Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia [NGO]

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Non-governmental organizationFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are legally constituted organizations created by natural or legalpeople that operate independently from any form of government. The term originated from the UnitedNations, and normally refers to organizations that are not a part of a government and are not conventional

for-profit businesses. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGOmaintains its non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in theorganization. The term is usually applied only to organizations that pursue wider social aims that have

political aspects, but are not openly political organizations such as political parties.

The number of NGOs operating in the United States is estimated at 1.5 million.[1] Russia has 277,000

NGOs.[2] India is estimated to have had around 3.3 million NGOs in 2009, just over one NGO per 400

Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India.[3][4]

Contents

1 Definition2 Types of Non-Governmental Organizations

2.1 Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs2.2 Track II Diplomacy

3 Activities3.1 Operational3.2 Campaigning3.3 Both operational and campaigning3.4 Public relations3.5 Project management

4 Corporate structure4.1 Staffing4.2 Funding4.3 Overhead costs4.4 Monitoring and control

5 History6 Legal status7 Critiques

7.1 Challenges to legitimacy8 See also9 References10 Further reading11 External links

Definition

NGOs are difficult to define and classify, and the term 'NGO' is not used consistently. As a result, there aremany different classifications in use. The most common NGOs use a framework that includes orientationand level of operation. An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activitiesmight include human rights, environmental, or development work. An NGO's level of operation indicates

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the scale at which an organization works, such as local, regional, international or national.[5]

One of the earliest mentions of the term "NGO" was in 1945, when the United Nations (UN) was created.The UN, which is an inter-governmental organization, made it possible for certain approved specializedinternational non-state agencies - or non-governmental organizations - to be awarded observer status at itsassemblies and some of its meetings. Later the term became used more widely. Today, according to the UN,any kind of private organization that is independent from government control can be termed an "NGO",

provided it is not-profit, non-criminal and not simply an opposition political party.

Types of Non-Governmental Organizations

NGO types can be understood by their orientation and level of cooperation.

NGO type by level of orientation:

Charitable Orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little participation by the"beneficiaries". It includes NGOs with activities directed toward meeting the needs of the poor

-distribution of food, clothing or medicine; provision of housing, transport, schools etc. Such NGOsmay also undertake relief activities during a natural or man-made disaster.Service Orientation includes NGOs with activities such as the provision of health, family planning oreducation services in which the programme is designed by the NGO and people are expected to

participate in its impementation and in receiving the service.Participatory Orientation is characterized by self-help projects where local people are involved

particularly in the implementation of a project by contributing cash, tools, land, materials, labour etc.In the classical community development project, participation begins with the need definition andcontinues into the planning and implementation stages. Cooperatives often have a participatoryorientation.

Empowering Orientation aims to help poor people develop a clearer understanding of the social,political and economic factors affecting their lives, and to strengthen their awareness of their ownpotential power to control their lives. Sometimes, these groups develop spontaneously around aproblem or an issue, at other times outside workers from NGOs play a facilitating role in theirdevelopment. In any case, there is maximum involvement of the people with NGOs acting as

facilitators.[6]

NGO type by level of cooperation:

Community-based Organizations (CBOs) arise out of people's own initiatives. These can include

sports clubs, women's organizations, neighbourhood organizations, religious or educationalorganizations. There are a large variety of these, some supported by NGOs, national or internationalNGOs, or bilateral or international agencies, and others independent of outside help. Some aredevoted to rising the consciousness of the urban poor or helping them to understand their rights ingaining access to needed services while others are involved in providing such services.Citywide Organizations include organizations such as a local Rotary International chapter or LionsClubs International chapter, chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic oreducational groups and associations of community organizations. Some exist for other purposes, and

become involved in helping the poor as one of many activities, while others are created for thespecific purpose of helping the poor.

National NGOs include organizations such as the Red Cross, YMCAs/YWCAs, professionalassociations, etc. Some of these have state and city branches and assist local NGOs.International NGOs range from secular gencies such as Redda Barna and Save the Childrenorganizations, OXFAM, CARE, Ford Foundation, and Rockefeller Foundation to religiouslymotivated groups. Their activities vary from mainly funding local NGOs, institutions and projects, to


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implementing the projects themselves.[6]

Apart from "NGO", there are many alternative or overlapping terms in use, including: third sectororganization (TSO), non-profit organization (NPO), voluntary organization (VO), civil society organization(CSO), grassroots organization (GO), social movement organization (SMO), private voluntary organization(PVO), self-help organization (SHO) and non-state actors (NSAs).

Non-governmental organizations are a heterogeneous group. As a result, a long list of additional acronymshas developed, including:

BINGO: 'Business-friendly International NGO' or 'Big International NGO'TANGO: 'Technical Assistance NGO'TSO: 'Third Sector Organization'GONGO: 'Government-Operated NGOs' (set up by governments to look like NGOs in order to qualifyfor outside aid or promote the interests of government)DONGO: 'Donor Organized NGO'INGO: 'International NGO'QUANGO: 'Quasi-Autonomous NGO,' such as the International Organization for Standardization(ISO). (The ISO is actually not purely an NGO, since its membership is by nation, and each nation isrepresented by what the ISO Council determines to be the 'most broadly representative'standardization body of a nation. That body might itself be a nongovernmental organization; forexample, the United States is represented in ISO by the American National Standards Institute, whichis independent of the federal government. However, other countries can be represented by nationalgovernmental agencies; this is the trend in Europe.)

National NGO: A non-governmental organization that exists only in one country. This term is rare dueto the globalization of non-governmental organizations, which causes an NGO to exist in more than

one country.[7]

CSO: 'Civil Society Organization'ENGO: 'Environmental NGO,' such as Greenpeace and WWFNNGO: 'Northern NGO'PANGO: 'Party NGO,' set up by parties and disguised as NGOs to serve their political matters.SNGO: 'Southern NGO'SCO: 'Social Change Organization'TNGO: 'Transnational NGO.' The term emerged during the 1970s due to the increase ofenvironmental and economic issues in the global community. TNGO includes non-governmentalorganizations that are not confined to only one country, but exist in two or more countries.GSO: Grassroots Support Organization

MANGO: 'Market Advocacy NGO'NGDO: 'Non-governmental Development Organization'

USAID refers to NGOs asprivate voluntary organizations. However, many scholars have argued that thisdefinition is highly problematic as many NGOs are in fact state and corporate funded and managed projects

with professional staff.[citation needed]

NGOs exist for a variety of reasons, usually to further the political or social goals of their members orfounders. Examples include improving the state of the natural environment, encouraging the observance ofhuman rights, improving the welfare of the disadvantaged, or representing a corporate agenda. However,there are a huge number of such organizations and their goals cover a broad range of political and

philosophical positions. This can also easily be applied to private schools and athletic organizations.

Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs


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NGOs are organizations that work in many different fields, but the term is generally associated with thoseseeking social transformation and improvements in quality of life. Development NGOs are the most highlyvisible sector, and includes both international and local organizations, as well as those working inhumanitarian emergency sector. Many are associated with international aid and voluntary donation, but thereare also NGOs that choose not to take funds from donors and try to generate funding in other ways, such asselling handicrafts or charging for services.

Environmental NGOs are another sub-sector, and sometimes overlap with development NGOs. An exampleis Greenpeace. (see: List of Environmental NGOs). Just like other NGOs networks, transnationalenvironmental networks might acquire a variety of benefits in sharing information with other organizations,campaigning towards an issue, and exchanging contact information. Since transnational environmental

NGOs advocate for different issues like public goods, such as pollution in the air, deforestation of areas andwater issues, it is more difficult for them to give their campaigns a human face than NGOs campaigningdirectly for human rights issues.Some of the earliest forms of transnational environmental NGOs started toappear after the Second World War with the creation of the International Union for the Conservation of

Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). After the UN was formed in 1945, more environmental NGO started

to emerge in order to address more specific environmental issues. In 1946, the UN Educational, Scientific,and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was created with the purpose of advocating and representing

scientific issues and collaboration among environmental NGOs. In 1969, the Scientific Committee onProblems of the Environment (SCOPE) was funded to increase and improve collaboration amongenvironmentalists. This collaboration was later reinforced and stimulated with the creation of UNESCO'sMan and the Biosphere Program in 1971. In 1972, the UN Conference on the Human Environment inStockholm, tried to address the issues on Swedens plead for international intervention on trans-boundary

pollution from other European industrialized nations.

Transnational environmental NGOs have taken on diverse issues around the globe, but one of thebest-known cases involving the work of environmental NGOs can be traced back to Brazil during the1980s. The United States got involved with deforestation concerns due to the allegations of

environmentalists dictating deforestation to be a global concern, and after 1977 the U.S. Foreign AssistanceAct added an Environmental and Natural Resources section.

Human rights NGOs may also overlap with those in development, but are another distinct category.Amnesty International is perhaps one of the best-known.

During the early 1980s the Brazilian government created the Polonoreste developing program, which theWorld Bank agreed to finance. The Polonoreste program aimed to urbanized areas of the Amazon, whichwere already occupied by local indigenous groups. Rapid deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon called theattention and intervention of UNESCO, who utilized its Program on Man and the Biosphere to advocateagainst the Polonoreste program, on the grounds of violating the rights of the indigenous groups living in the

Amazon. In the case of deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon, the environment NGOs were able to putpressure on the World Bank to cancel the loans for the Polonoreste program. Due to the leverage that theU.S. has over the bank, in 1985 the World Bank suspended the financial aid to the Polonoreste Program. Thework of environmental NGOs in the Brazilian case was successful because there was a point of leverage that

made the targeted actor vulnerable to international pressure.[8]

Even though NGOs might have common goals relating to development or environment issues, interests andperspectives are diverse. A distinction can be made between the interests and goals among those NGOslocated in industrialized countriesoften referred to as the states of the Northand NGOs from nationslocated in developing countriesreferred to as states of the South. There is sometimes tension between

them. Southern states blame the developed nations for over-consumption and pollution resulting fromindustrialization, and for sustaining inequalities in the international economic system

There is also a distinction among groups that take on particular and specific socio-economic issues. TheWomens Environment and Development Organization was created in 1990 with the purpose to advocate for


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gender inclusion in work related to the Earth Summit. Other groups might focus on issues that include racial

minorities and individuals from lower income backgrounds.[9]

Track II Diplomacy

Main article: Track II diplomacy

Track II dialogue, or Track II diplomacy, is a transnational coordination that involves non-official membersof the government including epistemic communities as well as former policy-makers or analysts. Track IIdiplomacy aims to get policymakers and policy analysts to come to a common solution through discussions

by unofficial figures of the government. Unlike the Track I diplomacy where government officials,diplomats and elected leaders gather to talk about certain issues, Track II diplomacy consists of experts,scientists, professors and other figures that are not involved in government affairs. The members of Track IIdiplomacy usually have more freedom to exchange ideas and come up with compromise on their own.

Activities

There are also numerous classifications of NGOs. The typology the World Bank uses divides them intoOperational and Advocacy:[10]

NGOs vary in their methods. Some act primarily as lobbyists, while others primarily conduct programs andactivities. For instance, an NGO such as Oxfam, concerned with poverty alleviation, might provide needy

people with the equipment and skills to find food and clean drinking water, whereas an NGO like the FFDA

helps through investigation and documentation of human rights[11] violations and provides legal assistanceto victims of human rights abuses. Others, such as Afghanistan Information Management Services, providespecialized technical products and services to support development activities implemented on the ground byother organizations.

NGOs were intended to fill a gap in government services, but in countries like India, NGOs are gaining apowerful stronghold in decision making. In the interest of sustainability, most donors require that NGOsdemonstrate a relationship with governments. State Governments themselves are vulnerable because theylack strategic planning and vision. They are therefore sometimes tightly bound by a nexus of NGOs,

political bodies, commercial organizations and major donors/funders, making decisions that have short termoutputs but no long term affect. NGOs in India are under regulated, political, and recipients of largegovernment and international donor funds. NGOs often take up responsibilities outside their skill ambit.Governments have no access to the number of projects or amount of funding received by these NGOs. Thereis a pressing need to regulate this group while not curtailing their unique role as a supplement to governmentservices.

Operational

Operational NGOs seek to "achieve small-scale change directly through projects."[7] They mobilizefinancial resources, materials and volunteers to create localized programs in the field. They hold large-scalefundraising events, apply to governments and organizations for grants and contracts in order to raise moneyfor projects. They often operate in a hierarchical structure; with a main headquarters staffed by professionalswho plan projects, create budgets, keep accounts, report, and communicate with operational fieldworkers

who work directly on projects[7] Operational NGOs deal with a wide range of issues, but are most often

associated with the delivery of services and welfare, emergency relief and environmental issues. OperationalNGOs can be further categorized, one frequently used categorization is the division into relief-orientedversus development-oriented organizations; they can also be classified according to whether they stressservice delivery or participation; or whether they are religious or secular; and whether they are more publicor private-oriented. Operational NGOs can be community-based, national or international. The defining


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activity of operational NGOs is implementing projects.[7]

Campaigning

Campaigning NGOs seek to "achieve large-scale change promoted indirectly through influence of the

political system."[7] Campaigning NGOs need an efficient and effective group of professional members whoare able to keep supporters informed, and motivated. They must plan and host demonstrations and events

that will keep their cause in the media. They must maintain a large informed network of supporters who canbe mobilized for events to garner media attention and influence policy changes. The defining activity of

campaigning NGOs is holding demonstrations.[7] Campaigning NGOs often deal with issues relating tohuman rights, women's rights, children's rights. The primary purpose of an Advocacy NGO is to defend or

promote a specific cause. As opposed to operational project management, these organizations typically try toraise awareness, acceptance and knowledge by lobbying, press work and activist event.

Both operational and campaigning

It is not uncommon for NGOs to make use of both activities. Many times, operational NGOs will use

campaigning techniques if they continually face the same issues in the field that could be remedied throughpolicy changes. At the same time, Campaigning NGOs, like human rights organizations often have programs

that assist the individual victims they are trying to help through their advocacy work.[7]

Public relations

Non-governmental organizations need healthy relationships with the public to meet their goals. Foundationsand charities use sophisticated public relations campaigns to raise funds and employ standard lobbyingtechniques with governments. Interest groups may be of political importance because of their ability toinfluence social and political outcomes. A code of ethics was established in 2002 by The World Association

of Non Governmental Organizations.

Project management

There is an increasing awareness that management techniques are crucial to project success in

non-governmental organizations.[12] Generally, non-governmental organizations that are private have eithera community or environmental focus. They address varieties of issues such as religion, emergency aid, orhumanitarian affairs. They mobilize public support and voluntary contributions for aid; they often havestrong links with community groups in developing countries, and they often work in areas wheregovernment-to-government aid is not possible. NGOs are accepted as a part of the international relations

landscape, and while they influence national and multilateral policy-making, increasingly they are moredirectly involved in local action.

Corporate structure

Staffing

Some NGOs are highly professionalized and rely mainly on paid staff. Others are based around voluntarylabour and are less formalized. Not all people working for non-governmental organizations are volunteers.

Many NGOs are associated with the use of international staff working in 'developing' countries, but there aremany NGOs in both North and South who rely on local employees or volunteers. There is some dispute as towhether expatriates should be sent to developing countries. Frequently this type of personnel is employed tosatisfy a donor who wants to see the supported project managed by someone from an industrialized country.


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However, the expertise these employees or volunteers may be counterbalanced by a number of factors: thecost of foreigners is typically higher, they have no grassroot connections in the country they are sent to, and

local expertise is often undervalued.[10]

The NGO sector is an important employer in terms of numbers.[citation needed] For example, by the end of1995, CONCERN worldwide, an international Northern NGO working against poverty, employed 174expatriates and just over 5,000 national staff working in ten developing countries in Africa and Asia, and in

Haiti.

Funding

Whether the NGOs are small or large, various NGOs need budgets to operate. The amount of budget thatthey need would differ from NGOs to NGOs. Unlike small NGOs, large NGOs may have annual budgets inthe hundreds of millions or billions of dollars. For instance, the budget of the American Association of

Retired Persons (AARP) was over US$540 million in 1999.[13] Funding such large budgets demandssignificant fundraising efforts on the part of most NGOs. Major sources of NGO funding are membershipdues, the sale of goods and services, grants from international institutions or national governments, and

private donations. Several EU-grants provide funds accessible to NGOs.

Even though the term "non-governmental organization" implies independence from governments, many

NGOs depend heavily on governments for their funding.[14] A quarter of the US$162 million income in1998 of the famine-relief organization Oxfam was donated by the British government and the EU. TheChristian relief and development organization World Vision United States collected US$55 million worth ofgoods in 1998 from the American government. Nobel Prize winner Mdecins Sans Frontires (MSF)

(known in the USA as Doctors Without Borders) gets 46% of its income from government sources.[15]

Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since, according to David Rieff, writing in The NewRepublic, "the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precisely that NGOs and civil society had botha right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected torepression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think

about the matter."[16] Some NGOs, such as Greenpeace do not accept funding from governments or

intergovernmental organizations.[17][18]

Overhead costs

Overhead is the amount of money that is spent on running an NGO rather than on projects.[19] This includes

office expenses,[19] salaries, banking and bookkeeping costs. What percentage of overall budget is spent on

overhead is often used to judge an NGO with less than 10% being viewed as good.[19] The WorldAssociation of Non-Governmental Organizations states that ideally more than 80% should be spent on

programs (less than 20% on overhead).[20] The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria hasspecific guidelines on how high overhead can be to receive funding based on how the money is to be spent

with overhead often needing to be less than 5-7%.[21] While the World Bank typically allows 10%.[22] A

high percentage of overhead to total expenditures can make it more difficult to generate funds.[23] Highoverhead costs may also generate criticism with some claiming the certain NGOs with high overhead are

being run simply to benefit the people working for them.[24]

While overhead costs can be a legitimate concern, a sole focus on them can be counterproductive.[25]

Research published by the Urban Institute (http://www.urban.org/publications/311055.html ) and the Centerfor Social Innovation (http://www.ssireview.org/articles/entry/the_ratings_game/ ) at Stanford Universityhave shown how rating agencies create incentives for nonprofits to lower and hide overhead costs, whichmay actually reduce organizational effectiveness by starving organizations of the infrastructure they need to


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effectively deliver services. A more meaningful rating system would provide, in addition to financial data, aqualitative evaluation of an organizations transparency and governance: (1) an assessment of programeffectiveness; (2) and an evaluation of feedback mechanisms designed for donors and beneficiaries; and (3)such a rating system would also allow rated organizations to respond to an evaluation done by a rating

agency.[26] More generally, the popular discourse of nonprofit evaluation should move away from financialnotions of organizational effectiveness and toward more substantive understandings of programmaticimpact.

Monitoring and control

In a March 2000 report on United Nations Reform priorities, former U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annanwrote in favor of international humanitarian intervention, arguing that the international community has a

"right to protect"[27] citizens of the world against ethnic cleansing, genocide, and crimes against humanity.

On the heels of the report, the Canadian government launched the Responsibility to Protect R2P [28] project,outlining the issue of humanitarian intervention. While the R2P doctrine has wide applications, among themore controversial has been the Canadian government's use of R2P to justify its intervention and support of

the coup (http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=55&ItemID=9238) in Haiti.[29] Years

after R2P, the World Federalist Movement, an organization which supports "the creation of democraticglobal structures accountable to the citizens of the world and call for the division of international authorityamong separate agencies", has launched Responsibility to Protect - Engaging Civil Society (R2PCS). Acollaboration between the WFM and the Canadian government, this project aims to bring NGOs intolockstep with the principles outlined under the original R2P project.

The governments of the countries an NGO works or is registered in may require reporting or othermonitoring and oversight. Funders generally require reporting and assessment, such information is notnecessarily publicly available. There may also be associations and watchdog organizations that research and

publish details on the actions of NGOs working in particular geographic or program areas.[citation needed]

In recent years, many large corporations have increased their corporate social responsibility departments inan attempt to preempt NGO campaigns against certain corporate practices. As the logic goes, if corporationsworkwith NGOs, NGOs will not workagainstcorporations. Greater collaboration between corporations and

NGOs creates inherent risks of co-optation for the weaker partner, typically the nonprofit involved.[30]

In December 2007, The United States Department of Defense Assistant Secretary of Defense (HealthAffairs) S. Ward Casscells established an International Health Division under Force Health Protection &

Readiness.[31] Part of International Health's mission is to communicate with NGOs in areas of mutual

interest. Department of Defense Directive 3000.05,[32] in 2005, requires DoD to regard stability-enhancing

activities as a mission of importance equal to combat. In compliance with international law, DoD hasnecessarily built a capacity to improve essential services in areas of conflict such as Iraq, where thecustomary lead agencies (State Department and USAID) find it difficult to operate. Unlike the "co-option"strategy described for corporations, the OASD(HA) recognizes the neutrality of health as an essentialservice. International Health cultivates collaborative relationships with NGOs, albeit at arms-length,recognizing their traditional independence, expertise and honest broker status. While the goals of DoD and

NGOs may seem incongruent, the DoD's emphasis on stability and security to reduce and prevent conflictsuggests, on careful analysis, important mutual interests.

History

International non-governmental organizations have a history dating back to at least 1839.[33] It has been

estimated that by 1914, there were 1083 NGOs.[34] International NGOs were important in the anti-slaverymovement and the movement for women's suffrage, and reached a peak at the time of the World


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Disarmament Conference.[35] However, the phrase "non-governmental organization" only came into popularuse with the establishment of the United Nations Organization in 1945 with provisions in Article 71 of

Chapter 10 of the United Nations Charter[36] for a consultative role for organizations which are neithergovernments nor member statessee Consultative Status. The definition of "international NGO" (INGO) isfirst given in resolution 288 (X) of ECOSOC on February 27, 1950: it is defined as "any internationalorganization that is not founded by an international treaty". The vital role of NGOs and other "major groups"

in sustainable development was recognized in Chapter 27[37] of Agenda 21, leading to intense arrangements

for a consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations.[38] It hasbeen observed that the number of INGO founded or dissolved matches the general "state of the world",

rising in periods of growth and declining in periods of crisis.[39]

Rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in western countries as a result of the processesof restructuring of the welfare state. Further globalization of that process occurred after the fall of the

communist system and was an important part of the Washington consensus.[14]

Globalization during the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many problems could not besolved within a nation. International treaties and international organizations such as the World Trade

Organization were centred mainly on the interests of capitalist enterprises. In an attempt to counterbalancethis trend, NGOs have developed to emphasize humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainabledevelopment. A prominent example of this is the World Social Forum, which is a rival convention to theWorld Economic Forum held annually in January in Davos, Switzerland. The fifth World Social Forum in

Porto Alegre, Brazil, in January 2005 was attended by representatives from more than 1,000 NGOs.[40] Interms of environmental issues and sustainable development, the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 was the first toshow the power of international NGOs, when about 2,400 representatives of NGOs came to play a centralrole in deliberations. Some have argued that in forums like these, NGOs take the place of what should

belong to popular movements of the poor. Whatever the case, NGO transnational networking is now

extensive.[41]

Legal status

The legal form of NGOs is diverse and depends upon homegrown variations in each country's laws and

practices. However, four main family groups of NGOs can be found worldwide:[42]

Unincorporated and voluntary associationTrusts, charities and foundationsCompanies not just for profitEntities formed or registered under special NGO or nonprofit laws

The Council of Europe in Strasbourg drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the LegalPersonality of International Non-Governmental Organizations in 1986, which sets a common legal basis forthe existence and work of NGOs in Europe. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights

protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs.

Critiques

Issa G. Shivji is one of Africa's leading experts on law and development issues as an author and academic.His critique on NGOs is found in two essays: "Silences in NGO discourse: The role and future of NGOs inAfrica" and "Reflections on NGOs in Tanzania: What we are, what we are not and what we ought to be".Shivji argues that despite the good intentions of NGO leaders and activists, he is critical of the "objective

effects of actions, regardless of their intentions".[43] Shivji argues also that the sudden rise of NGOs are partof a neoliberal paradigm rather than pure altruistic motivations. He is critical of the current manifestations of


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NGOs wanting to change the world without understanding it, and that the imperial relationship continuestoday with the rise of NGOs.

James Pfeiffer, in his case study of NGO involvement in Mozambique, speaks to the negative effects thatNGO's have had on areas of health within the country. He argues that over the last decade, NGO's inMozambique have "fragmented the local health system, undermined local control of health programs, and

contributed to growing local social inequality" [44] He notes further that NGO's can be uncoordinated,

creating parallel projects among different organizations, that pull health service workers away from theirroutine duties in order to serve the interests of the NGO's. This ultimately undermines local primary health

care efforts, and takes away the governments ability to maintain agency over their own health sector.[45] J.Pfeiffer suggested a new model of collaboration between the NGO and the DPS (the MozambiqueProvincial Health Directorate). He mentioned the NGO should be 'formally held to standard and adherencewithin the host country', for example reduce 'showcase' projects and parallel programs that proves to be

unsustainable.[46]

Jessica Mathews once wrote in Foreign Affairs in 1997: "For all their strengths, NGOs are special interests.The best of them ... often suffer from tunnel vision, judging every public act by how it affects their particular

interest".

[47]

Since NGOs do have to worry about policy trade-offs, the overall impact of their cause mightbring more harm to society.[48]

Vijay Prashad argues that from the 1970s "The World Bank, under Robert McNamara, championed the NGO

as an alternative to the state, leaving intact global and regional relations of power and production."[49]

Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist[50] in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racializedmanner in third world countries, and that they fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the high

colonial era. The philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics.[51] Popularmovements in the global South such as, for instance, the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign in South

Africa have sometimes refused to work with NGOs arguing that this will compromise their autonomy.[52][53]

Another criticism of NGOs is that they are being designed and used as extensions of the normal foreign-

policy instruments of certain Western countries and groups of countries.[54] Russian President VladimirPutin made this accusation at the 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy in 2007, concluding that these

NGOs "are formally independent but they are purposefully financed and therefore under control."[55] Also,Michael Bond wrote "Most large NGOs, such as Oxfam, the Red Cross, Cafod and Action Aid, are strivingto make their aid provision more sustainable. But some, mostly in the US, are still exporting the ideologies

of their backers." [56] Indeed, whether the NGOs are adiding for evangelical purposes or their ideologicalintentions, various NGOs are examined and accused of their nature.

There has also been the overwhelming disaster of NGOs using white lies or misinformed advise to enacttheir campaigns. In other words, NGOs have been quite ignorant about critical issues because, as chiefscientist at Greenpeace Doug Parr claims, these organizations have lost their efforts in being trully scientificand are now more self-interested. Rather than operating through science so as to be rationally and effectively

practical, NGOs are now abusing the utilization of science in order to gain their own advantages. In thebeginning, as Parr indicated, there was "'a tendency among our critics to say that science is the onlydecision-making tool . . . but political and commercial interests are using science as a cover for getting their

way.'"[57] At the same time, NGOs have shown themselves not to be very cooperative with other groups, asthe previous policy-maker for the German branch of Friends of the Earth Jens Katjek acknowledged. "If

NGOs want the best for the environment, he says, they have to learn to compromise."

[58]

Challenges to legitimacy

The issue of the legitimacy of NGOs raises a series of important questions. This is one of the most important


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assets possessed by an NGO, it is gained through a perception that they are an independent voice.[59][60]

Their representation also emerges as an important question. Who bestows responsibilities to NGOs orINGOs and how do they gain the representation of citizens and civil society is still not scrutinizedthoroughly. For instance, in the article, it is stated, "To put the point starkly: are the citizens of countries ofthe South and their needs represented in global civil society, or are citizens as well as their needs constructed

by practices of representation? And when we realize that INGOs hardly ever come face to face with thepeople whose interests and problems they represent, or that they are not accountable to the people they

represent, matters become even more troublesome." [61]

Moreover, the legitimacy and the accountability of NGOs on the point of their true nature are also emergingas important issues. Various perceptions and images on NGOs are provided, and usually implemented in animage as 'non-state actors' or 'influential representatives of civil society that advocate the citizen.'Accountability may be able to provide this and also be able to assist activities by providing focus and

direction[62] As non-state actors with considerable influence over the governance in many areas, concernshave been expressed over the extent to which they represent the views of the public and the extent to which

they allow the public to hold them to account.[63]

The origin of funding can have serious implications for the legitimacy of NGOs. In recent decades NGOshave increased their numbers and range of activities to a level where they have become increasingly

dependent on a limited number of donors.[63] Consequently competition has increased for funding, as have

the expectations of the donors themselves.[64] This runs the risk of donors adding conditions which canthreaten the independence of NGOs, an over-dependence on official aid has the potential to dilute the

willingness of NGOs to speak out on issues which are unpopular with governments.[60] In these situationsNGOs are being held accountable by their donors, which can erode rather than enhance their legitimacy, adifficult challenge to overcome. Some commentators have also argued that the changes in where NGOs

receive their funding has ultimately altered their functions.[60]

NGOs have also been challenged on the grounds that they do not necessarily represent the needs of thedeveloping world, through diminishing the so-called Southern Voice. Some postulate that the North-South

division exists in the arena of NGOs.[65] They question the equality of the relationships between Northernand Southern parts of the same NGOs as well as the relationships between Southern and Northern NGOsworking in partnerships. This suggests a division of labour may develop, with the North taking the lead in

advocacy and resource mobilisation whilst the South engages in service delivery in the developing world.[65]

The potential implications of this may mean that the needs of the developing world are not addressedappropriately as Northern NGOs do not properly consult or participate in partnerships. The real danger in

this situation is that western views may take the front seat and assign unrepresentative priorities.[66]

The flood of NGOs has also been accused of damaging the public sector in multiple developing countries.The mismanagement of NGOs has resulted in the breakdown of public health care systems. Instead ofpromoting equity and alleviating poverty, NGOs have been under scrutiny for contributing to socioeconomic

inequality and disempowering the services in the public sector of third world countries.[67]

The scale and variety of activities in which NGOs participate has grown rapidly since the 1980s, witnessing

particular expansion in the 1990s.[68] This has presented NGOs with need to balance the pressures ofcentralisation and decentralisation. By centralising NGOs, particularly those that operate at an internationallevel, they can assign a common theme or set of goals. Conversely it is also advantageous to decentralise as

this increases the chances of an NGO behaving flexibly and effectively to localised issues.[69]

See also


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Advocacy group (interest group)Charitable organizationCivil societyCommunity foundation

NGO-isation

Non-governmental organizations by countryNon-profit organizationNot just for profitOccupational health and safetyTrack II diplomacy

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International NGOs andprimary health care inMozambique: the need for anew model of collaboration.Social Science & Medicine56(4):725-738.^ Avina, J. (1993) The68.

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Further reading

Susan Cotts Watkins, Ann Swidler, and Thomas Hannan. 2012. "Outsourcing Social Transformation:Development NGOs as Organizations." [1] (http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145516) Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 38, pp. 285315, PDF [2](http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145516 )Velusamy M. Non Governmental Organisation, Dominant Publishers & Distribution Ltd, New DelhiMark Butler, with Thulani Ndlazi, David Ntseng, Graham Philpott, and Nomusa Sokhela.NGOPractice and the Possibility of Freedom Church Land Programme, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

2007 Churchland.co.za (http://www.churchland.co.za/upload/files/OccasionalPaperNo3.pdf)Olivier Berthoud,NGOs: Somewhere between Compassion, Profitability and Solidarity Envio.org.ni(http://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/1526), PDF Edinter.net (http://www.edinter.net/docs/ONGBOLEN0102.pdf) Envio, Managua, 2001Terje Tvedt, 19982/2003: Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats. NGOs & Foreign Aid,Oxford: James CurreySteve W. Witt, ed. Changing Roles of NGOs in the Creation, Storage, and Dissemination ofInformation in Developing Countries (Saur, 2006). ISBN 3-598-22030-8Cox, P. N. Shams, G. C. Jahn, P. Erickson and P. Hicks. 2002. Building collaboration between NGOsand agricultural research institutes. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture 6: 1-8. IRRI.org

(http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/docs/cmJournalAg.pdf#page=5)Ann Florini, ed. The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Carnegie Endowment forInternational Peace and Japan Center for International Exchange, 2001).Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks inInternational Politics. Cornell University PressRodney Bruce Hall, and Biersteker, Thomas. The Emergence of Private Authority in GlobalGovernance (Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 2003)Dorthea Hilhorst, The Real World of NGOs: Discourses, Diversity and Development, Zed Books,2003Joan Roelofs, Foundations and Public Policy: The Mask of Pluralism (Albany: State University of

New York Press, 2003).Ian Smillie, & Minear, Larry, editors. The Charity of Nations: Humanitarian Action in a CalculatingWorld, Kumarian Press, 2004Simon Maxwell and Diane Stone. (eds) Global Knowledge Networks and International Development:

Bridges Across Boundaries (Routledge, 2005: I-xix; 1-192).Sidney Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism, New York :Cambridge University Press, 2005Thomas Ward, editor. Development, Social Justice, and Civil Society: An Introduction to the PoliticalEconomy of NGOs, Paragon House, 2005H. Teegen, 2003. International NGOs as Global Institutions: Using Social Capital to ImpactMultinational Enterprises and Governments, Journal of International Management.

Jennifer Brinkerhoff, Stephen C. Smith, and Hildy Teegen, NGOs and the Millennium DevelopmentGoals: Citizen Action to Reduce Poverty, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.S.Goonatilake. Recolonisation: Foreign Funded NGO's in Sri Lanka, Sage Publications 2006.Teegen, H. Doh, J., Vachani, S., 2004. The importance of nongovernmental organisation in global


f 17 2013-05-02 11:25 AM G
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145516http://www.churchland.co.za/upload/files/OccasionalPaperNo3.pdfhttp://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/1526http://www.edinter.net/http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/docs/cmJournalAg.pdf%23pagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organizationhttp://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/docs/cmJournalAg.pdf%23pagehttp://www.edinter.net/http://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/1526http://www.churchland.co.za/upload/files/OccasionalPaperNo3.pdfhttp://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145516http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-


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governance and value creation: an international business research agenda in Journal of InternationalBusiness Studies. Washington: Vol. 35, Iss.6.K. Rodman, (1998)."Think Globally, Punish Locally: Nonstate Actors, Multinational Corporations,and Human Rights Sanctions" in Ethics in International Affairs, vol. 12.Grant B. Stillman (2006),NGO Law and Governance: a resource book, ADB Institute, Tokyo, ISBN4-89974-013-1.

Some people may find scholarly texts offering regional histories and analyses of the experience of NGOs tobe more useful than the more general works listed above. Below is a non-exhaustive list of such regional

histories.

T. R. Davies, The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: The Campaign for Disarmament betweenthe Two World Wars, Brill, 2007. ISBN 3-598-22030-8H. Englund, Prisoners of Freedom: Human Rights & the Africa Poor, University of California Press,2006Carrie Meyer, The Economics and Politics of NGOs in Latin America, Praeger Publishers, July 30,1999

Chhandasi Pandya. 2006.Private Authority and Disaster Relief: The Cases of Post-Tsunami Aceh and

Nias (http://unhabitat-indonesia.org/files/rep-347.pdf). Critical Asian Studies. Vol. 38, No. 2. Pg.298-308. Routledge Press: Taylor & Francis GroupMaha Abdelrahman, Civil Society Exposed: The Politics of NGOs in Egypt, The American Universityin Cairo Press, 2004. Al-Ahram Weekly (http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/) has done a review of the book(http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/756/bo10.htm).Sangeeta Kamat,Development hegemony: NGOs and The State in India, Delhi, New York; OxfordUniversity Press, 2002Adama Sow, Chancen und Risiken von NGOs Die Gewerkschaften in Guinea whrend der Unruhen2007 (http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/rp_0307.pdf) EPU Research Papers: Issue 03/07,

Stadtschlaining 2007 (German)Lyal S. Sunga, "Dilemmas facing INGOs in coalition-occupied Iraq", in Ethics in Action: The EthicalChallenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations, edited by Daniel A. Belland Jean-Marc Coicaud, Cambridge Univ. and United Nations Univ. Press, 2007.Lyal S. Sunga, "NGO Involvement in International Human Rights Monitoring, International HumanRights Law and Non-Governmental Organizations" (2005) 41-69.Werker & Ahmed (2008): What do Non-Governmental Organizations do?Steve Charnovitz, "Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance," MichiganJournal of International Law, Vol. 18, Winter 1997, at 183-286.Abahlali baseMjondoloRethinking Public Participation from Below (http://antieviction.org.za/related-

writing-and-resources/rethinking-public-participation-from-below/), 'Critical Dialogue', 2006Akpan S. M (2010): Establishment of Non-Governmental Organizations (In Press).Edward A. L. Turner (2010) Why Has the Number of International Non-Governmental Organizations

Exploded since 1960?, Cliodynamics, 1, (1). Retrieved from: [3] (http://escholarship.org/uc/item/97p470sx)Eugene Fram & Vicki Brown, How Using the Corporate Model Makes a Nonprofit Board MoreEffective & Efficient - Third Edition (2011), Amazon Books, Create Space Books.

The de facto reference resource for information and statistics on International NGOs (INGOs) and othertransnational organisational forms is the Yearbook of International Organizations, produced by the Union ofInternational Associations.

David Lewis and Nazneen Kanji (2009): Non-Governmental Organizations and Development. NewYork: Routledge.Issa G. Shivji (2007): Silence in NGO Discourse: The Role and Future of NGOs in Africa. Nairobi:


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http://unhabitat-indonesia.org/files/rep-347.pdfhttp://weekly.ahram.org.eg/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/756/bo10.htm).http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/rp_0307.pdfhttp://antieviction.org.za/related-http://escholarship.org/uc/itemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organizationhttp://escholarship.org/uc/itemhttp://antieviction.org.za/related-http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/rp_0307.pdfhttp://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/756/bo10.htm).http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/http://unhabitat-indonesia.org/files/rep-347.pdf


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Fahamu.Jens Steffek and Kristina Hahn (2010): Evaluating Transnational NGOs: Legitimacy, Accountability,Representation. New York: Palgrave, Macmillan.

External links

List of NGOs on FACEBOOK (http://www.facebook.com/lists/578506295507561)NGOs India (http://ngosindia.com)NGO Search (http://library.stanford.edu/depts/jonsson/collections/intl/igosearch.html): NGO/IGOgoogle custom search engine built by the Govt Documents Round Table (GODORT)(http://wikis.ala.org/godort) of the American Library Association.Interface journal special issue on NGOs (http://interfacejournal.nuim.ie/?p=1127)A brief history of Non-Governmental Organizations (http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/tom.davies/CUWPTP003.pdf)Historical Database of International NGOs (http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/tom.davies/ )Duke University NGO Library (http://library.duke.edu/research/subject/guides/ngo_guide/)Global Policy Forum: The site includes articles on a wide range of aspects of NGOs.(http://www.globalpolicy.org/ngos/index.htm )

NGOs - Non-Governmental Organizations (http://ngos.org/)What is a Non-Governmental Organization? City University, London (http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/p.willetts/CS-NTWKS/NGO-ART.HTM)International association of professional certification, (iaopc) (http://iaopc.org.ru/)Development issues worldwide (http://ngoanddev.com/)

Non Governmental Watchdog : Oversight of Organizations Soliciting Donations(http://www.ngowatchdog.org/)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Non-governmental_organization&oldid=553030026"Categories: Charitable organizations Civil Affairs Non-governmental organizations Philanthropy

Political science terms Types of organization

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http://www.facebook.com/lists/578506295507561http://ngosindia.com/http://library.stanford.edu/depts/jonsson/collections/intl/igosearch.html):http://wikis.ala.org/godorthttp://interfacejournal.nuim.ie/?p=1127http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/tom.davieshttp://www.staff.city.ac.uk/tom.davies/http://library.duke.edu/research/subject/guides/ngo_guide/http://www.globalpolicy.org/ngos/index.htmhttp://ngos.org/http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/http://iaopc.org.ru/http://ngoanddev.com/http://www.ngowatchdog.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Non-governmental_organization&http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Non-governmental_organization&http://www.ngowatchdog.org/http://ngoanddev.com/http://iaopc.org.ru/http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/http://ngos.org/http://www.globalpolicy.org/ngos/index.htmhttp://library.duke.edu/research/subject/guides/ngo_guide/http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/tom.davies/http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/tom.davieshttp://interfacejournal.nuim.ie/?p=1127http://wikis.ala.org/godorthttp://library.stanford.edu/depts/jonsson/collections/intl/igosearch.html):http://ngosindia.com/http://www.facebook.com/lists/578506295507561

Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia [NGO]

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