Palm oil 1

Palm oil

Palm oil from Ghana with its natural dark colorvisible, 2 litres

Palm oil block showing the lighter color thatresults from boiling.

Palm oil, coconut oil and palm kernel oil are edible plant oils derivedfrom the fruits of palm trees. Palm oil is extracted from the pulp[1] ofthe fruit of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis; palm kernel oil is derivedfrom the kernel (seed) of the oil palm[2] and coconut oil is derived fromthe kernel of the coconut (Cocos nucifera). Palm oil is naturallyreddish in color because it contains a high amount of beta-carotene.Palm oil, palm kernel oil and coconut oil are three of the few highlysaturated vegetable fats. Palm oil is semi-solid at room temperatures.Palm oil contains several saturated and unsaturated fats in the forms ofglyceryl laurate (0.1%, saturated), myristate (1%, saturated), palmitate(44%, saturated), stearate (5%, saturated), oleate (39%,monounsaturated), linoleate (10%, polyunsaturated), andalpha-linolenate (0.3%, polyunsaturated).[3] Palm kernel oil andcoconut oil are more highly saturated than palm oil. Like all vegetableoils, palm oil does not contain cholesterol (found in unrefined animalfats),[4][5] although saturated fat intake increases both LDL[6] andHDL[7] cholesterol.

Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa,Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its increasing use in the commercialfood industry in other parts of the world is buoyed by its lower cost[8]

and the high oxidative stability (saturation) of the refined product whenused for frying.[9][10]

The use of palm oil in food products is often the focus ofenvironmental activist groups, due to it being documented as a cause ofsubstantial and often irreversible damage to the natural environment.

Palm oil 2

History

Oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis)

Palm oil (from the African oil palm, Elaeis guineensis) has longbeen recognized in West African countries, and is widely used as acooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africaoccasionally purchased palm oil for use in Europe, but since theoil was of a lower quality than olive oil, palm oil remained rareoutside West Africa. In the Asante Confederacy, state-ownedslaves built large plantations of oil palm trees, while in theneighbouring Kingdom of Dahomey, King Ghezo passed a law in1856 forbidding his subjects from cutting down oil palms.

Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by Britishtraders, for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution. Palm oil formed thebasis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now Unilever) "Sunlight" soap, and the American Palmolivebrand.[11] By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, such as Ghanaand Nigeria, although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s.

ResearchIn the 1960s, research and development (R&D) in oil palm breeding began to expand after Malaysia's Department ofAgriculture established an exchange program with West African economies and four private plantations formed theOil Palm Genetics Laboratory.[12] The government also established Kolej Serdang, which became the UniversitiPertanian Malaysia (UPM) in the 1970s to train agricultural and agro-industrial engineers and agro-businessgraduates to conduct research in the field.In 1979, following strong lobbying from oil palm planters and support from the Malaysian Agricultural Research andDevelopment Institute (MARDI) and UPM, the government set up the Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia(Porim).[13] B.C. Sekhar was instrumental in helping Porim recruit and train scientists to undertake R&D in oil palmtree breeding, palm oil nutrition and potential oleochemical use. Sekhar, as founder and chairman, pushed Porim tobe a public-and-private-coordinated institution. As a result, Porim (renamed Malaysian Palm Oil Board in 2000)became Malaysia's top research entity commercializing 20% of its innovations, compared to 5% among localuniversities.

NutritionFurther information: palmitic acidMany processed foods contain palm oil as an ingredient.[14]

Palm oil is composed of fatty acids, esterified with glycerol just like any ordinary fat. It is high in saturated fattyacids. Palm oil gives its name to the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid. Monounsaturated oleic acid is alsoa constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a large natural source of tocotrienol, part of the vitamin E family.[15]

The approximate concentration of fatty acids in palm oil is:[16]

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Fatty acid content of palm oil

Type of fatty acid pct

Myristic saturated C14 1.0%

Palmitic saturated C16 43.5%

Stearic saturated C18 4.3%

Oleic monounsaturated C18 36.6%

Linoleic polyunsaturated C18 9.1%

Other/Unknown 5.5%

red: Saturated; orange: Monounsaturated; blue: Polyunsaturated

Red palm oilRed palm oil gets its name from its characteristic dark red color, which comes from carotenes, such asalpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, the same nutrients that give tomatoes, carrots and other fruits andvegetables their rich colors.Red palm oil contains at least 10 other carotenes, along with tocopherols and tocotrienols (members of the vitamin Efamily), CoQ10, phytosterols, and glycolipids.[17] In a 2007 animal study, South African scientists foundconsumption of red palm oil significantly decreased p38-MAPK phosphorylation in rat hearts subjected to ahigh-cholesterol diet.[18]

Since the mid-1990s, red palm oil has been cold-pressed and bottled for use as cooking oil, and blended intomayonnaise and salad oil.[19] Red palm oil antioxidants like tocotrienols and carotenes are added to foods andcosmetics due to their purported health benefits.[20][21][22]

In a 2004 joint study between the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research and the Malaysian Palm Oil Board, thescientists found cookies, being higher in fat content than bread, are a better vehicle for red palm oilphytonutrients.[23]

In a 2009 study, scientists in Spain tested the acrolein emission rates from the deep-frying of potatoes in red palm,olive and polyunsaturated oils. They found higher acrolein emission rates from the polyunsaturated oils. Thescientists characterized red palm oil as "mono-unsaturated".[24]

Frying French fries in red palm oil gives them an attractive color.[25]

Refined, bleached, deodorized palm oilPalm oil products are made using milling and refining processes: first using fractionation, with crystallization andseparation processes to obtain solid (stearin), and liquid (olein) fractions. Then melting and degumming removesimpurities. Then the oil is filtered and bleached. Next, physical refining removes smells and coloration, to produce"refined bleached deodorized palm oil", or RBDPO, and free sheer fatty acids, which are used as an important rawmaterial in the manufacture of soaps, washing powder and other hygiene and personal care products. RBDPO is thebasic oil product sold on the world's commodity markets, although many companies fractionate it further into palmolein, for cooking oil or other products.[26]

Splitting of oils and fats by hydrolysis, or under basic conditions saponification, yields fatty acids, with glycerin(glycerol) as a byproduct. The split-off fatty acids are a mixture ranging in carbon chain length from C4 to C18,depending on the type of oil or fat.[27][28]

Palm oil 4

UsesDerivatives of palmitic acid were used in combination with naphtha during World War II to produce napalm(aluminum naphthenate and aluminum palmitate).[29]

Many processed foods contain palm oil as an ingredient.[14]

BiodieselPalm oil, like other vegetable oils, can be used to create biodiesel, as either a simply processed palm oil mixed withpetrodiesel, or processed through transesterification to create a palm oil methyl ester blend, which meets theinternational EN 14214 specification. Glycerin is a byproduct of transesterification. The actual process used toproduce biodiesel around the world varies between countries and the requirements of different markets.Next-generation biofuel production processes are also being tested in relatively small trial quantities.The IEA predicts biofuels usage in Asian countries will remain modest. But as a major producer of palm oil, theMalaysian government is encouraging the production of biofuel feedstock and the building of palm oil biodieselplants. Domestically, Malaysia is preparing to change from diesel to biofuels by 2008, including drafting legislationthat will make the switch mandatory. From 2007, all diesel sold in Malaysia must contain 5% palm oil. Malaysia isemerging as one of the leading biofuel producers, with 91 palm oil plants approved and a handful now inoperation.[30]

On 16 December 2007, Malaysia opened its first biodiesel plant in the state of Pahang, with an annual capacity of100,000 tonnes, and which also produces byproducts in the form of 4,000 tonnes of palm fatty acid distillate and12,000 tonnes of pharmaceutical-grade glycerine.[31] Neste Oil of Finland plans to produce 800,000 tonnes ofbiodiesel per year from Malaysian palm oil in a new Singapore refinery from 2010, which will make it the largestbiofuel plant in the world,[32] and 170,000 tpa from its first second-generation plant in Finland from 2007-8, whichcan refine fuel from a variety of sources. Neste and the Finnish government are using this paraffinic fuel in somepublic buses in the Helsinki area as a small scale pilot.[33][34]

First generation biodiesel production from palm oil is in demand globally. Palm oil is also a primary substitute forrapeseed oil in Europe, which too is experiencing new demand for biodiesel purposes. Palm oil producers areinvesting heavily in the refineries needed for biodiesel. In Malaysia, companies have been merging, buying othersout and forming alliances to obtain the economies of scale needed to handle the high costs caused by increasedfeedstock prices. New refineries are being built across Asia and Europe.[35]

As the food vs. fuel debate mounts, research is turning to biodiesel production from waste. In Malaysia, an estimated50,000 tonnes of used frying oils, both vegetable oils and animal fats, are disposed of yearly, without treatment, aswastes. In a 2006 study, researchers found used frying oil (mainly palm olein), after pretreatment with silica gel, is asuitable feedstock for conversion to methyl esters by catalytic reaction using sodium hydroxide. The methyl estersproduced have fuel properties comparable to those of petroleum diesel, and can be used in unmodified dieselengines.[36]

A 2009 study by scientists at Malaysian Science University concluded palm oil, compared to other vegetable oils, isa healthy source of edible oil and at the same time, available in quantities that can satisfy global demand forbiodiesel. Oil palm planting and palm oil consumption circumvents the food vs. fuel debate because it has thecapacity to fulfill both demands simultaneously.[37] By 2050, a British scientist estimates global demand for edibleoils will probably be around 240 million tonnes, nearly twice 2008 consumption. Most of the additional oil may bepalm oil, which has the lowest production cost of the major oils, but soybean oil production will probably alsoincrease. An additional 12000000 hectares (unknown operator: u'strong' sq mi) of oil palms may be required, ifaverage yields continue to rise as in the past. This need not be at the expense of forest; oil palm planted onanthropogenic grassland could supply all the oil required for edible purposes in 2050.[38]

Palm oil 5

MarketAccording to Hamburg-based Oil World trade journal, in 2008, global production of oils and fats stood at 160million tonnes. Palm oil and palm kernel oil were jointly the largest contributor, accounting for 48 million tonnes or30% of the total output. Soybean oil came in second with 37 million tonnes (23%). About 38% of the oils and fatsproduced in the world were shipped across oceans. Of the 60.3 million tonnes of oils and fats exported around theworld, palm oil and palm kernel oil make up close to 60%; Malaysia, with 45% of the market share, dominates thepalm oil trade.[39]

Regional production

Palm oil output in 2006

Indonesia

As of 2009, Indonesia was the largest producer of palm oil, surpassingMalaysia in 2006, producing more than 20.9 million tonnes. Indonesiaaspires to become the world's top producer of palm oil.[40] But at theend of 2010, 60 percent of the output was exported still in the form ofCrude Palm Oil.[41] FAO data show production increased by over400% between 1994–2004, to over 8.66 million metric tonnes.

In addition to servicing traditional markets, Indonesia is looking to put more effort into producing biodiesel. Majorlocal and global companies are building mills and refineries, including PT. Astra Agro Lestari terbuka (150,000 tpabiodiesel refinery), PT. Bakrie Group (a biodiesel factory and new plantations), Surya Dumai Group (biodieselrefinery). Cargill (sometimes operating through CTP Holdings of Singapore, is building new refineries and mills inMalaysia and Indonesia, expanding its Rotterdam refinery to handle 300,000 tpa of palm oil, acquiring plantations inSumatra, Kalimantan, the Indonesian peninsula and Papua New Guinea). Robert Kuok's Wilmar InternationalLimited has plantations and 25 refineries across Indonesia, to supply feedstock to new biodiesel refineries inSingapore, Riau, Indonesia and Rotterdam.[35]

MalaysiaIn 2008, Malaysia produced 17.7 million tonnes of palm oil on unknown operator: u',' hectares (unknownoperator: u'strong'unknown operator: u','sq mi) of land,[39] and was the second largest producer of palm oil,employing more than 570,000 people.[42] Malaysia is the world's second largest exporter of palm oil. About 60% ofpalm oil exports from Malaysia are shipped to China, the European Union, Pakistan, United States and India. Theyare mostly made into cooking oil, margarine, specialty fats and oleochemicals.In December 2006, the Malaysian government initiated merger of Sime Darby Berhad, Golden Hope PlantationsBerhad and Kumpulan Guthrie Berhad to create the world’s largest listed oil palm plantation player.[43] In alandmark deal valued at RM31 billion, the merger involved the businesses of eight listed companies controlled byPermodalan Nasional Berhad (PNB) and the Employees Provident Fund (EPF). A special purpose vehicle, SynergyDrive Sdn Bhd, offered to acquire all the businesses including assets and liabilities of the eight listed companies.With 543,000 hectares of plantation in a landbank, the merger resulted in an oil palm plantation entity that couldproduce 2.5 million tonnes of palm oil or 5% of global production in 2006. A year later, the merger completed andthe entity was renamed Sime Darby Berhad.[44]

Palm oil 6

NigeriaAs of 2011, Nigeria was the third-largest producer, with more than 2.5 million hectares (unknown operator:u'strong'×106 acres) under cultivation. Until 1934, Nigeria had been the world's largest producer. Both small- andlarge-scale producers participated in the industry.[45][46]

ColombiaIn the 1960s, about unknown operator: u',' hectares (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u','sq mi)were planted with palm. Colombia has now become the largest palm oil producer in the Americas, and 35% of itsproduct is exported as biofuel. In 2006, the Colombian plantation owners' association, Fedepalma, reported that oilpalm cultivation was expanding to unknown operator: u',' hectares (unknown operator: u'strong'unknownoperator: u','sq mi). This expansion is being funded, in part, by the United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment to resettle disarmed paramilitary members on arable land, and by the Colombian government, whichproposes to expand land use for exportable cash crops to unknown operator: u',' hectares (unknown operator:u'strong'unknown operator: u','sq mi) by 2020, including oil palms. Fedepalma states that its members arefollowing sustainable guidelines.[47]

Some Afro-Colombians claim that some of these new plantations have been expropriated from them after they hadbeen driven away through poverty and civil war, while armed guards intimidate the remaining people to furtherdepopulate the land, while coca production and trafficking follows in their wake.[48]

Other producers

Benin

Palm is native to the wetlands of western Africa, and south Benin already hosts many palm plantations. Its'Agricultural Revival Programme' has identified many thousands of hectares of land as suitable for new oil palmexport plantations. In spite of the economic benefits, Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as NatureTropicale, claim biofuels will compete with domestic food production in some existing prime agricultural sites.Other areas comprise peat land, whose drainage would have a deleterious environmental impact. They are alsoconcerned genetically modified plants will be introduced for the first time into the region, jeopardizing the currentpremium paid for their non-GM crops.[49]

Kenya

Kenya's domestic production of edible oils covers about a third of its annual demand, estimated at around 380,000metric tonnes. The rest is imported at a cost of around US$140 million a year, making edible oil the country's secondmost important import after petroleum. Since 1993 a new hybrid variety of cold-tolerant, high-yielding oil palm hasbeen promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in western Kenya. As well asalleviating the country's deficit of edible oils while providing an important cash crop, it is claimed to haveenvironmental benefits in the region, because it does not compete against food crops or native vegetation and itprovides stabilisation for the soil.[50]

Palm oil 7

Ghana

Ghana has a lot of palm nuts vegetation, which can become an important contributor to the agriculture of the BlackStar region. Although Ghana has multiple palm species, ranging from local palm nuts to other species locally calledagric, it is only marketed locally and to neighboring countries.

Impacts

SocialPalm oil producers have been accused of various human-rights violations, from low pay and poor workingconditions[51] to theft of land[52] and murder.[53] However, some social initiatives use palm oil profits to financepoverty alleviation strategies. Examples include the financing of Magbenteh hospital in Makeni, Sierra Leonethrough profits made from palm oil grown by small local farmers,[54] the Presbyterian Disaster Assistance's FoodSecurity Program, which draws on a women-run cooperative to grow palm oil, the profits of which are reinvested infood security,[55] or the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation's hybrid oil palm project in Western Kenya, whichimproves incomes and diets of local populations.[56]

EnvironmentalPalm oil production has been documented as a cause of substantial and often irreversible damage to the naturalenvironment.[57] Its impacts include: deforestation, habitat loss of critically endangered species such as theOrangutan[58][59][60] and Sumatran Tiger,[61][62] and a significant increase in greenhouse gas emissions.[63]

The pollution is exacerbated because many rainforests in Indonesia and Malaysia[64] lie atop peat bogs that storegreat quantities of carbon that are released when the forests are cut down and the bogs drained to make way forplantations.Environmental groups such as Greenpeace claim that the deforestation caused by making way for oil palmplantations is far more damaging for the climate than the benefits gained by switching to biofuel.[65][66]

The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)is an organisation that was formed in 2004 with the objectivepromoting the growth and use of sustainable oil palm products through credible global standards and engagement ofstakeholders. It has over 450 member organisations that are from the different stakeholders in the palm oil supplychain from the Palm Oil Growers to the Palm Oil Processors and Traders, Banks and Investors, Consumer GoodsManufactures, Retailers, Environmental Organisations (NGOs) and Social Organisations (NGOs). RSPO practices aconsensus based decision making philosophy.[67] The seat of the association is in Zurich, Switzerland, while thesecretariat is currently based in Kuala Lumpur with a satellite office in Jakarta.[68] This video done by WWF aenvironmental NGO gives a balance view of the industry and RSPO.[69] Many of the major companies in thevegetable oil economy participate in the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, which is trying to address thisproblem, though their efforts so far have done almost nothing to change or slow the escalating situation and havebeen likened to green-washing.[70] Even so, in 2008 Unilever, a member of the RSPO group, committed to use onlypalm oil which is certified as sustainable, by ensuring that the large companies and smallholders that supply itconvert to sustainable production by 2015.[71] On 1 June 2011, RSPO launched its trademark for use by its members.With this trademark producers of products such as chocolate, margarine and cosmetics can show their commitmenttowards sustainable palm oil through the use of the trademark.[72] On 1 July 2011, PT Carrefour Indonesia reiteratedits commitment to exclusively source for sustainable palm oil products by 2015.[73] In August of that same year,RSPO marked one million hectares of certified sustainable land (and brought the volume of sustainable oil to over 5million tonnes) with the certification of the Agropalma company in Brazil. It was also the first RSPO certificationreceived by Brazil.[74]

Meanwhile, much of the recent investment in new palm plantations for biofuel has been part-funded through carbon credit projects through the Clean Development Mechanism; however the reputational risk associated with

Palm oil 8

unsustainable palm plantations in Indonesia has now made many funds wary of investing there.[75]

MedicalAlthough palm oil is applied to wounds for its supposed antimicrobial effects, research does not confirm itseffectiveness.[76]

Health

Blood lipid and cholesterol effects

The Center for Science in the Public Interest states that palm oil, which is high in saturated and low inpolyunsaturated fat, promotes heart disease.[77] The CSPI report cited research that goes back to 1970[78] andmetastudies.[79][80] CSPI also said that The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute,[81] World Health Organization(WHO), and other health authorities have urged reduced consumption of palm oil. WHO states that there isconvincing evidence that palmitic acid consumption contributes to an increased risk of developing cardiovasculardiseases.[82] 2005 research in Costa Rica suggests consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils over palmoil.[83]

In 1993, Malaysia's Institute for Medical Research's head of Cardiovascular Disease Unit Cardiovascular, Diabetesand Nutrition Centre Dr Tony Ng Kock Wai[84] showed that the cholesterol impact of saturated fats is affected by itsamount at the sn-2 position. Despite the high palmitic acid content (41%) of palm oil, only 13-14% is present at thesn-2 position.[85]

In an email response to WHO's 2002 draft report, Dr. David Kritchevsky of the Wistar Institute, Philadelphia deniedthat there were, at that time, any data showing palm oil consumption causing atherosclerosis.[86]

However, a 2006 study supported by the National Institutes of Health and the USDA Agricultural Research Serviceconcluded that palm oil is not a safe substitute for partially hydrogenated fats (trans fats) in the food industry,because palm oil results in adverse changes in the blood concentrations of LDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B justas trans fat does.[87][88]

Comparison with animal saturated fat

Not all saturated fats are equally cholesterolemic.[89] Studies have indicated that consumption of palm olein (whichis more unsaturated) reduces blood cholesterol when compared to sources of saturated fats like coconut oil, dairy andanimal fats.[90]

In 1996, Dr Becker of University of Massachusetts stressed that saturated fats in the sn–1 and -3 position oftriacylglycerols exhibit different metabolic patterns due to their low absorptivity. Dietary fats containing saturatedfats primarily in sn–1 and -3 positions (e.g., cocoa butter, coconut oil, and palm oil) have very different biologicalconsequences than those fats in which the saturated fats are primarily in the sn–2 position (e.g., milk fat and lard).Differences in stereospecific fatty acid location should be an important consideration in the design and interpretationof lipid nutrition studies and in the production of specialty food products.[91]

Palm oil 9

Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil

Roundtable No 2 (RT2) in Zurich in 2005.

The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) was formed in 2004with the objective of promoting the growth and use of sustainable oilpalm products through credible global standards and engagement ofstakeholders. The seat of the association is in Zurich, Switzerland,while the secretariat is currently based in Kuala Lumpur with a satelliteoffice in Jakarta.RSPO is a not-for-profit association that represents stakeholders fromseven sectors of the palm oil industry - oil palm producers, palm oilprocessors or traders, consumer goods manufacturers, retailers, banksand investors, environmental or nature conservation NGOs and socialor developmental NGOs - to develop and implement global standards for sustainable palm oil.Such multi-stakeholder representation is mirrored in the governance structure of RSPO such that seats in theExecutive Board and project level Working Groups are fairly allocated to each sector. In this way, RSPO lives outthe philosophy of the "roundtable" by giving equal rights to each stakeholder group to bring group-specific agendasto the roundtable, facilitating traditionally adversarial stakeholders and business competitors to work togethertowards a common objective and making decisions by consensusThe organization holds an annual meeting called RT or Round Table Meetings to bring together the variousstakeholders to negotiate and deliberate on various issues affecting the industry. Such multi-stakeholderrepresentation is mirrored in the governance structure of RSPO such that seats in the Executive Board and projectlevel Working Groups are fairly allocated to each sector.Some of the key achievements of the organization so far include:• Establishment of the RSPO Principles & Criteria (P&C) for certification of mills and plantations;•• Formation of Working Groups on Green House Gases to address climate change issues;•• Smallholder Task Force to protect the rights of small farmers planting oil palm; and• Biodiversity Technical Committee to work out biodiversity issues pertaining to sustainable production and

biodiversity protection and conservation.[92]

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Article Sources and Contributors 13

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