Why People Take Part in Sport

Lesson Objective: To understand the effects of motivation on performance

MOTIVATION

Motivation is the stimuli, which arouse and direct behaviour and/or Internal and External factors that make us want to perform

Why is Motivation in Sport Important?

Helps us understand why some sports performers make substantial sacrifices to become successful

Helps us understand why certain sports performers are more successful than others

Ensures Maximum effort at the most appropriate time

Why is Motivation in Sport Important? - Continued

Ensures continued enjoyment and participation in exercise

Encourages sedentary people to take up sport and exercise!

It is generally accepted that you need to be motivated to achieve your goals

Why do you play sport?

Write down the reasons to why you have played sport?

Motivators of Participation

• Fun: enjoyment, pleasure, psychological benefits• Affiliation: social experience, friendship, significant others• Competence: personal challenge, skill acquisition/

improvement • Fitness: health, weight loss, strength, improve appearance• Success: competition or personal accomplishment

Motivators can often change over time

Introduction, History and Development

Motivation depends upon:

Intrinsic/extrinsic elements Competence Arousal Level Need to avoid failure Need to achieve

What could these be?

Intrinsic Motivation

An intrinsically motivated person is:

Someone who takes part in sport for enjoyment. They judge success on the amount of effort exerted in the task and by how much they improve

In what sporting situations would you find people participating for intrinsic reasons?

Goal Setting Before you start to set goals,

you should try to consider the background to goal setting itself:

Understanding your commitment to the sport (how much improvement can I hope for?).

Understanding the level that you possess (What can I do today?)

Understanding the level you want to reach within the sport (what is realistic?)

Extrinsic Motivation

An extrinsically motivated person is:

Someone who participates for external rewards including:

Trophies Medals Money Prizes

Effects of Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation on Performance Introducing extrinsic rewards leads to a

reduction in intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation will decrease when an

external reward is perceived to be the primary reason for participation

If a reward increases an individual’s feelings of competence and self-worth, then Intrinsic motivation increases

In Professional sport motivation to win in nearly all cases would be a mixture of both Intrinsic and extrinsic factors

Continuum of Self-determination

Ext LoC Int LoC

Amotivation Extrinsic Mot Intrinsic Mot

(Deci & Ryan, 1985)

Theories and Models

Theories and Models 1

Achievement Goal Orientation (GO) Theory

(Nicholls, 1984)

Currently the most popular approach in motivation literature within sport psychology

Proposes that motivational affect, behaviour and cognition can be understood in terms of two goal perspectives – ego and task

Goal Orientations are thought to be influenced by both situational and dispositional factors

Both goal orientations are independent – e.g. High Task, Low Ego - Low Task, High Ego High Task, High Ego - Low Task, Low Ego

Task Orientation (intrinsic)

Self-referenced reasons for participation skill development, skill mastery, affiliation, fitness

Typical behaviours persistence, optimal effort work hard choose challenging activities seek feedback

Theories and Models 2

Ego Orientation (extrinsic)

Normative referenced reasons for participation Recognition, competition, social status

Typical behaviours perception of high ability careful selection of activities – avoid failure little effort during practice

Theories and Models 2

NB Both orientations find competition meaningful… it is the meaning attached to competition that

distinguishes them

Differences in Achievement GO (Nicholls, 1978; Roberts & Treasure, 1995; White & Duda 1997), 1994)

Children tend to be more task oriented

Children of 10 years can be ego oriented

Adolescents tend to be more ego oriented

Boys and men are more ego oriented than girls and women

In the more competitive levels of sport, participants have a

higher ego orientation

Task orientation does not vary with level of participation

Theories and Models 2

Theories and Models 3

Perceived Competence Theory (Harter, 1978)

• Motivation influenced by perceptions of competence and control

We are motivated to participate to display competence or mastery

• An activity can be too easy/difficult or a challenge.

Easy and difficult tasks provide little information on one’s mastery or skill and add little to perceptions of competence

The optimal challenge is difficult and demanding but attainable

Mastery attempts are used to receive feedback on competence. This information then influences: Perceived competence Perceived control Affective responses Future exertion/effort Probability of continued participation

Theories and Models 3

Mastery Attempts

Drop-outUnsuccessful Performance

NegativeEffect

Successful Performance

Positive Effect

High CompetenceMotivation

Greater effort

Low CompetenceMotivation

Less effort

Theories and Models 3

Perceived success: can be defined either internally or externally results in intrinsic pleasure and raises competence increases achievement striving behaviour

Perceived failure: can be defined either internally or externally results in dissatisfaction and perceived incompetence encourages fewer mastery attempts

Theories and Models 3

Theories and Models 3

Coaches, teachers, parents and peers can influence perceived competence Females rely more on feedback from significant

others Athletes who receive corrective information see it as

reflecting lower ability Athletes who receive praise see it as a reflection of

high ability

Arousal Level

Arousal is the intensity of our motivation – there is an ideal level of motivation for any sport. This ideal level of intensity will differ between sports.

However, if we are too motivated or not motivated enough in a sport we are less likely to be successful.

Drive Theory Hull (1951); Spence (1956)

Drive theory suggests that the higher the arousal level in a performer the greater the level of their performance. For example a top-class tennis player will perform better in front of a large crowd.

Perform

ance

Arousal

Drive Reduction Theory

Drive Reduction Theory

When the learning goal has been achieved, the desire to continue with the same task decreases.

The initial drive to learn is strong, but once the skill has been learned the drive is reduced and the performance of the skill will decline

Therefore the drive to learn should be maintained, by setting goals/targets, providing rewards, making practices fun!!

The Inverted U Theory

Original Theory: Optimum performance occurs at a moderate arousal level.

Modified theory: Position of optimum arousal depends upon:

Type of Activity Skill level of performer Personality of performer

      

 

Perform

ance

Arousal

Loi de Yerkes-Dodson appliquée aux sportsLoi de Yerkes-Dodson appliquée aux sports

Weinberg et Hunt, 1976

Contrôle moteurGrossiermodéréFin

Where does each sport fit in?

3 Inverted U graph       

 

 

 

A B C   

 

Perform

ance

Arousal

Catastrophe Theory

Here performances increases as arousal increases but when arousal gets too high, performance dramatically decreases. This is usually caused by the performer becoming anxious.

Perform

ance

Arousal

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

This is a system within the brain which controls arousal

Extroverts have lower levels of intrinsic arousal than introverts – therefore extroverts seek situations of high arousal and introverts seek low arousal situations

As a general rule which sports would extroverts and introverts tend to play?

Extroverts Vs Introverts

Football Rugby Swimming Tennis Shot Putt Snooker Hockey Badminton

Marathon Runner Netball Chess

Extroverted Sports

Introverted Sports

Competition Time: effect of personality…

Shooting Competition:-

Aim to score as many points as possible with three

shots, you can shoot from a distance and score 3

points, or close and score 1 point.

NAch Vs NAF

Need to Achieve This personality type likes

a challenge and likes feedback. They are not afraid of failure and have a high task persistence.

Need to Avoid Failure This personality type

avoids challenges, often gives up and does not want feedback

A rockclimber with a high NAF would choose the easiest way up a mountain but a rockclimber with a high Nach would choose a harder route to gain maximum satisfaction

Conclusion

What different things motivate a performer? Task and Ego orientations Perceived Compentence Arousal Level Personality (NAch and NAF)

Success and failure

Weiner’s Attribution Theory (1985, 1986) We explain success & failure with reference to

ability, effort, task and luck

BasicAttribution Categories

BasicAttribution Categories

StabilityStability CausalityCausality Controllability

Controllability

Stable

Unstable

Internal

External

In One’s Contro

l

Out of One’s

Control

Conclusion - continued

Arousal level depends on: The level they play at Type of activity Personality of the performer

Motivation is very important in determining

whether a performer is successful or not, why is

this true? … Pleasure for effort !

In search of Pleasure

TRADITIONAL VIEW:- Signals carried by dopamine- travel from one specific site

NEW MODEL:- Signals carried by opioids- sites are distributed

ACTIVATE TO CREATE PLEASURE

Finger movement+

Visual perception

Finger movement+

Visual perceptionProprioception

Whole body movement

+Visual perceptionProprioceptionEquilibrium

Working hypothesis?

Best performance and pleasure needs: Focussed attention on action goals (internal

corrective loops) Exogenous attention to let automatic motor

organisation of sensory loops Intentional mode of action (task orientation of

motivation) because activates more brain areas than stimulus based mode.

Further Reading

Duda, J.L. & Hall, H. (2001) Achievement goal theory in sport: Recent extensions and future directions’, in R.N. Singer, H.A. Hausenblas and C. Janelle (eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (pp. 417-443). New York: Wiley.

Harwood, C. and Biddle, S. (2002) ‘The Application of Achievement Goal Theory in Youth Sport’, in I. Cockerill (ed.) Solutions in sport psychology (pp. 58-73). London: Thomson.

Marcus, B. and Forsyth, L.H. (2003) Motivating People to be Physically Active. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Roberts, G. C. (2001) (ed) Advances in Motivation in Sport and Exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Vallerand, R.J. and Fortier, M.S. (1998) ‘Measures of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport and Physical Activity: A Review and Critique’, J.L. Duda (ed.), Advances in Sport and Exercise Psychology Measurement (pp. 81-101). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.