Wings in Orbit

8/2/2019 Wings in Orbit

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Wings In OrbitScientific and Engineering

Legacies of the Space Shuttle

1971-2010

Foreword: John Young

Robert Crippen

Executive Editor: Wayne Hale

Editor in Chief: Helen Lane

Coeditors: Gail Chapline

Kamlesh Lulla

National Aeronautics and Space Administration


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ii

COVER PHOTOS

Front: View of Space Shuttle Endeavour

(STS-118) docked to the International Space

Station in August 2007.

Back: Launch of Space Shuttle Endeavour

(STS-130) during the early morning hoursen route to the International Space Station

in February 2010.

Spine:A rear view of the Orbiter Discovery

showing the drag chute deployed during the

landing of STS-96 at Kennedy Space Center

in May 1999.


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vi

Table of Contents iii Dedicationiv ForewordJohn Young and Robert Crippen

v Preface and Acknowledgments

vi Table of Contents

viii Editorial Board

ix PoemWitnessing the Launch of the Shuttle Atlantis

x IntroductionCharles Bolden

1 Magnificent Flying Machine

A Cathedral to Technology

11 The Historical Legacy

12 Major Milestones

32 The Accidents: A Nations Tragedy, NASAs Challenge

42 National Security

53 The Space Shuttle and Its Operations

54 The Space Shuttle

74 Processing the Shuttle for Flight

94 Flight Operations

110 Extravehicular Activity Operations and Advancements

130 Shuttle Builds the International Space Station

157 Engineering Innovations

158 Propulsion

182 Thermal Protection Systems

200 Materials and Manufacturing

226 Aerodynamics and Flight Dynamics

242 Avionics, Navigation, and Instrumentation

256 Software

270 Structural Design

286 Robotics and Automation

302 Systems Engineering for Life Cycle

of Complex Systems


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vii

319 Major Scientific Discoveries

320 The Space Shuttle and Great Observatories

344 Atmospheric Observations

and Earth Imaging

360 Mapping the Earth: Radars and Topography

370 Astronaut Health and Performance

408 The Space Shuttle: A Platform That Expanded

the Frontiers of Biology

420 Microgravity Research in the Space Shuttle Era

444 Space Environments

459 Social, Cultural, and Educational Legacies

460 NASA Reflects Americas Changing Opportunities;

NASA Impacts US Culture

470 Education: Inspiring Students as Only NASA Can

485 Industries and Spin-offs

497 The Shuttle Continuum, Role of Human Spaceflight

499 President George H.W. Bush

500 Pam Leestma and Neme Alperstein

Elementary School Teachers

502 Norman Augustine

Former President and CEO of Lockheed Martin Corporation

504 John Logsdon

Former Director of Space Policy Institute, Georgetown University

506 Canadian Space Agency509 General John Dailey

Director of Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum

510 Leah Jamieson

John A. Edwardson Dean of the College of Engineering,

Purdue University

512 Michael Griffin

Former NASA Administrator

517 Appendix

518 Flight Information

530 Program Managers/Acknowledgments

531 Selected Readings535 Acronyms

536 Contributors Biographies

542 Index


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viii

Wayne Hale

Chair

Iwan Alexander

Frank Benz

Steven Cash

Robert Crippen

Steven Dick

Michael Duncan

Diane Evans

Steven Hawley

Milton Heflin

David Leckrone

James Owen

Robert Sieck

Michael Wetmore

John Young

Editorial Board


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ix

Witnessing the Launch ofthe Shuttle Atlantis

Howard Nemerov

Poet Laureate of the United States1963-1964 and 1988-1990

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Charles Bolden


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Magnificent Flying MachineA Cathedral to Technology 9

The sun radiates on Space Shuttle Atlantis

as it is positioned to head for space on missionSTS-115 (2006).

Astronaut Joseph Acaba, STS-119 (2009), works the controls of Space Shuttle Discoverys ShuttleRobotic Arm on the aft flight deck during Flight Day 1 activities.


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The Historical Legacy 11

The Historical

Legacy

Major Milestones

The Accidents: A NationsTragedy, NASAs Challenge

National Security


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Maxime Faget, director of engineering and

development at the Manned Spacecraft Center

in 1969, holding a balsa wood model of his

concept of the spaceship that would launch on

a rocket and land on a runway.


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The Space Shuttle Main Engines were the first rocket engines to be reused from one mission to the

next. This picture is of Engine 0526, tested on July 7, 2003. A remote camera captures a close-up view

of a Space Shuttle Main Engine during a test firing at the John C. Stennis Space Center in Hancock

County, Mississippi.


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31/566

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George H. W. Bush William Clinton

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34/566

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2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

George W. Bush Barack Obama

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37/566

Challenger Accident

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Astronaut James Voss is pictured during an

STS-69 (1995) extravehicular activity that was

conducted in and around Endeavours cargo bay.

Voss and Astronaut Michael Gernhardt performedevaluations for space station-era tools and

various elements of the spacesuits.


38/566

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39/566

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US Senator John Glenn, Jr., payload specialist, keeps up his busy test agenda during Flight Day 7

on board Discovery STS-95 in 1998. This was a Spacehab flight that studied the effect of microgravity

on human physiology. He is preparing his food, and on the side is the bar code reader used to record

all food, fluids, and drug intakes.


40/566

The Shuttle-Mir Program

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Leroy Chiao, PhDAstronaut on STS-65 (1994),

STS-72 (1996), and STS-92 (2000).

Commander and science officer on

ISS Expedition 10 (2004-2005).

To me, the Space Shuttle is an

amazing flying machine. It

launches vertically as a rocket,

turns into an extremely capable

orbital platform for many

purposes, and then becomes an

airplane after re-entry into the

atmosphere for landing on a conventional runway. Moreover, it is a reusable

vehicle, which was a first in the US space program.

The Space Shuttle Program presented me the opportunity to become a NASA

astronaut and to fly in space. I never forgot my boyhood dream and years later

applied after watching the first launch of Columbia. In addition to being a superb

research and operations platform, the Space Shuttle also served as a bridge to

other nations. Never before had foreign nationals flown aboard US spacecraft.

On shuttle, the US had flown representatives from nations all around the world.

Space is an ideal neutral ground for cooperation and the development of better

understanding and relationships between nations.

Without the Space Shuttle as an extravehicular activity test bed, we would

not have been nearly as successful as we have been so far in assembling

the ISS. The Space Shuttle again proved its flexibility and capability for ISS

construction missions.

Upon our landing (STS-92), I realized that my shuttle days were behind me.

I was about to begin training for ISS. But on that afternoon, as we walked around

and under Discovery, I savored the moment and felt a mixture of awe, satisfaction,

and a little sadness. Shuttle, to me, represents a triumph and remains to this day

a technological marvel. We learned so much from the program, not only in the

advancement of science and international relations, but also from what works and

what doesnt on a reusable vehicle. The lessons learned from shuttle will make

future US spacecraft more reliable, safer, and cost effective.

I love the Space Shuttle. I am proud and honored to be a part of its history

and legacy.


43/566


44/566


Changes in Mission Complexity Over Nearly 3 Decades

Length of flight as mission days. Early flights lasted less than 1

week, but, as confidence grew, some flights lasted 14 to 15 days.

Crew size started at twoa commander and pilotand

grew to routine flights with six crew members. During the

Shuttle-Mir and International Space Station (ISS) Programs,

the shuttle took crew members to the station and returned

crew members, for a total of seven crew members.

Deploys occurred throughout the program. During the first

10 years, these were primarily satellites with sometimes more

than one per flight. Some satellites, such as Hubble Space

Telescope, were returned to the payload bay for repair. With

construction of the ISS, several major elements were deployed.

50

40

30

20

10

0

MissionComplexityIndex

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Components of Mission Complexity

Over the 30 years of the Space Shuttle Program, missions became more complex with increased understanding of the use of this vehicle,

thereby producing increased capabilities. This diagram illustrates the increasing complexity as well as the downtime between the major

accidentsChallenger and Columbia.

Rendezvous included every time the shuttle connected to an

orbiting craft from satellites, to Hubble, Mir, and ISS. Some flights

had several rendezvous.

Extravehicular activity (EVA) is determined as EVA crew days.

Many flights had no EVAs, while others had one every day with

two crew members.

Secret Department of Defense missions were very complex.

Spacelabs were missions with a scientific lab in the payload bay.

Besides the complexity of launch and landing, these flights

included many scientific studies.

Construction of the ISS by shuttle crew members.


45/566

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46/566

The Challenger Accident

Pressure to Fly

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47/566

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48/566

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The CrewFollowing the breakup of Challenger

(STS-51L) during launch over the AtlanticOcean on January 28, 1986, personnel

in the Department of Defense STS

Contingency Support Office activated the

rescue and recovery assets. This included

the local military search and rescue

helicopters from the Eastern Space and

Missile Center at Patrick Air Force Base and

the US Coast Guard. The crew compartment

was eventually located on March 8, and

NASA officially announced that the recovery

operations were completed on April 21.

The recovered remains of the crew were

taken to Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

and then transported, with military honors,

to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

where they were identified. Burial

arrangements were coordinated with the

families by the Port Mortuary at Dover

Air Force Base, Delaware. Internal NASA

reports on the mechanism of injuries

sustained by the crew contributed to

upgrades in training and crew equipment

that supported scenarios of bailout,

egress, and escape for Return to Flight.

Following the breakup of Columbia

(STS-107) during re-entry over Texas and

Louisiana on February 1, 2003, personnel

from the NASA Mishap Investigation Team

were dispatched to various disaster field

offices for crew recovery efforts. The Lufkin,

Texas, office served as the primary area

for all operations, including staging assets

and deploying field teams for search,

recovery, and security. Many organizations

had operational experience with disaster

recovery, including branches of the federal,

state, and local governments together with

many local citizen volunteers. Remains ofall seven crew members were found within

a 40- by 3-km (25- by 2-mile) corridor in

East Texas. The formal search for crew

members was terminated on February13,

2003. Astronauts, military, and local police

personnel transported the crew, with honors,

to Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, for

preliminary identification and preparation

for transport. The crew was then relocated,

with military honor guard and protocol,

to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

medical examiner for forensic analysis.

Burial preparation and arrangements were

coordinated with the families by the Port

Mortuary at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware.Additional details on the mechanism of

injuries sustained by the crew and lessons

learned for enhanced crew survival are

found in the Columbia Crew Survival

Investigation Report NASA/SP-2008-565.

Reconstruction of the Columbia f rom parts found in East Texas. From this layout, NASA was

able to determine that a large hole occurred in the leading edge of the wing and identify theburn patterns that eventually led to the destruction of the shuttle.


49/566

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On an Occasionof National Mourning

Howard NemerovPoet Laureate of the United States

1963-1964 and 1988-1990

It is admittedly difficult for a whole

Nation to mourn and be seen to do so, but

It can be done, the silvery platitudes

Were waiting in their silos for just such

An emergent occasion, cards of sympathy

From heads of state were long ago prepared

For launching and are bounced around the world

From satellites at near the speed of light,

The divine services are telecast

From the home towns, children are interviewed

And say politely, gravely, how sorry they are,

And in a week or so the thing is done,

The sea gives up its bits and pieces and

The investigating board pinpoints the cause

By inspecting bits and pieces, nothing of the sort

Can ever happen again, the prescribed course

Of tragedy is run through omen to amen

As in a play, the nation rises again

Reborn of grief and ready to seek the stars;

Remembering the shuttle, forgetting the loom.

Howard Nemerov. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. All rights reserved.


55/566

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56/566

National SecuritySpace Programs

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1970-1981: Roleof National SecuritySpace Programs

in Development ofthe Shuttle

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57/566

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Space Shuttle Program

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Space Shuttle Enterprise on Space Launch Complex 6 during pad checkout tests at Vandenberg

Air Force Base in 1985. Enterprise was the Orbiter built for the Approach and Landing Tests to prove

flightworthiness. It never became part of the shuttle fleet.


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61/566

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Michael Griffin, PhD

Deputy for technology at the StrategicDefense Initiative Organization

(1986-1991).

NASA administrator (2005-2009).

Strategic Defense

Initiative Test

STS-39 was a very complex

mission that led to breakthroughs

in Americas understanding

of the characteristics of missile

signatures in space. The data

we gathered enhanced our ability

to identify and protect ourselves

from future missile threats.

This is one of the most under-

recognized achievements of the

shuttle era. STS-39s Air Force Program-675equipment mounted on the

experiment support system pallet

in Discoverys payload bay.

View of the Aurora Australisor SouthernLightstaken by Air Force Program-675

Uniformly Redundant Array and Cryogenic

Infrared Radiance Instrumentation during

STS-39 (1991). One of the equipments

objectives was to gather data on the Earths

aurora, limb, and airglow.


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Legacy of the SpaceShuttle Programand National

Security Space = @

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US Air Force Space Test Program

Pathfinder for Department of Defense Space Systems

The US Air Force (USAF) Space Test Program was

established as a multiuser space program whose

role is to be the primary provider of spaceflightfor the entire Department of Defense (DoD)

space research community. From

as early as STS-4 (1982), the USAF Space Test

Program used the shuttle to fly payloads relevant

to the military. The goal of the program was to

exploit the use of the shuttle as a research and

development laboratory. In addition to supplying

the primary payloads on several DoD-dedicated

missions, more than 250 secondary payloads

and experiments flew on 95 shuttle missions.

Space Test Program payloads flew in the shuttlemiddeck, cargo bay, Spacelab, and Spacehab,

and on the Russian space station Mir during the

Shuttle-Mir missions in the mid 1990s.

A Department of Defense pico-satellite known as Atmospheric Neutral Density

Experiment (ANDE) is released from the STS-116 (2006) payload bay. ANDE consists

of two micro-satellites that measure the density and composition of the low-Earth

orbit atmosphere while being tracked from the ground. The data are used to better

predict the movement of objects in orbit.


63/566

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Buran/Energiya shuttle and heavy-lift booster, built by the USSR, flew onceuncrewedin 1988.


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The Space Shuttle and Its Operations 53

The Space

Shuttle andIts Operations

The Space Shuttle

Processing theShuttle for Flight

Flight Operations

Extravehicular ActivityOperations and Advancements

Shuttle Builds theInternational Space Station


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Crew CompartmentAccommodation for Crewand Payloads


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74 The Space Shuttle and Its Operations

Processingthe Shuttle for

FlightSteven Sullivan

Preparing the Shuttle for Flight

Ground Processing

Jennifer Hall

Peter Nickolenko

Jorge Rivera

Edith Stull

Steven Sullivan

Space Operations Weather

Francis MerceretRobert Scully

Terri Herst

Steven Sullivan

Robert Youngquist


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Ground Processing

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Orbiter Processing


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Engineering Innovations 161

A 1970s-era Space Shuttle Main Engine undergoes testing at Rocketdynes Santa Susana Field

Laboratory near Los Angeles, California.

Pratt&WhitneyRocketdyne.

Allrightsreserved.


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Engineering Innovations 163

The Technology Test Bed Space Shuttle Main Engine test program was conducted at Marshall Space

Flight Center, Alabama, between September 1988 and May 1996. The program demonstrated the ability

of the main engine to accommodate a wide variation in safe operating ranges.

Pr

att&WhitneyRocketdyne.

Allrightsreserved.


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The Improved Space Shuttle Main Engine Powerhead Component Arrangement for Block II Engines

Fuel

Preburner

Oxidizer

Preburner

High-pressure

Fuel Turbopump

High-pressure

Oxidizer Turbopump

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High-pr

DRAFT 8/20/09

urbopumpOxidizer T

eessurHigh-pr

The Block II engine combined a new high-pressure fuel turbopump with the previously flown redesigned high-pressure oxygen turbopump.

Risk analysis showed that the Block II engine was twice as safe as the 1990s-era engine. Beginning with STS-110 in April 2002, all shuttle

flights were powered by the improved Space Shuttle Main Engine.


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The two shuttle reusable solid rocket motors, which stood more than 38 m (126 ft) tall, harnessed

29.4 meganewtons (6.6 million pounds) of thrust. The twin solid-fueled rockets provided 80% of the

thrust needed to achieve liftoff.

ATK.

Allrightsreserved.


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Wings in Orbit

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