-time, accessing learning materials was critical for them. However, the

financial burden for accessing this learning material was notable. It brings into

question whether online learning is an appropriate tool if students do not have

mechanisms of meeting the financial requirements.

However, one respondent indicated that the element of online learning

encouraged her to purchase her own computer. The student had to prioritise

purchase of a computer in order to facilitate learning. In a sense it becomes part

of the investment in education.

Another student saw beyond the current inconvenience and indicated that using

online learning tools would enhance her marketability in the workplace. She

would acquire all the skills she needed so that she could be more marketable on

graduation.

While one student found the Internet cafes expensive, another found them cheap,

fast and convenient. She utilized them because she did not have access at home.

Her only disadvantage was that because she was not on campus, she could not

access e-journals. She was also concerned that she picked up viruses at Internet

cafes.

There is a sense in which students will prioritise the acquisition of knowledge

over other needs. However, in the light of the assertion that women earn less,

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perhaps a mechanism of ensuring access to learning tools ought to take into

cognizance their economic disadvantage.

b) Socio-cultural issues

A number of socio-cultural issues emerged. Usage of computers in learning is an

emerging area. It has been an area dominated by males. Therefore the research

met with such statements as: “school had no confidence in female teachers and would not let them teach computers” “maybe a man can continue working in the computer lab till 8 p.m. but as a woman I cannot. I have to rush home”

These statements typify learning and usage patterns in Zimbabwe society. Less

women will learn because they do not get the opportunity - because they are not

given a chance and because they do not have time to learn. Other socio-economic

cultural barriers were identified.

(i) Multiple roles

Women’s multiple roles also emerged as an issue. While they would have liked

to spend more time working on computers:

“after 5 p.m. one has to rush home and look after husband and family” “if I stay on in the evening I will be accused of having affairs so I must get home and do other things” “we cannot come in early in the morning to book PCs because we have to ensure that the family is taken care of”

Women’s family commitments get in the way of their spending time on

computers. In a sense ,women are not only learning but are learning to learn on-

line, and that requires time. However, their other duties demanded that time as

well. The majority of the students had constraints of time and division of that time

between learning and family commitments.

(ii) Time

Time itself emerged as an issue. One respondent indicated that online learning

saved her time. It was easier to locate learning materials and her supervisor did

not need to be present in his office. They communicated via e-mail. Several

other students also indicated that the availability of online journals reduced time

spent hunting for books. E-journals were not borrowed, stolen nor mutilated. She

is fortunate to have access to a computer in her departmental lab.

25

Some respondents, however, indicated that time was not sufficient. They had no

time to learn online. They had no time to spend on campus beyond lectures

because they were part-time students. For them there was no time for techno-

pedagogy.

A widowed student highlighted her plight in that while she needed to make time

to learn, she did not have time to be on campus as well as parent her children.

Issues of time management for students go beyond techno-pedagogy. It is an

issue with learning time. It is for students to set priorities and their investment in

time. Issues of time and gender are also critical issues. Women’s time is always

taken. Literature has always emphasized that introduction of new phenomena into

women’s lives ought to consider time issues and women’s multiple roles.

(iii) Access to computers

In all laboratories access to computers is on first come, first served basis. Some

respondents felt that this was fair, in that whoever got there first got access.

Other respondents, however, felt that a more systematic reservation scheme would

ensure access for those students who had other roles outside UZ.

(iv) Male-female access

While the laboratories were largely occupied by male students, not a single

student said they felt discriminated against on the basis of being women.

However, some did indicate that:

“I could only learn from the male students. I sacrificed my own dignity in order to learn to use computers.” (She had to constantly ask male colleagues to teach her.) “When the pressure is on male students push and shove to get to PCs” “When working with male students they make you feel like you do not know what you are doing” “First come, first served is fair but women’s other responsibilities prevent access in good time” “There is male domination at the computer labs … it is survival of the fittest”

There is an apparent disconnection here between perceived discrimination and

male domination in access. As Buskens (2005) asserts: “It takes a long time for

women to create a connection between discriminated practice and that

discrimination as being unfair”. These students typified that. They saw no

discrimination in access – first come, first served was fine, but they did notice that

there were some disadvantages for women. However, they did not make the

connection of the disadvantage being unfair.

26

(v) Rural-urban divide

Participants from rural areas had more limited knowledge of computers. Rural

schools largely have no electricity. However, in 2005 a number of them benefited

from the State President’s donation of computers to schools. When the electricity

is connected perhaps they will then realize the full benefit.

(vi) Online learning empowering

Students also indicated that online learning has empowered them to learn new

skills. For most of them empowerment meant getting new skills and being able to

use PCs, as illustrated by responses below:

“Women now have access to these electronic gadgets that may have been for men” “Women are now able to use the technology”

Socio-cultural issues in online learning were both negative and positive. Multiple

roles, time and gendered access emerged as major issues in socio-cultural issues.

c) Technical issues

The respondents also raised several technical issues relating to online learning.

(i) Limited computers

Insufficiency of computers was often cited as an impediment to access online

learning material. They cited that one computer laboratory with 25 PCs was

inadequate for nearly 300 graduate students in Social Science.

One of the results of the inadequacy was the pushing and scramble for computers

in which the rule of the jungle of survival of the fittest applies. Physically

stronger male students would then prevail over the physically weaker female

students. Some female students also felt that it was “unlady-like to be seen

pushing.”

A related matter is the one discussed in the previous sections, in which multiple

roles of women may affect their ability to engage in that struggle, which often

occurs in the morning. By the time they arrive the scramble has ended and the

space is occupied.

Students had suggestions on how to spread access to the inadequate computers.

27

“Increase the ratio of computers to one per five students” “Open computer laboratories over weekends” “Introduce a booking system that accommodates those not able to arrive early” “Encourage individual ownership of PCs”

Adult learners learn by contributing. Perhaps a mechanism for harnessing ideas

from these students needs to be developed so that some suggestions for solutions

can be found. This is particularly important for female students whose learning is

built around their other lives. Their inputs into how to improve access to PCs as a

crucial entry point to learning online is critical. Without that initial access,

learning will not occur.

(ii) Inadequate training

Respondents cited this as a major handicap in their interaction with PCs. They

cited that no formal training was provided to graduate students. They were

simply provided with a laboratory. Some respondents responded to this lack of

training by enrolling for computer courses outside the university in which they

would be trained in:

- basic computing

- Excel

- Windows

- MS word

- MS Access

On arrival on campus, those without training in usage of computers depended on

other students to teach them how to use the learning tools, such as:

- the library Online Public Access Catalogue

- searching the web

- retrieving online journals

- searching various databases available on the library website.

One respondent stated: “I sacrificed my own dignity to ask a male colleague to

teach me. He must have felt good each time I asked ‘Brian please help’”.

The UZ system seemed to have failed the students by providing some

instruments, but not the training. This group of female students articulated their

predicament well. On the one hand resources are provided but on the other no

formal training is provided - and yet students are expected to perform well.

Some students provided solutions for themselves.

“I enrolled in a course at African Virtual University”

28

“I enrolled for a course of Introduction to Computers in a college in town”

If indeed women have multiple roles, then their learning should be tailored to

ensure that learning resources and the requisite skills should be accessible without

further calling on them to make their own time to learn. While students made

arrangements to learn by themselves, it is inadequate that they have not been

provided with a formal training that facilitates techno-pedagogy.

(d) Technical interruption

(i) Power failures were cited as an interruption to the e-learning process.

Some labs and branch libraries are not backed by generator power.

Intermittent power cuts, which have been frequent in Harare, have

interrupted use of computers.

(ii) Internet down time - this issue is related to power cuts, but not necessarily

all the time. This becomes an interruption to learning, particularly if the

online resources being accessed are on the web and one has limited time

too. Women students, whose time was already limited, felt particularly

disadvantaged.

(iii) Bandwidth. When the Internet is up, students are inhibited by the slow

speed of it. The university has 2mps bandwidth to be shared among 10

000 students and almost 4000 staff. At certain times it is almost

impossible to get the Internet. Such limited speed is a great hindrance for

students already pressed for learning time.

(iv) Positive aspects. Some students indicated that when the technical side is

fixed, online learning saves time. E-journals are never checked out and

are there all the time. One does not “miss” lectures because the materials

are on the web. The lecturer does not need to be in their office because

one can send them an e-mail and vice versa.

According to these informants, if the technical hindrances are managed, online learning

offers flexible learning for women learners. It saves their time which is always

demanded by other commitments.

The Internet, when it is working, “works like magic … you just click and have

information”. These positive comments need to be built on to give women learners the

full benefit of online learning.

Women learners would also like to see access to computers eased. This goes beyond the

technical access but also includes appropriate training programmes and managing the

technical aspects that make access possible.

29

(e) No interest

There were informants who were not interested in computing and online learning, while

some indicated they did not have enough information to develop an interest. Some blame

themselves for not learning to use computers. However, these were isolated cases.

“Deviant” cases

A number of female students identified at work in the computer laboratories were

interviewed. We called these “deviant” cases because they were behaving differently

from the majority of women, who stayed away from computer laboratories.

While these students were aware of fact that they were in the minority, they focused on

facilitating their own learning. They were not deterred by being in the minority. The

value of reaching their learning goal inspired them. They were aware that other female

students were staying away. They were not crusading for the access of others. In a

sense, they were pioneering for the good of their education.

This group of undergraduate students is one that we would like to go back to, and study

their experience a year later. It may shed more light on female online learning prospects

in higher education. As a group, they had nothing in common. They were not frightened.

They happened to be isolated cases of female students who persevered to use PCs for

their learning.

F CONCLUDING STATEMENTS

The definition of empowerment as used in this report has been discussed earlier. The

respondents in this essay also perceived empowerment in their own terms.

Empowerment was said to have been experienced when:

“I can now use the computer as well as a man can”

“I feel empowered because I can now save time”

“I am empowered by ICTs because I have now learnt new skills”

It is my view that utilization of a single framework for empowerment may miss out on

individual perception of empowerment. It is critical to recognize what individuals

communicate as being empowered, and build on that awareness that may be necessary to

achieve higher levels of empowerment like transformation. It begins with individual

recognition of being empowered. Any interventions should therefore build on that.

Does online learning at UZ empower female graduate students? In the majority of cases

interviewed, most were empowered by the online learning. There were exceptional cases

30

that were not interested in online learning. The students indicated that it saved their time.

It offered them control over the learning interface. It accommodated the multiple roles.

It was evident form the research that there are technical and socio-cultural barriers

against access to learning online. Once those hurdles were/are removed, women learners

found online learning empowering them with new skills, new ways of learning and

saving their time.

RECOMMENDATIONS

These recommendations are drawn from the findings of the study. They have been

included here to provide an intervention mechanism that will enhance women’s learning

online in higher education.

1. We recommend that the university should put in place mechanisms that enable

female students to have access to computers, i.e. a female postgraduate computer

laboratory.

2. We recommend establishment of a framework to collect inputs form graduate

female students on how they can be better served by computer laboratories.

3. Computers should be made accessible in halls of residence so that they are easily

accessible to female students, who may other wise not feel safe to walk to

computer laboratories.

4. Issues of slow connectivity should be addressed more seriously (VSAT should be

considered as an option for increasing the bandwidth).

5. We recommend that the university purchase more computers, at least having a

computer lab in every department.

6. Training in using PCs to learn online should be compulsory for all graduate

students in order to give them online learning skills.

7. There is a need for staff development programmes for the lecturers to be

computer literate, so that they can encourage all students generally, and more

women students in particular to use online learning resources.

8. The university should come up with policies and practices that encourage the use

of ICTs by students in the learning process

9. Lecturers need to cultivate the culture of ICT usage by students.

31

10. Customized training packages should be designed and ICT planners should keep

abreast of technological trends and design curricula that equip all members

joining the UZ and all students with ICT skills.

11. There should be capacity building of female students and efforts should be made

to introduce ICTs at primary level - ‘catch them young’ - in order to prepare the

students for a future that is ICT-based.

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