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![Page 1: Why Measure Subjective Well-being? Andrew Oswald University of Warwick I would like to acknowledge that much of this work is joint with coauthors Andrew.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649dfe5503460f94ae5e95/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Why Measure Subjective Well-being?
Andrew OswaldUniversity of Warwick
I would like to acknowledge that much of this work is joint with coauthors Andrew Clark, Nick Powdthavee, David G. Blanchflower, Eugenio Proto, Alex Weiss, Rainer Winkelmann, and Steve Wu. I thank the ESRC for support.
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Reason 1
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Reason 1
We need to know if society is going in a sensible direction.
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Yet in 1934
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Yet in 1934
• “...the welfare of a nation [can] scarcely be inferred from a measure of national income...”
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Hug a tree today
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Prof. Simon Kuznets
• The originator of the concept of GDP
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• “...the welfare of a nation [can] scarcely be inferred from a measure of national income...”
S Kuznets
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So even Simon Kuznets knew that we require a different yardstick.
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Reason 2
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Reason 2
Human beings have feelings.
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Reason 2
Human beings have feelings.
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Humans have feelings, and feelings matter.
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How do I know researchers care about feelings of well-being?
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Say we do an electronic search.
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Since 2008, approximately 110,000 articles have been published in economics journals.
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The most-cited major article in modern economics:
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The most-cited major article in modern economics:
Relative income, happiness, and utility: An explanation for the Easterlin paradox and other puzzles
Clark, Andrew E.; Frijters, Paul; Shields, Michael A.
JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC LITERATURE MAR 2008
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Reason 3
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Reason 3
People’s ‘utility’ depends on income relative to comparison income.
Veblen, Scitovsky, Hirsch, Frank...
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Much econometric evidence
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Much econometric evidence
• Clark and Oswald “Satisfaction and Comparison Income”. Journal of Public Economics 1996
• Luttmer “Neighbors as Negatives”. Quarterly Journal of Economics 2005
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There is other evidence that human beings care about their relative position.
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We are now able to see that inside the brain.
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• Title: Social comparison affects reward-related brain activity in the human ventral striatum Author(s): Fliessbach K, Weber B, Trautner P, et al.Source: SCIENCE Volume: 318 Issue: 5854 Pages: 1305-1308 Published: NOV 23 2007
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Armin Falk et al
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Armin Falk et al
While being scanned in adjacent MRI scanners, pairs of subjects had to perform a task with monetary rewards for correct answers.
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Variation in the comparison subject's payment affected blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) responses in the ventral striatum.
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Variation in the comparison subject's payment affected blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) responses in the ventral striatum. This brain region is engaged in the registration of primary rewards.
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Falk et al in Science
-1.2
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Conditions of interest (both correct)A’s income : B’s income
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C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11
A correct, B not
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ROI-defining conditions
A correct, B not
A not correct
A correct, B not
A not correct
ROI-defining conditions
Conditions of interest (both correct)A’s income : B’s income
1:2
1:1
2:1
Conditions of interest (both correct)A’s income : B’s income
1:2
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2:1
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Falk et al in Science
• “The mere fact of outperforming the other subject positively affected reward-related brain areas.”
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ROI-defining conditions
Conditions of interest (both correct)A’s income : B’s income
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C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11
A correct, B not
A not correct
ROI-defining conditions
A correct, B not
A not correct
A correct, B not
A not correct
ROI-defining conditions
Conditions of interest (both correct)A’s income : B’s income
1:2
1:1
2:1
Conditions of interest (both correct)A’s income : B’s income
1:2
1:1
2:1
1:2
1:1
2:1
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Blood-oxygenation equations
• (similar with fixed effects, main variation across Ss)
Table: Activation and Income
Dependent variable: ventral striatum activation(1) (2) (3)
all conditions conditions 2-11 conditions 6-11
Own Income (in 100 Euro) 0.916*** 0.868*** 0.327***[0.109] [0.102] [0.091]
Other's income (in 100 Euro) -0.666*** -0.714*** -0.353***[0.087] [0.086] [0.090]
Constant -0.119 -0.061 0.068[0.144] [0.145] [0.167]
Observations 704 640 384R-squared 0.059 0.063 0.011
OLS estimates; clustering on individuals, robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
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So, inside your brain
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So, inside your brain
You simply want to be high up the monkey pack
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But then a focus on total national income (GDP) misses the point.
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But then a focus on total national income (GDP) misses the point.
The total amount of relative status is fixed.
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Say you don’t believe in statistical evidence.
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5 euros
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500,000 euros
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5 euros
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500,000 euros
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ps: A recent online bargain offer
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ps: A recent online bargain offer
• Retail Price: $179,300.00 Condition: Unused with Blancpain box
• $143,500.00You save 20% ($35,800.00)
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ps: A recent online bargain offer
• Retail Price: $179,300.00 Condition: Unused with Blancpain box
• $143,500.00You save 20% ($35,800.00)
• FREE DELIVERY
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Reason 4
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Happiness and mental well-being are of interest in themselves....
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.. but, more broadly, there seem to be deep scientific links from mind to body.
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Author(s): Ebrecht M, Hextall J, Kirtley LG, Taylor A, Dyson M, Weinman J
PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY
Volume: 29 Issue: 6 Pages: 798-809 Published: JUL 2004
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“Every subject received a standard 4mm-punch biopsy, and the healing progress was monitored via high-resolution ultrasound scanning.”
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“Every subject received a standard 4mm-punch biopsy, and the healing progress was monitored via high-resolution ultrasound scanning.”
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Ebrecht et al 2004
• The overall results showed a significant negative correlation between speed of wound healing and GHQ scores (r = -.59; p < .01)
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In other words, happier human beings heal more quickly.
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An early, famous paper
• Title: PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE COMMON COLD Author(s): COHEN S, TYRRELL DAJ, SMITH APSource: NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE Volume: 325 Issue: 9 Pages: 606-612 Published: AUG 29 1991
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So we need to understand subjective well-being as a determinant of physical health.
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Reason 5
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Reason 5
• The intriguing, and worrying, ‘Easterlin Paradox’
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Average Happiness and Real GDP per Capita for Repeated Cross-sections of Americans.
1.8
22.2
2.4
2.6
Mea
n H
app
iness
15
00
018
00
021
00
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0R
eal G
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1975 1980 1985 1990 1995Year
Real GDP per Capita Mean Happiness
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• In the early 70s, 33% of Americans described their lives as very happy, 52% as pretty happy, and 15% as not too happy.
• By the late 2000s, the numbers were 31%, 55%, 14%.
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Typical GHQ mental-strain questions
Have you recently:
Lost much sleep over worry?Felt constantly under strain?Felt you could not overcome your difficulties?Been feeling unhappy and depressed?Been losing confidence in yourself?Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person?Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities?
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Worsening GHQ levels through time
• Verhaak, P.F.M., Hoeymans, N. and Westert, G.P. (2005). “Mental health in the Dutch population and in general practice: 1987-2001”, British Journal of General Practice.
• Wauterickx, N. and P. Bracke (2005), “Unipolar depression in the Belgian population - Trends and sex differences in an eight-wave sample”, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.
• Sacker, A. and Wiggins, R.D. (2002). “Age-period-cohort effects on inequalities in psychological distress”. Psychological Medicine.
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Economic growth doesn’t seem to be making us much happier.
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The very latest evidence
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The very latest evidence
Title: China's life satisfaction, 1990-2010
Easterlin, Richard A.; Morgan, Robson; Switek, Malgorzata; et al.
• Source: PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Volume: 109 : JUN 19 2012
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Modern China’s happiness has not risen
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Reason 6
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Innovative recent applications of well-being research
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Innovative recent applications of well-being research
• Valuing clean air
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Innovative recent applications of well-being research
• Valuing clean air
• Valuing different health conditions (migraine)
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Innovative recent applications of well-being research
• Valuing clean air
• Valuing different health conditions (migraine)
• The power of fruit and vegetables
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Innovative recent applications of well-being research
• Valuing clean air• Valuing different health
conditions (migraine)• The power of fruit and
vegetables• The happiness of great apes
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Reason 7
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Reason 7
There is growing evidence for the objective validity of subjective well-being data.
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Different subjective well-being measures produce similar patterns.
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Across nations, hypertension and happiness are inversely correlated
(Blanchflower and Oswald, 2008 Journal of Health Economics)
0
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 2.The Inverse Correlation Between Hypertension and Life
Satisfaction: 16 European Nations Aggregated into Quartiles
Countries in the Countries in the lowest quartile highest quartile of blood-pressure of blood-pressure
IrelandDenmarkN'LandsSweden
SpainFranceLuxUK Austria
ItalyBelgiumGreece
E. GermanyW. GermanyPortugalFinland
P
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We can exploit neo-classical economic theory to show the validity of well-being data.
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Oswald and Wu, 2010 in Science
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Oswald and Wu, 2010 in Science
“Objective confirmation of subjective measures of human well-being: Evidence from the USA.”
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Think not about people but about places.
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• New data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS)
• 1.3 million randomly sampled Americans
• 2005 to 2008
• A life-satisfaction equation
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There is a compensating-differentials literature dating back to Adam Smith, Sherwin Rosen, Jennifer Roback, etc.
The most recent is Gabriel et al 2003.
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Gabriel painstakingly takes data on
• Precipitation• Humidity• Heating Degree Days• Cooling Degree Days• Wind Speed• Sunshine• Coast• Inland Water• Federal Land• Visitors to National Parks• Visitors to State Parks• Number of hazardous waste sites
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and
• Environmental Regulation Leniency• Commuting Time• Violent Crime Rate• Air Quality-Ozone• Air Quality-Carbon Monoxide• Student-teacher ratio• State and local taxes on property, income and sales
and other• State and local expenditures on higher education,
public welfare, highways, and corrections• Cost-of-living
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Then there are 2 ways to measure human well-being or ‘utility’ across space.
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Then there are 2 ways to measure human well-being or ‘utility’ across space.
Subjective and objective
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Gabriel’s work assigns a 1 to the state with the highest imputed quality-of-life, and 50 to the state with the lowest.
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So we need to uncover a negative association – in order to find a match.
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• And there is one (at >99% confidence level).
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One Million Americans’ Life Satisfaction and Objective Quality-of-Life in 50 States
-0.1
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
y = -0.0032082 - 0.0012154x R= 0.60938 Li
fe S
atis
fact
ion
Fully
Adj
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)
Objective Quality of Life Ranking (where 1 is high and 50 is low)
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There is a close match between life-satisfaction scores and the implied quality of life calculated using objective information.
Oswald-Wu Science 2010
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There is also growing recognition beyond academic researchers:
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Stiglitz Report 2009 www.stiglitz-sen-fitoussi.fr
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“Statistical offices [worldwide] should incorporate questions to capture people’s life evaluations, hedonic experiences …”
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“Statistical offices [worldwide] should incorporate questions to capture people’s life evaluations, hedonic experiences …”
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Finally
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Finally
on substantive matters:
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What seems to contribute to national well-being?
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My own judgment of the best current scientific evidence:
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What makes countries happy
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What makes countries happy
• High social spending as a % of GDP
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What makes countries happy
• High social spending as a % of GDP
• Unemployment-insurance generosity
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What makes countries happy
• High social spending as a % of GDP
• Unemployment-insurance generosity
• Clean air (eg. low SOx emissions)
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What makes countries happy
• High social spending as a % of GDP
• Unemployment-insurance generosity
• Clean air (eg. low SOx emissions)
• Low unemployment and inflation
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What makes countries happy
• High social spending as a % of GDP
• Unemployment-insurance generosity
• Clean air (eg. low SOx emissions)
• Low unemployment and inflation
• Low crime and corruption
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What makes countries happy
• High social spending as a % of GDP
• Unemployment-insurance generosity
• Clean air (eg. low SOx emissions)
• Low unemployment and inflation
• Low crime and corruption
• Openness to trade
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What makes countries happy
• High social spending as a % of GDP
• Unemployment-insurance generosity
• Clean air (eg. low SOx emissions)
• Low unemployment and inflation
• Low crime and corruption
• Openness to trade
• Genes
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Why measure subjective well-being?
Andrew OswaldUniversity of Warwick
Downloadable research papers at: www.andrewoswald.com