WJEC Psychology PY 2Core Studies

Gardner, B. T. & Gardner, R. A. (1969) Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee

Communication and LanguageCommunication - transmitting information from one individual or group to another individual or group. Animals can certainly communicate with each other. The debate is about whether they can use something similar to human language to do this. Language is a small number of signals (sounds, letters, gestures) that by themselves are meaningless, but which can be organised into meaningful combinations and using certain rules to make an infinite number of messages.

What is Language?With a partner write as detailed an explanation as you can. (4 minutes)Compare with another pair and add extr ideas that you find.(4 minutes)

P98

Communication and LanguageNoam Chomsky (1957) argued humans have Language Acquisition Device (LAD)We are programmed to learn language in a way different to other animals.Human cultures all over the world have languageChildren learn language very quickly.But are we really so different from other animals?

ContextIf a chimp can be taught to use and understand language, then humans are not unique in being able to communicate I this way.Hayes and Hayes(1951) spent several YEARS teaching a chimp called Vicky to say FOUR words.Kellogg & Kellogg(1933) had similar problems with Gua, who seemed to understand around 100 spoken words

ContextPremack and Premack (1966)Sarah (chimpanzee)Learned to use chips of different colours and shapes (130 signs, sentences up to 8 signs long)BUT did not spontaneously ask questions.

Context ContinuedPerhaps the problem is in chimps vocal cords if we provide them with another way of speaking they could develop the use and understanding of language.Yerkes (1943) lab chimps spontaneously beg and solve problems with their hands sign language would be appropriate)

AimsAllen and Beatrice Gardner wanted to see if a chimp could communicate with humans. Chimps are constrained by their vocal chords from repeating some sounds, so the Gardners wanted to see if a chimp could learn sign language.

Method

A single participant case study (chimpanzee named Washoe)

Participant A chimpanzee named Washoe who was between 8 11 months old when first acquired by the Gardners.She had been born in the wild in Africa and taken to America.A chimp was chosen because they are intelligent and sociable.

Procedure The researchers decided to teach Washoe American Sign Language (ASL) for several reasons:Chimps are physically unable to vocalise some sounds.Chimps are very good at using their hands.ASL is equivalent to spoken language.ASL would allow them to compare Washoes progress with that of deaf children who also learn ASL.

ProceduresAll people who dealt with Washoe had to master ASL. The Gardners made sure that Washoe had lots of companions who were also learning ASL. All communication with Washoe was through ASL approved signs.

ProceduresOperant conditioning training methods were used which meant that each time Washoe produced a sign that was recognisable, she was rewarded by being tickled (she loved being tickled).Records were kept of her signing behaviour.

Procedure To decide whether a sign had been learned properly a double blind procedure was used by the researchers.They put a box with a picture inside where Washoe would play.When she opened the box and saw the picture, she made a sign.The sign was observed by a researcher and noted.A second researcher, who could not see the box, also recorded what they thought the sign that Washoe had made represented.This was then checked and only if the sign corresponded to the picture and was used in context for a period of 15 consecutive days, was it counted as being learned.

Procedure Imitation Do this not very successfulPrompting correcting sloppy signing by imitationUsing signs the way humans use spoken language around a babyBabbling playing with handsDirect tuition

Findings Washoe spontaneously imitated but it wasnt until the 16th month of work (when Washoe was about 2 2 years old) that the Gardners had any control over her gestures.They encouraged her to babble by smiling, clapping and repeating, especially when the babbling resembled ASL.

Findings Washoe learned the term more through play.At first she would indicate she wanted more tickling by putting the researchers hands on her ribs. They noticed that when she was tickled, she put her arms together to cover the area being tickled.This gesture is very similar to the ASL sign for more.They encouraged her by rewarding her whenever she used the sign by more tickling.She soon learned to associate the sign with the tickling that resulted.

Findings At the end of 22 months, Washoe could use about 30 word signs.4 other words dog, smell, me and clean- were stable but didnt meet criteria.More food/ticklingDrink for water. Pop = drink+sweetSorry After biting someone, when told to apologise.Baby Dolls: human or animalsPlease asking for object or activity

Findings Words LearnedCome-gimme funny flower please. Sorry you hurt cat baby go out!

Findings First 7 months 4 new signsFirst 14 months 13 new signs totalFirst 21 months 30 new signs total+ 4 not stable dog smell me clean

Findings Like human children, once she had about 8 signsShe could combine the signs to make short messages such as Washoe go outShe was also able to invent novel phrases, such as listen dog to refer to barking of unseen dogopen food drink for open refrigerator

Findings Washoes language resembled human children in 3 ways:Differentiating Separating signs for different meanings eg flower smellTransfer generalising from one flower to other types of flowersCombining Signs putting together phrases eg listen dog

Conclusion The choice of sign language was a good one as it did allow Washoe to communicate with her companions.It showed that chimps can learn more than a few words.Washoes ability to combine signs and transfer meanings from specific to general cases suggests a lot more is possible

Conclusion Washoes signs do not remain specific to their original contexts which would suggest that she has learned language.The Gardners are reluctant to say whether Washoe has language.BUT she was clearly able to communicate with Gardners.

Evaluation - Methodology Method : Case StudyAdvantage allowed the Gardners to treat Washoe like a human child and create a natural human-like environment.Advantage provided a lot of qualitative data.Disadvantage how typical a chimpanzee was Washoe?

Evaluation - Methodology The choice of sign language was good because it enabled Washoe to copy words that she would never be able to vocalise.Washoe was able to use learned signs in a wide variety of contexts: "open" for example would be used with doors, tins and nuts showing she had learned language.

Evaluation - Methodology ReliabilityThree observers agreed on a sign.Fifteen days use.Use of box to test signing ability.This seems a reasonable method and we would expect to get replicable results using this procedure.

Evaluation - Methodology ValidityObserver bias researchers influenced by relationship with Washoe?Was Washoe using language, or just responding to cues from researches?See Clever Hans p140 in textbook is it the same for Washoe.Is the Washoe study supported by other animal research?

Evaluation - Methodology Ethical IssuesWashoe taken out of her environment to satisfy human curiosity is this right?Ethical to teach language to animals?Do the findings of this research justify depriving Washoe of her natural environment?

Evaluation Other ResearchSavage-Rumbaugh(1991) 10 years of training Kanzi on a Lexigram.Kanzi learned some words observing his mother being taught so Savage-Rumbaugh kept the training similar to the environment a child would experience.Kanzi learned 200 words and understood simple rules (action before object) which suggests that chimps dont simply learn signs. This Supports Gardner and Gardner because.

Evaluation Alternative EvidenceKEY QUESTION can chimps learn and use a human language?Gardners didnt want to get involved in philosophical debate.Happy that they could COMMUNICATE with Washoe.Other research might tell us more about what chimps can do

Evaluation Alternative EvidenceMore Gardner Research. WASHOEDied at 40Vocabulary 250 signsReported everyday conversationsMoja, Tatu & DarLoulis

Evaluation Alternative EvidenceMore Gardner Research. Moja, Tatu & DarAll raised from new bornDifferent ages, so like siblingsIn training, signs used for dialogue, rather than simply for requests ( to avoid operant conditioning)This supports and develops Gardners findings because

Evaluation Alternative Evidence More Gardner Research. LOULISAdopted.Trainers only used 7 signs in his presence: who, which, want, where, name, that, signLoulis acquired 50 signs from other chimps. Mirrors the way human children learn.This supports Gardners research because.

Evaluation Alternative Evidence Terrace (1979). NIM CHIMPSKYLearned 125 signs and made different combinations.20,000 combinations in 2 yearsFound difference with human child language.Concluded Nim was not using equivalent of human language.This opposes Gardners research because

Evaluation Alternative EvidenceSavage Rumbaugh et al (1986, 1993)KANZI & MULIKAKanzi learned Lexigram from mother.By 17 months, 2500 combinationsFewer than Nim, but other-focused.Found Kanzis learning better than common chimps (Individual Differences) This supports Gardners research because.

Evaluation Other ResearchComputer Language : ELIZAComputers can produce language in response to humans.Does this mean they can understand it?How does this relate to Washoes use of signs?This contradicts the work of Gardner because.