WHENELEPHANTSFIGHT

AdrianandJimmycatchup,talkingfamily,footballandthefuture.

WHENELEPHANTSFIGHT

THELIVESOFCHILDRENINCONFLICTINAFGHANISTAN,BOSNIA,SRILANKA,SUDANANDUGANDA

ERICWALTERS&ADRIANBRADBURY

Thisbookisdedicatedtothosemostinnocentvictimsofwar:children.—EW

ForIsaacandOwen.YouarewhyIamchangedandwhytoday,Iremainthesame.—AB

Textcopyright©2008EricWaltersandAdrianBradbury

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recordingorbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystemnowknownorto

beinvented,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.

LibraryandArchivesCanadaCataloguinginPublication

Walters,Eric,1957-Whenelephantsfight/writtenbyEricWaltersandAdrianBradbury.

ISBN978-1-55143-900-61.Childrenandwar.I.Bradbury,Adrian,1970-II.Title.

HQ784.W3W352008305.23086’949C2008-903027-3

FirstpublishedintheUnitedStates,2008LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2008928576

Summary:ThelivesofchildreninconflictinAfghanistan,Bosnia,SriLanka,SudanandUganda.Portaitsoffivechildvictimsofconflict,includingregional

history,mapsandthecausesandresultsoftheconflict.

OrcaBookPublishersgratefullyacknowledgesthesupportforitspublishingprogramsprovidedbythefollowingagencies:theGovernmentofCanada

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CoverphotoandallphotosintheUgandasectioncourtesyofColinO’Connor.PhotosfromMyChildhoodUnderFire:ASarajevoDiarywrittenbyNadjaHalilbegovichusedbypermissionofKidsCanPressLtd.,Toronto;photos©HalilbegovichandMorrisonfamilies.KimPhucphotocourtesyofKimPhuc.

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AllotherphotoscourtesyofGuluWalk.

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD

INTRODUCTION

UGANDAJIMMY:WALKINGAWAYFROMDANGER

FOLLOW-UPJIMMY

REPUBLICOFUGANDAHISTORYTHECONFLICTCHILDSOLDIERS

SRILANKAANNU:BORNINAWARZONEFOLLOW-UPANNU

DEMOCRATICSOCIALISTREPUBLICOFSRILANKAHISTORYTHECONFLICTTAMILTIGERS—TERRORISTSORFREEDOMFIGHTERS?INDIANCONNECTIONRELIGION

AFGHANISTANFAROOQ:HOMEUNDERFIREFOLLOW-UPFAROOQ

AFGHANISTANHISTORYSOVIETINVOLVEMENT1979–1989

AFTERTHESOVIETWITHDRAWAL1989–1992THETALIBANTHETALIBANINPOWER1998–2001SEPTEMBER11,2001NATOETHNIC,RELIGIOUSANDLANGUAGEDIVISIONSPOVERTY

BOSNIANAJDA:LIFEINSNIPERALLEY

FOLLOW-UPNADJA

BOSNIAANDHERZEGOVINAHISTORYOFBOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA1945-19811991–2007RELIGIONDIFFERENCES/SIMILARITIESCLEANTHEFIELD

THESUDANTOMA:HOWCOULDSOMUCHBELOSTSOQUICKLY?

FOLLOW-UPTOMA

REPUBLICOFTHESUDANGEOGRAPHYHISTORYRECENTHISTORYTHECRISISINDARFURANIMISMCOLONIALISMANDITSONGOINGINFLUENCEINAFRICA

AFTERWORD

FOREWORD

byKimPhuc

Therecanbenodoubtthatinanywarthemostinnocent,thosewhohavehadnopartinthecreationoftheconflict,arethechildren.Itisequallyclearthattherehasbeennowarfoughtinwhichchildrenwerenotthosewhosufferedthemost.Unabletoflee,unabletodefendthemselves,unabletoevenunderstand,theyhavebeentheoneswhohavefelttheeffectsofwarthemost.IknowthisbecauseIwasoneofthosechildren.

IgrewupinVietnamatatimewhenthecountryhadbeenatwarmuchlongerthanIhadevenbeenalive.Theviolenceandconflictwerealwaysapartofourlives,eveninthetimesofcompletecalmandquiet.Youtriedtoliveanormallife—goingtoschool,workingthefields,playingwithyourfriends,eatingwithyourfamily—butknewthatlifecouldinstantlybealteredorended.Youcouldonlyhopeandpraythatyouandyourfamilywouldbespared.

FormethatveneerofnormalcywasshatteredforeverwhenIwasnineyearsold.Ourvillagewasatthecentreofapitchedbattle.Aswewereseekingshelterfromthefighting,wewereaccidentallyhitwithatypeofbombthatcontainednapalm—chemicalsthatcausethingstobreakintoflames.Myclothes,andthenmybody,caughtfire.AllIrememberclearlyisthepain.Over65percentofmybodywasburned,andIwassupposedtodie.Iwashospitalizedforfourteenmonths,undergoingseventeensurgicalproceduresandextensiveandpainfultherapyandrehabilitationbeforefinallyleavingthehospitalbehind.

Myplight,mypersonaltragedy,wascapturedbyphotographerNickUt.Thispicture,whichwonthePulitzerPrize,becameavisualimageofthehorrorofwarandtheeffectsonthemostinnocent,children.WhenElephantsFightisdedicatedtoallowingthereadertolookintotheeyes

offivechildrenwhohaveexperiencedwarandtoheartheirpersonalstories.Jimmy,Nadja,Annu,FarooqandTomahavelivedthroughthetraumaandtragedyofwar.Theirstoriesaretakenfromfivedifferentplacesaroundtheworld—Uganda,Bosnia,SriLanka,AfghanistanandtheSudan.Theyarealldifferent,buttheyarethesameinthattheyarethestoriesofindividualchildren.Waraffectsmillionsofpeople,buteachofthosepeopleisanindividual,andthemostvulnerablearethechildren.

Alongwiththepersonalaccountsofthesechildren,theauthorshaveprovided

Alongwiththepersonalaccountsofthesechildren,theauthorshaveprovidedthebackgroundtothesefiveconflicts—thehistoryofthecountryandtheconflict—thatledtotheunfortunatecircumstancesthatalteredthelivesofthechildren.Byunderstandingwhatcausesconflict,wearebetterequippedtounderstandhowfutureconflictsmaybeavoided.

Itishumannaturetowanttoturnawayfromtragedy,butwemustrememberthewordsofDr.MartinLutherKing,whosaid,“Darknesscannotdriveoutdarkness;onlylightcandothat.”Iaskyounottolookaway.Lookintotheeyesofthesefivechildren—heartheirstoriesandappreciatethatthesechildrencouldbeyourchildren,couldbeyou.Letinthelight.

Istillbearthescarsofwhathappenedtome.Istillfeelthephysicalpaindaily.Thepastremainspartofme.Ifeelitisimportantnottopretendthatterriblethingsdon’ttakeplace.Weshouldnotforget,butwemustalsolearntoforgive,andtakeanactiveroleinhelpingthosewhohavesufferedandtrytoeasetheirpain.

Withlove,KimPhuc

KimPhucBioKimwasbornandraisedinTrangBang,asmallcommunitynorthofSaigon,duringtheVietnamwar.In1972,attheageofnine,whilefleeingforsafety,she

duringtheVietnamwar.In1972,attheageofnine,whilefleeingforsafety,sheandothersweremistakenlybombedwithnapalmbyaSouthVietnameseairplane.

KimremainedinVietnamafterthefallofthecountrytocommunism.Asanadultsheandherhusbanddefectedin1992,takingrefugeinCanada.In1994shebecameaGoodwillAmbassadorforUNESCO,travelingtheworldtospeakoutabouttheterribleeffectsofwaronchildrenandtheneedforpeace,loveandforgiveness.

ShefoundedtheKimFoundation,whosemission“istohelphealthewoundssufferedbyinnocentchildrenandtorestorehopeandhappinesstotheirlivesbyprovidingmuch-neededmedicalandpsychologicalassistance.”Herfoundationfundsprojectsaroundtheworld.

KimresidesinAjax,Ontario,Canada,withherhusbandandtwochildren,ThomasandStephen.Sheisalivingsymbolofthestrengthofthehumanspirittoovercometragedyandisashiningexampleofthepoweroflove,forgivenessandreconciliation.

Forfurtherinformationvisit:www.kimfoundation.com

ForamoredetailedlookatKim’slifeandtheimpactofthefamousphotograph,seeTheGirlinthePicture:TheStoryofKimPhuc,WhoseImageAlteredtheCourseoftheVietnamWar,byDeniseChongandpublishedbyPenguin.

INTRODUCTION

Whenelephantsfight,itisthegrassthatsuffers.ThissayingisanancientproverboftheKikuyupeople,atribalgroupinKenya,Africa.Whilethesourceofthisquoteislostinthedistantpast,thewisdomisastruetodayaswhenthosewordswerefirstspoken,perhapsthousandsofyearsago.Itsessenceissimplicity.Whenthelarge—thestrong,thedominant—fight,itisthesmall—theweak,theleastpowerful—whosuffermost.Regardlessofwhichelephantwins,orloses,thegrassbeneaththeirfeetwillalwaysbetrampledanddestroyed.

JosephStalin,formerSovietleader,stated,“Thedeathofamillionisastatistic,thedeathofone,atragedy.”Wewillstartwiththeone.WhenElephantsFighttellsthestoryoffivechildren,onefromeachoffive

verydistinctconflictsaroundtheworld—Afghanistan,Bosnia,theSudan,SriLankaandUganda.Wehopethatthesefivestorieswilldemonstratethedevastatingimpactthatwarcanhaveonyounginnocentbystanders.Throughtheseverypersonalaccountswehopeyouwillnotonlyfeelthepainthesechildrenhavesuffered,butalsobothsympathizeandempathizewiththem.Afterall,butfortheaccidentofbirth,thiscouldbeyou.Alongwitheacheyewitnessaccount,wehavetriedtobrieflypresentsomethingofthehistoryandgeopoliticalbackgroundoftheconflictsineachcountry.

Therehasneverbeenawarfoughtthatwasstartedbychildren—oronethatfailedtoharmthem.Childrenarethegrassbeneaththefeetofthemen,thetribes,thearmiesandthenationsengagedinarmedconflict.Regardlessofthewinner—andthereisastrongcasetobemadethatwarproducesnowinners,onlygreaterandlesserlosers—thechildrenalwayssuffer.

Althoughitmightbearguedthatinsomewarseffortsaremadetosparechildren,thisis,infact,animpossibletask.Childrenmustalwayssuffertheconsequencesofarmedstruggle.Thefactofthematteristhatweliveinaworldwithlimitedresourcesandtheseresourcescannotbeusedforboththepurposesofwarandtheprovisionsofpeace.Everyactofwarstealsresourcesthatcouldbeusedtobuildschoolsandhospitals,plantfieldsandfeedthehungry.

Ineverywarthereisalwayscollateraldamage.Thisisthepoliticallycorrecttermthatdescribesasituationinwhichanintendedtargetismissedandsomething—orsomeone—elsebearsthebruntofanattack.Amilitaryposition

something—orsomeone—elsebearsthebruntofanattack.Amilitarypositionistargeted,buttheschoolorchurchormosquenexttoitisdestroyedbyartilleryfire,bombsormissiles.Abulletisaimedatasoldierbuthitsawomanorchildhidingintheditchbehindhim.Militaryexpertsassertthatnowarispossiblewithoutcollateraldamage—itisinevitable,andbybeinginevitable,somehowitbecomesacceptable.Strangely,thisterminvolvesbothpropertyandpeople,asifoneisnomoreimportantthantheother.

Collateraldamagecaninvolvethedestructionofahospital,aschool,anorchardoracrop.Thedamagesdonetothesepropertiesmightultimatelycausethedeathofmorepeoplethanthebattleitself.Aschoolisdestroyed,andfuturedoctorsandengineersandteachersarenevertrained.Ahospitalisdestroyed,andthesickdieanddiseasesspread.Afield,croporwellisdestroyed,andmalnutrition,deprivationandstarvationtakelives.Inalmosteverywareverfought,thereweremoreliveslostbecauseoftheeffectsofthewarthanthoselostonthebattlefield.Starvationanddiseaseultimatelykillandmaimmorepeoplethanthoseclaimedbydirectconflict.

Insomeconflictschildrenarenotcollateraldamage,notasadsecondaryeffectofwar,butthespecifictargetsofwar.Theyareseenasequallyvalidtargetsofdeathasanyarmedcombatant.Perhaps,bysomesickandtwistedlogic,theyareevenseenasbettertargetsthananarmedcombatant.Theycan’tfightback.

Inthegreatestofhumanatrocities,armedcombatantsactivelyseekoutanymemberofagroupinanattempttoeradicate,eliminateandannihilatethatgroup.Weare,ofcourse,talkingaboutgenocide.Genocidebydefinitionisthedeliberateandsystematicdestructionofagroupbasedonrace,religionorculture.

ThegenocidemostknowntothemodernWesternworldistheHolocaustthattookplaceinEuropefrom1939–1945,whenNaziGermanyattemptedtoeliminateallJewishpeopleandcertainotherethnicminorities.Thisatrocityresultedinmillionsofmen,womenandchildrenbeingsystematicallyidentified,captured,transportedandslaughtered.

ItwouldbetemptingtoviewtheHolocaustasjustatemporaryinsanitythatinvolvedonegroupofpeople.Thisisnotthecase.Withinthelastonehundredyearsalone,genocidehastakenplaceinArmenia,Cambodia,Rwanda,Yugoslavia,Russia,theSudanandChina.Itwouldbeanunderestimationtosaythatoveronehundredmillionpeoplewerekilledintheseperiodsofgenocidalinsanity.Andeachofthosevictims,regardlessofthespecificconflict,wasequallyhumanandequallyimportant,andthelossoflifeequallytragic.

equallyhumanandequallyimportant,andthelossoflifeequallytragic.Therearetimeswhenchildrenarenoteventargetedbecauseofanyethnic,

racialorreligiousreason,butsimplybecausetheyarechildren.Theyarethemostvulnerableaswellasthemostimpressionabletargets.Theyareremovedbyarmedmenfromthesafetyoftheirhomesandthecareoftheirfamiliessothattheycanbeusedasservants,slavesorsexualpartners,ortheyareforcedtobecomecombatantsintheconflict.

Thelegacyofchildsoldiersisoneofthegreatesttragediesofthispastcentury.Youngchildrenaretakenfromtheirfamiliesbyarmedcombatants.Familymembersareslaughtered—sometimeschildrenareforcedtotakethelivesofmembersoftheirownfamilies.Youngchildren,someyoungerthantenyearsold,becomeindoctrinatedandtrainedinthewaysofkilling.Theybecomeefficientkillersforthesamereasonthatchildrencanbecomesuchagentsforgood—theyareimpressionable,openandtooyoungtounderstandtheultimateconsequencesoftheiractions.

Oneofthefirststepsintrainingforarmedcombatistodehumanize,minimizeanddistancethosebeingtargetedfromthosewhowilldothekilling.ThismayseemasomewhatunlikelypropositionfromourvantagepointintheWesternworld.Nevertheless,weknowithappens.Althoughwemightbegeographicallyandpoliticallydistancedfromthewarzonesoftoday’sworld,wemustneverassumethatwearesomehowsuperiortopeoplewhofindthemselvesinthemidstoftheseconflicts.

SomereaderswillalmostcertainlyclaimthatWhenElephantsFightpresentsabiasedviewofthestoriespresented.Despiteourbesteffortstopresentthefullpicture,thisisaninevitablereality.Thesecriticismswillbefoundednotsomuchonthevalidityofoureffortsasonthepersonalpassionsthattheseconflictsarouse.And,equallycertain,sinceweviewourworldthroughtheeyesofourownpersonalhistory,someofthiscriticismwillbevalid.Weacknowledgethatweenterthisprojectwithaclearandstatedbias.ThisbiasisbestputintowordsbyformerUnitedStatespresidentandhumanitarian,JimmyCarter:“Warmaysometimesbeanecessaryevil.Butnomatterhownecessary,itisalwaysanevil,neveragood.Wewillnotlearnhowtolivetogetherinpeacebykillingeachother’schildren.”

Childrenaroundtheworldsufferfromtheconsequencesofwar.Weliveinatimeandplacewhereourchildrenhaveescapednotonlythedirectconsequencesofthesewarsbuteventheknowledgeoftheseconficts.Forthefuturetobebetterthanthepast,betterthanthepresent,wemusthelpequipourchildrenwiththeawarenessandunderstandingoftheworldaroundthemandtheirabilitytobring

aboutchange.Gandhistated,“Ifyouaregoingtochangetheworld,startwiththechildren.”Withthepurchaseofthisbookyouhavehelpedchildrenwhohavesuffered

fromwar—royaltiesfromthisbookarebeingdonatedtoGuluWalktohelpchildrenaffectedbythewarinUganda.Formoreinformationvisitwww.guluwalk.com.

JIMMY

WalkingAwayfromDangerItistime!”

IStartledoutofhisthoughts,Jimmylookedupathisgrandmotherstandingontheedgeofthefield,waving.

“Itistime!”sheyelledagain,notsureshe’dbeenheardorseen.Jimmywavedbacktoacknowledgeher.Helookedupatthesun.Hecould

tellfromitspositioninthesky,startingtosinktowardthetrees,thatshewasright.Itwastimetogo.Jimmy’sbrothers,Christopher,JuliusandDouglas,workingawayinthefieldbesidehim,hadheardheraswell.Theynoddedtheirheadsinagreement.Jimmyswungthehoeoverhisshoulder.ForDouglas,onlysixandsmallforhisage,thehoewasasbigashewas,anditweighedheavilyonhisshoulders.MaybeJimmycouldhavehelpedbutheknewhislittlestbrotherhadtolearntobearhisshareoftheload.Therewasnochoice.

Astheywalkedthroughthefield,Jimmythoughtabouttheircrop.Thefieldwasplantedinrootvegetables,mainlycassava,withonlythetopsshowingthroughthesoilsofar,butitlookedliketherewasgoingtobeagoodharvest.Heprayedforagoodharvest.Withoutthatthere’dbemoretimeswhenhungerwouldbewiththem.

Todaythefourbrothershadfinishedweedingfourrows.HeknewthatChristopher,theoldestatfourteen,hadhopedformore,buttherewasn’ttime.Therewasneverenoughtime.

Bythetimetheyreachedtheirhome—twosmallhuts,withthecharredremainsofathirdbesidethem—theirgrandmotherwaswaiting.Onehutbelongedtotheboys.Thesecondhutwastheirgrandmother’s.Thethirdusedtobetheiruncle’shome.

Grandmotherhadpackedthemasmallclothbag.Insidewasalittlebitoffood.Notmuch,butenoughtogivethemsomethingtoeatontheroad,and,iftheyrationeditout,perhapsabiteforthemorningbeforetheysetoutagain.Christopherwouldcarrythefoodanddecidewhentheywouldeat.Jimmydidn’tknowwhenhewouldchoosetoletthemeatsomething,buthedidknowitwouldbedonefairly,eachreceivinghisshare.Maybetherewasn’tenough,but

whatevertheydidhavewassharedequally.Thathadalwaysbeenthewayinhisfamily.

Jimmyposesnexttotheprintsofhismother’shandsonthewalloftheroomwherehenowsleeps.

Jimmyalsowantedtotakeonemorethingwithhim.Heranintothehutandfounditrightwherehe’dsetitdown—onthelittlewoodenstoolthathisfatherhadmade.Itwasabookwithdog-earedcorners,thecoverpartiallyrippedandthepagessoiledfromsomanystudentshavinguseditovertheyears.Butitwasimportantthathebringitalong.Therewasatesttomorrow,andhe’dalreadymissedadayofschoolthisweektosellvegetablesbytheroadside.Heknewthatheneededtostudy.Hopefullytherewouldstillbeenoughlighttoseethebookwhentheyarrived.

Itwouldbesomucheasieriftheycouldjuststayontheirland.Therewouldbemoretimetoworkinthefields.Timetostudy.Timetosleep.Butnottonight.Infact,notanynightforaslongasJimmycouldremember.Itseemedlikeforeversincehe’dbeenabletosleepinhisownhouse.

Therewasatime,morethanayearago,wheneacheveninghisgrandmotherandolderbrotherwouldmakeadecision—wasitsafetostayordidtheyhavetogo?Whiletheywereatschoolorworkinginthefields,Grandmotherwould

go?Whiletheywereatschoolorworkinginthefields,Grandmotherwouldlistentotheradio,ortalktoneighborsorrelatives,peoplewholivedinthevillage,andfindoutiftherehadbeenanyattacksinthearea.Somenightstherewasnoword;nothinghadhappened.Thentheymightriskstaying.Butitwasalwaysarisk.Therewerenoguarantees.Jimmyknewthatbetterthanalmostanybody.

IthadbeenquietthatnightwhentheLord’sResistanceArmyhadcometohisvillage.Therebelsoldiersorderedeverybodyoutofthehutsandmadethemallkneelonthehard-packedearthoftheyardand—hedidn’twanttothinkaboutitanymore.Therewasn’teventimeformemoriesorgrief.Therewasjusttimetowalk.Itwasalmostcomfortingtorealizethattherewasnodecisiontomake.Now,everynightwastoodangeroustostay.

Grandmothergaveeachboyahug.AsJimmywrappedhisarmsaroundher,hefeltnothingbutbones.Shewasn’twellandshedidn’teatenoughtogetbetter.Whateverscrapsoffoodthatwereleftweremeantforhergrandsons.Eachevening,ashesaidhisgood-byestoher,hewonderedifhewouldseeherwhenhereturnedinthemorning.Hewishedthatshecouldcomewiththem,butheknewshewastoooldandtoosicktomakethetrip.

Besides,thesoldiersleftoldwomenalone.Shewasn’tstrongenoughtoworkoryoungenoughtobearchildren.Shewasn’tsomebodytheycouldmakeintoasoldier,orsomebodythattheyhadtofear.Shewasjustanoldwoman,agrandmother,andshewasofnousetothem.Notevenworththepriceofabullet.Buthestillworried.Therewasnocostintheblowofamachete.

Someofthesepeople—andJimmyhardlyevensawthemaspeople—didn’tneedareasontokill.Maybetheywerehighondrugsorsimplylustedforbloodanddidn’tneedareason.Hecouldonlyhopethattheydidn’twanttoevenwastetheenergynecessarytostrikeherdown.Theyleftoldwomenalone...theyleftoldwomenalone...that’swhathe’dheard.Thatwasthethoughtthatkepthishopesalive.Theydidn’tbotherwitholdwomen.

Hehadtohopethat’showshewasseen:aworthlessoldwoman.ButtoJimmyandhisbrothers,shewasalltheyhad.Ifsomethinghappenedtoher,whowouldcooktheirmealsforthem?Whowouldhelpworkthefieldsorbringwater?WhowouldChristophertalktowhenheneededtomakedecisions?Jimmyknewhisbrotherwassmartandhetrustedhim,butstill,hewasyettoturnfourteen.Hestillneededtheadviceofhisgrandmother.

“Wehavetogo,”Christophersaidsoftly.Withoutanotherwordtheystartedoff.Itwasalongwalk,butthefirststeps

werealwaysthesameandprovidedthemwithavividreminderofwhyitwas

werealwaysthesameandprovidedthemwithavividreminderofwhyitwastheyneededtowalk.Therewerethreemoundsbehindthehuts,justoffthepaththeytook.Jimmycastonlyasidewaysglanceastheypassed—maybeitwasn’trespectful—buthejustdidn’twanttolook,couldn’tdwellonwhathadhappenedandhowmuchhemissedthem.Toomanymemories.

Jimmyenviedhislittlestbrother.Hewasonlytwoatthetimeandwastooyoungtorememberit.Allheknewwerethestoriesthathe’dbeentold.Jimmywouldneverforget,nevergetthoseimagesoutofhismind.

Astheboyswalkedtheywerejoinedbyotherchildrenleavingtheirfamiliesbehind.Therewasalreadyatrickleofotherkidsonthedirttrack.Astheypassedeachnewhome,eachclusterofhouses,eachvillage,theywerejoinedbymoreandmorechildren.Someofthesechildrenwererelativesandsomewerefriends.Nonewerestrangers.Walkingtogethereachnightandbackagaininthemorningleftlittletimeforthefieldsorforschoolwork,butlotsoftimefortalking.Itwasalmostironicthatduringtheselongwalks,withnothingelsethatcouldbedone,thechildrenwerefreetobechildren.Theysangsongs,orplayedgames,talkedandlaughedastheywalked.Theytriedtomakethebestofit.Butwhatchoicedidtheyhave?Tostayintheirhomesintheisolatedvillagesandcountrysidewastoriskbeingkilledorkidnapped.Soeachnighttheywalked,leavingtheirhomesbehind,headingforthesafetyofthetownofGulu,wheretheycouldbesupervisedbyreliefagencystaffandguardedbygovernmentsoldiers.

Thechildrenmovedtothesideoftheroadastwovehiclesrumbledupbehindthem.Onewasavandrivenbyoneofthereliefagencies,andthesecondwasabigarmytruck.Asthesecondtruckpassed,hesawthesoldiers,riflesinhand,sittingintheback.Eventheydidn’twanttobeinthecountryorontheroadswhendarknessfell.And,ifitwaseventoodangerousforthem,howmuchmoredangerouswasitforthechildrenbeingleftbehindontheroadasduskrapidlyapproached?

Jimmylookedbehindhim.Asfarashecouldseetherewerechildrenwalking.Lookingforwardthelinestretchedoutofsightaswell.Nexthelookedonbothsidesoftheroad.Hutsdottedthehills;smallstalls—roadsidestores—werefrequent.Everythingseemedasitshouldbe.Theyweresafe.Atleastfornow.Atleastuntildarknessfell.Hefoundhimselfquickeninghispace.

InsomewaysJimmyandhisbrotherswerelucky.Forthemthewalkwasonlysixorsevenkilometers.Theycouldmakethetripinlessthantwohours.Heknewofotherchildrenwhoweretravelingtwiceasfar.

Thentherewerethosewhoweretoofarawaytomakethewalk.Ratherthanseekingablanketinthetown,theysimplylefttheirhomes,lefttheirvillagesand

seekingablanketinthetown,theysimplylefttheirhomes,lefttheirvillagesandheadedintotheforest.Somewoulddigshallowdepressionsintheground,liedownandpushdirtbackoverthemselveslikeablankettoprovideprotectionfromtheelements,animalsandanypryingeyes.Othershidinthickets,whilesomebuiltcrudesheltersinthebranchesoftrees.Jimmycouldn’timaginehavingtolivelikethat,sleeplikethateverynight,butforthem,aswithhisfamily,whatwasthechoice?

EverybodyinthewholeGuludistrictknewwhatmighthappentothosewhostayedbehind.Jimmyhadmetpeoplewhohadbeenattacked,handsorfeethackedoffbyblowsfromamacheteortheirlipsandearsslicedoffwitharazor.He’dneverforgetthefirsttimehe’dseensomebodywhohadsufferedthatfate.Thentherewerethosewhoweretaken.Younggirlswerekidnappedtobesexslavesandyoungboysweretakenatgunpointtobecomechildsoldiers,leavingbehindmurderedparentsandlootedandburnedvillages.

Asdarknessstartedtosettlein,Jimmyfeltthatsenseofuneasinessthathealwaysfeltatnight.Still,hewasreassuredbywhathecouldseeahead—theglowoflightsintheskymarkingthetownofGulu.And,ontheroadallaroundhimweremoreandmorechildren.Eachlittletrickle,eachstream,comingfromalldirections,hadbecomeahumanriver,andtheyweremovingalonginthecurrent.

Thehousesandstoresbecamemorefrequentastheyapproachedthetown.Andthosebuildingsbecamemoresolid,madeofbrickandstoneandblocks,sometwo-oreventhree-storiestall.Lightsglowedfromupper-storywindowsorstorefronts.Aroundthem,standingatwatch,clusteredtogetherinlittlegroups,sittingintrucksorvehicles,weresoldiersandpolice.Strange:theyfledmenwithgunstocomeheretobeprotectedbyothermenwithguns.

Someofthosestoresremainedopenjustforthenightcommuters,thosewhohadafewshillingstopurchasefood.Here,everynightwascrowdedlikeamarketday.Thestreetswerefilledwiththousandsofpeople,mostlychildren,althoughtheyweren’theretobuyorsell,butsimplytofindaplacetoliedownforthenight,tosleep.

Mostofthechildrenhadaplacethattheysoughtout,thattheywerefamiliarwith.ForJimmyandhisbrothersitwasahostelcalledNoah’sArk.ItwasrunbyUNICEF—UnitedNationsInternationalChildren’sEmergencyFund.Thestaffwhorantheshelterwerefriendlyandtreatedthechildrenwell.Eachnighttheboysregistered,weregivenablankettouseandwenttofindapieceofgroundwheretheycouldspendthenight.Inthespacearoundthemwereotherchildren.Jimmydidn’tknowhowmany,butmostnightstherewerebetween

threeandfourthousandchildren.Andthatwasjustapercentageofthenightcommuters.Throughoutthetowntherewerehalfadozenplaces,runbyotheraidagencies,churchgroupsandthegovernment.Andevenwithallofthoseplaces,therewerestillthosewhosimplysleptonthestreets.Atleasttheyweresafe.Andwhatchoicedidtheyhave?

Jimmytookhisblanket,laiditdownonthegroundandwrappedhimselfinittowardawaythenightchill.DouglasplacedhisblanketdownnexttoJimmy,followedbyJuliusandChristopheronthefarsidesothetwooldestshelteredthetwoyoungest.

REPUBLICOFUGANDAPopulation:27,600,000Location:Latitude:3°13’60N,Longitude:31°52’0E,eastAfricaArea:236,040squarekilometersClimate:tropical,equatorialclimateLanguages:English(Officiallanguage)74%Swahili(Officiallanguage)*over30languagesusedinUganda(predominantlyBantuandNiloticlanguages)Ethnicity:Buganda16%Iteso8%Basoga8%Banyankore8%Banyaruanda6%Bakiga7%Lango6%Bagisu5%Acholi4.5%Other31.5%*over30ethnicgroupsinUgandaReligion:Christian85%Muslim12%Other3%LifeExpectancy:52yearsInfantMortalityRate:66deathsper1,000livebirths

PerCapitaIncome:$1,100Literacyrate:66.8%(male:76.8%,female:57.7%)

ChildrenatPagakInternallyDisplacedPersons(IDP)camp.Allaroundthemtheotherchildrenweresettlinginforthenight.Someofthe

youngerchildrenhadalreadygonetosleep;otherssittingontheirblanketsandtalking;whilesomewereofftotheside,talkingorplayingsimplegames.Jimmydidn’thavetimeforgames.Heneededtostudy.Hetookthebookandangleditsothathecouldcatchalittlebitoflightfromthebulbthathungoverheadinthecorner.Itwasdimandfaraway,buttherewasenoughlightforatleastafewminutestostudybeforeitwasturnedoffforthenight.

Christopheropenedthelittlesackthattheirgrandmotherhadpreparedforthem.Hetookoutthetwopiecesofbreadthatitheld,dividedthemintwoandsharedthembetweenthefourboys.Thiswouldhavetoholdthem,throughthenightandthewalkbacktotheirhome.Theirgrandmotherwouldbewaitingwithalittlemorebreakfastforthem,somecassava,maybesomemoremillet.Theboyswoulddoafewchores,andthentheywouldwalktoschool.Afterschooltheywouldgohome,helptogatherwater,workthefieldsandgetready,onceagain,towalktoGulu.Nightafternight,dayafterday,thatwasthelifeJimmyknew.Eachdaygoingtoschool,orworkingthefields,doingchores,selling

vegetablesatthesideoftheroad.EacheveningwalkingtoGulu.EachnightsleepingatNoah’sArk.Andeachmorningwalkingbackhome.Ithadbeengoingonforyears.Itwastheonlylifetheyoungerchildrenevenknew.ButJimmyrememberedadifferenttime,atimebeforetheyhadtoseekshelterinthetowneverynight,beforethedeaths.Sometimeshejustwishedhecouldforgetthatnightwheneverythingchanged.Ithadnowbeenfouryears,butinsomewaysitseemedlikeithadjusthappened.

Itwasaquietnight.They’dgonetosleep,thefourboys,Christopher10,Jimmy8,Julius6andDouglasjust2.Theynestledtogetherinoneroom,ontherightsideofthehut,withtheirparentsinanotherroomtotheleft.Itwasacomfortablehome,cream-coloredclaywalls,atinroofanddoorandadirtfloor.Acrossthewaytheiruncle,theirfather’syoungerbrother,sleptinhishut,andinthethird,theirgrandmother.Jimmywasawakenedbyscreamingandyelling.Therewaspoundingonthe

door,andthenthedoorwaskickedopen.Theywerehauledout,halfsleeping,halfinshock,crying,powerlessbeneathpowerfulflashlights,andforcedtodroptotheirkneesinthedirt,theirhandsonthebackoftheirheads.Hisparentsandunclewereknockedtotheground,theirhandstiedbehindtheirbacks.Andallthetimethemenscreamedoutthreats,sayingtheywouldkillthemallifanybodyresistedThemen—notheyweren’tallmen,somewerebarelyboys—stoodoverthem,

wavingguns,yelling,screaming.Someweredressedinuniforms,othersinnothingmorethanpantsandheavyjackets.Allworegumboots.Ontheground,notdaringtolookup,partiallyblindedbythelightsshiningintheirfaces,allJimmycouldseeweretheboots.Themen—theboys—walkeddowntheline,screaming,yelling,threateningto

harmorkillastheypassed.Jimmyknewtheseweren’tjustidlethreats.Andnowhewasontheground,kneelingatthefeetofthepeoplewhocommittedtheseatrocities,andallhecouldseeweretheirboots.Undertheglareofthebrightlights,surroundedbydarkness,hisparents

bound,screamsandthreatsrainingdownonthem,Jimmyknewthatthesecouldbethelastmomentsofhislife,orattheveryleast,thelifeheknew.Suddenlyhisparentsanduncleweregrabbedandhauledtotheirfeet,

draggedaway.Thelastwordshisfatherscreamedwere“please,Ibegyou,don’thurtourchildren!”andthentheydisappearedintothenight,swallowedbythedarkness.

Jimmytakingabreakinthetreethatprovidesshadeforthefamilyhome.Almostbeforethewordshadfaded,theboysweregrabbedandhauledto

theirfeet.Theyweredraggedbacktotheirhutandthrownthroughthedoor,landinginaheapontopofeachotheronthedirtfloor.Thedoorwasslammedshut,andallfourhuddledtogetherasthemenscreamedoutside.Theyheardobjectsbeingthrownagainstthedoortobarricadethemin.Weretheybeingleft...orweretheytrappedinside,barricaded,unabletoleavebeforethehutwassetonfire?ChristophertriedtoquietthetearsofJuliusandDouglas.Jimmylistenedat

thedoor,strainingtohearanything...buttherewasnothing.Silentlytheystayedinthehut,stillafraidtocryout,afraidtoeventrytobreakthroughthedoorandescape.Whatifthemenwerestillcloseby?Whatiftheyheardandcamebacktogetthem...tokillthem?Jimmywasn’tsurehowlongtheystayedinthehut.Hewasn’tsureifhehad

driftedofftosleep,buthedidknowwhathappenednext.FinallyChristopherfeltthatenoughtimehadpassedthatitwassafeforthemtotrytogetout.Theypoundedatthedoor,theycalledoutandtheywereheard—bytheirgrandmother.Shewasoldandhardofhearingandhadsleptinherhut,

unawareofwhathadhappened.Shepulledawaythebarricadeandopenedthedoor,andthefourboysalmosttoppledheroverastheyrushedout.ThesoldiersoftheLord’sResistanceArmyweregone.Andwiththemwere

Jimmy’sparentsanduncle,leavingtheoldwomanandthefourchildrenbehind—thechildrenwhoweretooyoungtobecomesoldiers.Atleasttooyoungthatnight.Whenmorningfinallybroke,theirgrandmotherwentinsearchofhertwo

sonsandherdaughter-in-law.Wherehadtheybeentaken?Wherewerethey?Shestartedtoaskquestionsandtosearch,butshedidn’thavetolooklongorfar.Theywerediscoveredinafieldlessthanakilometeraway.Thebodiesofthethreewerefoundbeaten,handsstillboundbehindtheirbacks,withabulletintheirskulls.They’dbeendraggedawaysimplytobekilled.Theneighborshelpedbringbackthebodies,helpeddigthegravesandhelped

putthebodiestorest.Andtheywerethere,inthosemoundsjustoffthepath,withinsightofthehomeswheretheyhadlivedtheirlives.

Sincethenitwasjustthefourboysandtheirgrandmother.Theirparentsweredead,butthepeoplewhokilledthemwerestillaround,stillkillingandkidnapping.Itwasn’tsafefortheboystoremainintheirhomeatnight,buttheystillneededtoreturneachdaytoworkthefieldstogrowfoodtolive,togotoschoolandtohaveanyhopeforabetterfuture.Soeachnightandeachmorning,theywalkedtoandfromGulu,seekingshelterandsafety.Constantlyinmotion,neverhavingtimetorestorstop.Butwhatchoicedidtheyhave?

Follow-up:JimmyJimmyisnowseventeenyearsoldandstilllivesinthethree-roomfamilyhomenearGulu,withhisthreebrothersandhisailinggrandmother.HisimpeccableEnglishhasbeenfeaturedinasegmentofthedocumentaryfilmUgandaRising.Henowventuresintotowndailytoattendcomputerclasses,andhehopestoreturntoschoolfull-timeearlynextyear.

HistoryTheRepublicofUgandaislocatedineasternAfrica.ItisalandlockedcountrythatsitsdirectlyontheequatorandisborderedonthewestbytheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,onthenorthbySudan,ontheeastbyKenya,onthesouthbyTanzaniaandonthesouthwestbyRwanda.Whilenotacoastalcountry,Ugandaissurroundedbyanabundanceofwater,includingLakeVictoriatothesouth,LakeAlberttothewestandiscutdownthemiddlebytheNileRiver.

WinstonChurchill,formerprimeministeroftheUnitedKingdom,oncepraisedUganda’sbeautybysaying,“Formagnificence,forvarietyofformandcolor,forprofusionofbrilliantlife—bird,insect,reptile,beast—forvastscale—UgandaistrulythepearlofAfrica.”

Uganda’shistorybeganabouttwothousandyearsagowhenitwasfirstpopulatedbytheironworkingBantu-speakingpeopleofcentralandwesternAfrica.TheywerejoinedfromthenorthbytheNiloticpeople,includingtheLuo,whoselifestylecenteredaroundcattle-herdingandfarminginthenorthernandeasternpartsofwhatisnowUganda.

ThefirstexternalinfluenceintheregioncamefromArabtradersmovinginlandfromtheIndianOceaninthe1830s.Theycameinsearchofslavesandivory.Theywerecloselyfollowedinthe1860sbytheBritishwhowereexploringthesourceoftheNileRiver.

Inthelate1880stheUnitedKingdomputtheareaunderthecharteroftheBritishEastAfricaCompany,whichbecamepartofthecolonial“scrambleforAfrica”inwhichEuropeannationsstakedtheirclaimsonAfricanresourcesanditspeople,fortheirowngain.Theregionwasinitiallyacollectionofkingdoms

itspeople,fortheirowngain.Theregionwasinitiallyacollectionofkingdomsledbychiefsandclanleaders.Thesegroupswerechangedforeverbythisinfluencefromoutside,butthedifferentgroupsstillareatthecoreofwhoUgandansaretoday.

In1894,Ugandawasruledasaprotectorate,andtheBantu-speakingpeopleofthesouthwereplacedincivilservicepositions,whiletheLuoofthenorth,mainlytheLangoandtheAcholi,wereforcedintolaborcampsandthemilitary.Thisdividedthenationintwoclasses,increasingthetensionbetweenthegroups.Thisdividewouldbemostevidentafterindependenceandis,toagreatdegree,responsiblefortheseeminglyendlessmilitarycoupsandrebeluprisingsthathaveplaguedthenation.

ThefirstofthosemilitarycoupscamefromthenotoriousIdiAmin.In1962,lessthannineyearsafterindependence,AminoustedUganda’sfirstpresident,MiltonObote.Aminwasresponsibleforthedeathofasmanyas300,000Ugandans,whilealsoexpellingtheIndiancommunity,whocontrolledamajorstakeinthecountry’seconomy.Originallyseenlocallyandinternationallyasawelcomedchange,Amin’sruleofbloodshedandshortsightednesssentthecountryintoadownwardspiral.Inflationclimbedto1000%andunpaidsoldiersrebelled.AminfinallysealedhisownfatebychoosingtogotowarwithTanzania.

TheTanzanianstookcontrolofUgandaandturnedonthelocalpopulation,whotheyclaimedtobehelping,whileAminfledtoLibya.Obote’sreinstallationaspresidentin1980wasshort-lived,aswasTitoOkello’smilitarycoup.In1986YoweriMusevenitookpowerwhenhisNationalResistanceArmy(NRA)claimedthecapital.

MuseveniquicklyintroducedeconomicreformsthatprovidedsomesustainedgrowthinUgandaandhewaslaudedasa“newbreedofAfricanleader,”bythenUnitedStatespresident,BillClinton.WhatcontinuedtobeignoredwasUganda’snorth-southdivide,whichprovedtobethebirthplaceoftheworstofrebeluprisings.

TheConflictTheongoingcivilstrifeinnorthernUgandaisaconflictthatcontinuestobemisunderstood.Thewarisessentiallytwoconflictsinone:first,thefightingoftheLord’sResistanceArmy(LRA),whichiswagingwaragainsttheUgandangovernmentandterrorizingthecivilianpopulationinthenorth,andsecond,therealgrievancesofUgandansinthenorthagainsttheexistinggovernment.

realgrievancesofUgandansinthenorthagainsttheexistinggovernment.ThewararoseoutoftheembeddedpolicyoftheBritishduringcolonialrule

inwhichtribalgroupsweredivided.This‘divideandrule’policywascontinuedbypost-colonialUgandanpolitics.Whenthecurrentpresident,YoweriMuseveni,andhisNationalResistanceMovementtookpowerbycoupin1986,theyworsenedthenorth-southdividebyalienatingnortherners,creatinggroundsforrebellion.

AviewsouthintoGulu,northernUganda’slargesttown.Since1986,theinsurgencywithinnorthernUgandahasundergonefour

stages,beginningwithamorepopularrebellionofformerarmyofficialsandevolvingintothecurrentpseudo-spiritualwarlordismoftheLRA.Todate,theLRAconsistsmainlyofabductedchildrenbrainwashed,brutalizedandforcedtokillviciouslyaschildsoldiers.AlienatedfromtheAcholi,theLRAwagesterroronthecivilianpopulationasameanstomaintainattentionandchallengethegovernment.

AfterattemptedpeacetalksfacilitatedbyBettyBigombecollapsedin1994,theconflictchangedintoaproxywarthatcannotbeunderstoodseparatefromthegeopoliticsoftheentireGreatLakesRegionofAfrica.

In1994,thecountryofSudanbegantoprovidemilitaryassistanceandsupporttotheLRA,whiletheUgandangovernmentprovidedmilitaryassistancetotheSudanPeople’sLiberationArmy(SPLA),arebelgroupinsouthernSudan.TheWest,particularlytheUnitedStates,sawthisasthebattlefrontofthewaragainstthespreadofIslamicfundamentalisminsub-SaharanAfricaand

waragainstthespreadofIslamicfundamentalisminsub-SaharanAfricaandprovidedsignificantamountsofaidtotheSPLAthroughUganda.Newelementsofawareconomyandarmstraffickingmadefindingpeacemoredifficult.

FollowingSeptember11,2001,theUnitedStatesincreaseditsstrategicalliancewithPresidentMuseveniandhisNRMregimeinUganda.TheU.S.quicklydeclaredtheLRAaterroristgroupandincreasedmilitaryaidtotheUgandangovernment.ThisrelationshiponlyfurthersolidifiedtheinsistenceofMusevenionamilitaryapproachtoendthewar.Unfortunately,the“militarysolution”hasworsenednortherngrievancesandprovenineffectiveovertheyears.Itisstronglybelievedthatratherthancontinuedwar,thatthekeystopeacearetonegotiateandbuildmutualtrust.

Inthesummerof2006,thenewlyformedsemi-autonomousGovernmentofSouthSudanagreedtohostandmediatepeacetalksbetweenthewarringparties.Theinvolvementofsuchastrategicmediator,coupledwithnewopennessbythepartiestonegotiationsledmanytocallthisthe“bestopportunityinoveradecadeforpeaceinnorthernUganda.”InAugust,thepartiesagreedtoaCessationofHostilities—tostopfighting—thatledtorelativecalminnorthernUganda.However,thetalkshavesincestumbledduetotherigidinvolvementoftheInternationalCriminalCourt(ICC),aweakMonitoringTeamanddivisionswithintheLRAnetworks.

ThewarinnorthernUgandahasragednowfor21years,makingitAfrica’slongest-runningconflict,andhasbeendescribedbyoneUNofficialas“theworld’sworstneglectedhumanitariancrisis.”Thewarhasledtothedisplacementof1.7millionpeople—over80%oftheregion—whonowliveincampsinsqualidconditions.Atitsworst,1,000peopleweredyingeachweekasaresultofthepoorconditionsinthesecamps.Thewarisalsoknownforthebrutalabductionanduseofchildsoldiers.TheLRAhasfilleditsranksbyabductingover50,000children.

Asthisneglectcontinues,thepeopleofnorthernUgandaremaincondemnedtolivesofdespairanddisplacement.

ChildSoldiersForover250,000childrenallovertheworld,armybarracksarehomeandmilitarycommandersarefamily.Thesearenoordinarychildren.Theyarechildsoldiers.

Thereisstillnouniversallyaccepteddefinitionforwhatachildsoldieris,butinternationalhumanrightsorganizations,includingUNICEF,agreethatachild

soldierisaboyorgirlundertheageofeighteenwhowillinglyjoinsorisforcedtobecomeamemberofagovernmentarmyorrebel-armedmilitary.Thesechildsoldiersarecommandedtoperformavarietyofduties,includingarmedcombat,layingminesandexplosives,scouting,cookingandlabor,andareoftenvictimsofsexualslaveryandexploitation.

Today,childrenaredirectlyparticipatinginconflictsinover20countriesworldwide,withmorethan100,000childrenonthefront-linesinAfrica;mostprominentlyinSudanandUganda,whereitisestimatedthattheLord’sResistanceArmyhasabducted50,000childrenandforcedthemintoconflict.

Whilethousandsofchildrenareindeedabductedorrecruitedbyforce,manymorejoinvoluntarily.However,theyoftenenlistasameansofsurvival:joiningbecauseofextremepoverty,lackofeducationorfamilysupport,alongwiththepromiseofasteadyincome,statusandpower,whichmostoftennevercomes.Themilitaryisseenastheironlyopportunitytogetaheadduringatimeofunbelievabledesperation.Themajorityofchildsoldiersarebetweentheagesof14to18,buttherearechildrenasyoungas9yearsofagewhohavebeenforcedintoconflict.

Forthosenotfamiliarwiththechildsoldierphenomenon,it’sdifficulttounderstandthevalueofanarmyofyoungchildren.Whenweheartheword“soldier”weautomaticallythinkbig,strong,adultmen.However,withlightweight,easy-to-usefirearmsreadilyavailable—bigandstrongarenolongernecessary.Evenayoungchildcancarry,anduse,agun.

Alongwithbeingabletohandlegunsandammunition,childrenarealsoseenasbothphysicallyandemotionallyvulnerable.Theycanbeeasilyintimidated.Inthecaseofabduction,it’scommonplaceforoneoftheabductedchildreninagrouptobekilled.Thisexamplesendsamessagetoalloftheothersthatifyoutrytoescapeorifyoudonotobeyyourcommanders,youtoowillbekilled.Thisisthe“initiation.”Infact,childrenareevensometimesforcedtocommitatrocitiesintheirhomevillages,againstfriendsandfamily,puttingtheminanevenmoredesperatesituationbecausetheycanneverreturnhome.

Childsoldiersareoftenconsidered“cheaper”tokeep.Theyeatless,theyaremoreresilientandneedlessmedicalcare(orattheveryleastareprovidedlesscare)andaremuchmorepredictableintheiractions.

Thereismuchglobaltalkofnuclearconflictand“weaponsofmassdestruction.”Lt.General(Ret.)RomeoDallaire,commanderoftheUNforcesinRwandain1994andnowaCanadiansenator,usesthatsamelanguagewhentalkingabouttheuseofchildsoldiers.“Childrenhavebecomethenewweapons

system,”heexplains.“They’renothigh-tech,buttheyareweaponsofmassdestruction.Howdoyoufightawaragainstchildren?”

Firesareaconstantthreattofamiliesintheinternaldisplacementcamps.Thetarpedhutsareevidenceofrecentfiresintheregion.

Thatquestionalone,isamoraldilemmathatmayneverhaveanyanswers.HumanrightsorganizationsworldwideareworkingwiththeUnitedNations

andindividualcountriestoendtheuseofchildsoldiers.Muchworkisalsobeingdonetosupportchildsoldiersaftertheendoftheirtimeinconflict.Regardlessofthelengthoftimeasactiveparticipantsinwar,thetraumaislife-altering.ThecurrentstreamofsupportisthroughDemobilization,DisarmamentandReintegration(DDR)programsthatarefocusedonprovidingpsycho-socialsupport,alongwitheducation,trainingandskillsforthesechildrensotheycanmakeanattemptatlifebackhomeintheircommunities.

WhiletheseDDRprogramsdoexist,therearetoofewofthemworldwide.Andwhentheydoexist,theylacktheresourcesnecessarytoprovidefortheneedsofthesenowincrediblyvulnerablereturnees.Moreoftenthannot,thesechildrenareleftontheirowntocopewithachildhoodlostandaleveloftraumafewcanevenbegintocomprehend.Thesesoldiersareaboveallelse,simplychildren,whocontinuetosufferfromtheeffectsofthewarstheyhavebeenforcedtofight.

ANNU

BorninaWarZoneAnnuwoketothesoundsofgunfire.Itwasn’tunusual,andthatwaspartofthetragedyofherlife.Warwasallshe’dknown.Sincethetimeofherbirthhercountryhadbeenatcivilwar,andconflictwasasmuchapartofherlifeasthehugsofhermother.

Buttodayitseemeddifferent.Itwasn’tjustafewshotsanditdidn’tseemtobestopping.Infactitwasgettingmorefrequentand,morefrighteningly,louderandcloser.Sheknewshehadtoact.

Sherolledfromherbed—thebedshesharedwithhermother.Shecalledoutforhermother,buttherewasnoanswer.Shewasalone.Sheknewhermothercouldhavegonetothemarketorwasatthehomeofafriendorfamilymember.Whileshewasworriedaboutbeingalone,itwasn’tthatunusual;Annuwasn’tababy,shewasalmostsevenyearsold.Shewasoldenoughtoknowthatsheneededtoseekcover,notrunouttofindhermother.Hermotherwouldtakeshelterandshehadtodothesame—butwhere?

Shetriedtostopherheartfrompoundingsoloud.Shetriedtoslowherbreathingandherthoughts.Sheneededtolisten.Sheneededtothink.Shelistenedforthesoundsofthegunfire.Shehadenoughexperiencetoknowthatitwasgunsorrifles,andnotcomingfromahelicopteroraircraft.Thatwasimportant.Whattypeofgunfiredeterminedwheresheshouldflee.Ifitwasfirecomingfromtheskyshewouldheadtothebunker,thelittlecoveredtrenchbehindherhouse;butifitwascomingfromthegroundshehadtogetoutofthehousebutavoidthebunker.Itwashiddenfromthesky,butanysoldierswalkingalongthegroundwouldeasilyfindit—andfindher.

Annuknewshehadtofindaplacetohide.Forafewsecondsshestoodthere,frozeninplace,thinkingabouthermother,hopingshewassafe,butalsothinkingaboutwheresheneededtogotofindsafetyaswell.Sherealizedthatshecouldn’thelphermother,buttherewassomebodyshecouldhelp.Lyinginthecornerofthesmallroom,sleepingonanoldblanket,washercat,Kutti.Kuttiwasn’tverybig.Itwasjustagray-and-whiteballoffur,butshelovedAnnuandAnnulovedhercat.ShegrabbedKuttiinherarmsandranoutside.

Annuonher5thbirthday.Annu’shousewassmall.Herparentshadplannedtomakeabiggerhouse,but

thenthewarbrokeout.Therewasn’tanypointinbuildingsomethingthatmightbedestroyedordamagedoneday.Alargerhousewouldhavetowaituntiltherewaspeace.They’dbeenwaitingalongtime.

Thepropertyitselfwasn’tmuchbiggerthanthehouse.Itwasrockyroughground,andtheycouldn’tplantcrops.OnlythePalmyratreesgrew.Itwastheleavesofthesetreesthatformedtheroofoftheirhouseandthefencethatsurroundedtheproperty.Amongthetreeswasagigantichaystack.Hergrandparents,wholivedjustafewhousesaway,hadleftthestacktheretofeedtheirlivestock.ThiswastheplaceAnnuwouldhide.

Annuandherfirstcousins.Annusitsinthemiddlewearingapinkdress.SixofhercousinsnowliveinCanada,therestareinIndia,London,England,andSriLanka(Colombo).

Shemadeherwaytothehaystack,Kuttiinherarms.Thehaystacksatclosertotheroadthanherhome,butshehopeditwouldbesafe.Anysoldierswalkingdownherdrivewouldgotothehouseandthentothebunkertosearch.

Asshewalkedshestrokedthecatandquietlytalkedtoit.MaybeshewastryingtoreassureKutti.Probablyshewastryingtoreassureherself.Thegunfiregotlouderandlouder.Whoeverwasouttherewaswagingabattle.SheknewononesidewouldbemembersoftheTamilTigersandontheothereithergovernmenttroopsormaybemembersoftheIndianArmy—peoplewhohadbeensentintocreatepeacebutnowwerejustanotherpartoftheconflict.IftheTamilfighterswonanddroveawaytheotherside,sheknewshe’dbesafe.Shehopedshe’dbesafe.Astraybullet,oncefired,didn’taskwhoithitorwhoitkilled.Civilians,littlechildren,didn’thavetobetheintendedtargettobetheoneskilled.Sheknewthestories.Sheknewthevictims.Adults,women,oldpeopleandchildren,evenbabies,hadbeencaughtinthedeadlycrossfireandhadtheirlivesended.

Hidingbehindthehaystackshefeltsaferbutscaredandvulnerable.Itwassuchabigpilethatitcertainlyhidherfromanybodypassingontheroad,butsheknewthathaywouldn’tstopabullet.Shealsoknewthatshewassimplybehindthestackandthatasoldierwalkingthroughthefrontgateanddownthedrivewaywouldseeher.Sheneededtoburrowintothestackofhay.

Kuttiwasjustastray.Annuwasn’tsureifshefoundthecatorthecatfound

Kuttiwasjustastray.Annuwasn’tsureifshefoundthecatorthecatfoundher.Whatshewassureofwashowmuchshelovedthecat,andsheknewitcaredforhertoo.Theyhadaspecialbond,andAnnulovedtostrokethecatasmuchasthecatlovedtobestroked.WhenitsawAnnuitwouldruntowardher,perhapshopingforasmalltreatthatsometimescame,butmorejustwantingtobepetted,tobeshownloveandaffection.Insomewayscatsareverymuchlikepeople.

Butnow,asshetriedtoburrowintothestraw,hercatwasnothappy.Itclawedatherarms,tryingtogetfree.AndasdeterminedasKuttiwastogetfree,Annuwasdeterminedtokeepitsafe.

“Holdstill!”shewhisperedatthecatasitcontinuedtostruggle.“Ifthesoldiersseeyou,theywillshootyou!”

Annudidn’tknowthesoldiers.WhethertheywereIndian—andHindu,likemostoftheTamils—orgovernmentsoldiers,sheonlyknewtofearthem.Sheandhermotherhadbeentakenfrombusesandsearchedandquestionedandtheiridentificationchecked.Andshewouldjuststandthere,clutchhermother’shand,buryherfaceinherside,hopingthatthestoriesshe’dheardweren’tabouttohappentoher—peopletakentojailbythesoldierstobetorturedorkilled,orshotrightthereatthesideoftheroad.

She’dheardthestoryofalittleboy,noolderthanher,whowasshotdeadbecausethesoldiersheardhimsingasongcelebratingtheTamilTigers.Shehadn’tbeentherebutshe’dheardthestories.Everybodyknew.Evensmallchildren.Therewerealwayslotsofstories.

Whatshehadseenwithherowneyeswerepeoplebeingyelledat,pushedinthebackwithguns,pulledoffthebusesandputinthebacksofjeepstobetakentoplacesshehadnowayofknowing—wasitjail...wasittorture...wasittobekilled?Herimaginationwaslefttofillintheblanks.Shehadheardthecriesofherneighborsandherfamilymembers,cryingoverthedeathofsomebodytheylovedwhowasnowgone.Onestorystoodoutvividlyinhermemory.

Aneighbor,agoodfriendofthefamily,hadcomebackfromthefuneralofherdaughter.ThedaughterhadbeenamemberoftheLiberationTigersofTamilEelam(LTTE).Annuhadrememberedthefightingthedaybefore,anditwasinthatbattlethattheneighbor’sdaughterhadbeenkilled.Onlyafewhadbeenallowedtoseethebodybeforethefuneralbecausetheheadhadbeensevered.Thewholevillagehadcometotheneighbor’shometopayrespecttothefamily.Andallnight,longafterdarkhadfallenandthepeoplehadgonehome,Annucouldhearthemothercrying.Shethoughtthatthemothersoundedlikea

woundedanimal.Itwentonandon,keepingAnnuawake.Itwasthelastsoundsheheardbeforeshefinallymanagedtogettosleep.

Kutti’sclawsrakedAnnu’sarm.Herfirsturgewastojustreleaseit.Hersecondwastostrikeitforhurtingher.Shedidneither.Shehelditmorefirmlywiththeonehandwhileshecontinuedtoburythembothinthehay,usingherbodyasalittlesheltertoprotectthecat.Sheusedallherpower,pinningthecatagainstherinsuchawaythatitcouldn’tescape.Shewasnotgoingtolethercatsufferthefateofotherpets.

Annuhadagoodfriendwholivednotfar.Theywereschoolmates.Herfriendhadadog.Itwasanicedog.Itlivedoutside,tiedtoastake.Itwasapet,butitalsowasawatchdog.Itwouldbarkwhenpeoplecame,warningthemofvisitorsorstrangers.Warningthemofdanger.

Herfriendandherfamilyhadheardtheplaneupaboveandknewtheyhadtofleetheirhome.Sometimestheplanesdroppedbombs,orgunfirespewedoutandhitpeopleontheground.Thenoisewasgettinglouderandlouder,andtheyran,stumbling,jumpingintothelittlebunkerbehindtheirhouse.Thatbunker,likemost,wasn’tmuchmorethanaditch,ashighastheirheads,coveredatthetop,sometimeswithmetalandthenalayerofPalmyraleavestodisguiseitsoitcouldn’tbeseenfromtheair.Thewholefamilyscrambledinandpulledtheroofintoplace.

TherewasnodoubtthatAnnuandhermotherwereinasimilarholeinthegroundonthatnight.InsomestrangewayAnnulikedthebunker.Thewallswereonlymadeofdirtandthebottomoftenheldaafewinchesofrainwater,butitseemedsomuchsaferthantheirhouse.Herethewallsweretheearthitselfandbulletscouldn’tpenetrate.Ofcoursenothingcouldstopabombbeingdroppedfromabove,andAnnuhadseenthewallsshake—feltthegroundshake—whenabombhitcloseby.She’devenheardoffamilieswhohadbeenburiedintheirbunkersasthesidescollapsed.Shetriednottothinkaboutanyofthat.

Forherfriendthatnightitfeltlikethebombsweredroppingalmostontopofthem.Anditwasn’tjustoneblast,butasecondandathirdandafourth.Theyallhuddledtogether,waiting,praying,hoping,andthenitstopped.Nomoreblasts.Andastheylistened,thesoundoftheairplanefadedawayandwasgonecompletely.Theyliftedtheleaves,pushedtheroofasideandclimbedout.Nowthattheyweresafetheyhopedtheirhousewassafe.Theymovedslowly,stilllistening.Thehouseremained—thewallsandtheroofwereintact.

Thenthefamilysawthedog.Thecollarwasstillarounditsneck,theropestillpeggedtotheground,butthedogwasdead.Therewasnodoubt.Itwasrippedintwo,halfstilltiedup,theotherhalfadozenfeetaway.

rippedintwo,halfstilltiedup,theotherhalfadozenfeetaway.Annuhadn’tseenit,buttheimagewassostronginhermindthatshe’dnever

forgetit.And,shewouldneverletthisfatebethatofherKutti.Thecathadgivenupthestruggle.PartlybecauseAnnuhaditsotightly

pinnedtoherbodythatithadnoroomtostruggle,butpartly,shehoped,becauseitknewthatshewastheretotakecareofit.ThenKuttistartedtocallout.ThefirstplaintivecryhadalmoststartledAnnu.

“Bequiet,”shehissedatthecat.“Don’tshoutout...youmightgetusbothkilled!”

Sheputherhandoverthecat’smouth.Itstillmadelittlesoundsbutitwasn’tabletoscreechanymore.Nowshehadonehandtoholdthecatandthesecondtoholditsmouthclosed.Therewasnohandfreetostrokethecatanymore.Shelookeddown.

DEMOCRATICSOCIALISTREPUBLICOFSRILANKAPopulation:22,200,000Location:Latitude:7°N,Longitude:81°E,anislandintheIndianOceansouthofIndiaArea:65,600squarekilometersClimate:tropical,monsoonLanguages:Sinhala(OfficialandNationallanguage)74%Tamil(National)18%Other8%English(usedby10%ofthepopulation)Ethnicity:Sinhalese74%Moors7%IndianTamils4.6%SriLankanTamils3.9%Others10%Religion:Buddhist70%

Muslim8%Hindu7%Christian6%LifeExpectancy:73yearsInfantMortalityRate:13deathsper1,000livebirthsPerCapitaIncome:$4,600Literacyrate:92%(male94%,female92%)

Annu’smotherhadacamera;sheusedtodressupAnnuforpictures.Annu’sgrandfatherisinthebackground.

Thelittlecatlookedscared.Shewasscaredtoo,butthensherealizedthatKuttiwasafraidofher!Kuttididn’tknowwhyshewasdoingthis,whythelittlegirlwhohadalwaystreatedhersonicelywasnowhurtingher.Thecatdidn’tknowwhy,itjustknewthatitwashappening.

Insomewaysthecatandthelittlegirlhadalotincommon.Annudidn’treallyknowwhythewarwashappening.Shedidn’tknowaboutthebigissues,aboutpolitics,orpeaceorworldopinion.AllsheknewwasthatherfamilywasTamilandthatpeoplesheknewandlovedwerebeingkilled.PeoplesheknewhadbecomemembersoftheTamilTigers,andshewastoldtheywerefightingforher,fightingforherfuture.Whentheywonabattle,thestreetswerefilled

forher,fightingforherfuture.Whentheywonabattle,thestreetswerefilledwithpeoplecheering.TherewereloudspeakersplayingpatrioticsongsthatcelebratedTamilfighters.

Graduallythegunfirebecamelessfrequent,andthenitstoppedaltogether.Annustayedinthehaystackalittlebitlonger.Sheknewthatitwasbesttowait,tobesafeandmakesureitwasn’tjustatalullbutatanend.Finallysatisfiedshepushedasidethestrawandsteppedintothedaylight.Shereleasedhercatandbeforeshecouldreachdowntoreassureitthateverythingwassafeitranoff,racingbetweenthetrees,aroundthesideofherhouseanddisappeared.

Nowitwassafeforhertogobacktothehouseandwaitforhermothertoreturn.Ormaybeitwouldbeacousinsenttogetheroranauntormaybeoneofhergrandparents.Shehopeditwashermother.ThenAnnuwouldknowhermotherwassafe.Thatwasthemostimportantthing,hermother,becauseherfatherwasn’tthereanymore.

Annu’sfather,likesomanymeninthevillage,hadfledthecountry.Theydidn’twanttobekilledbythearmy.Alltheywantedwasasafelifefortheirfamilies,andthey’dleftthecountrytotrytoestablishalife,getajob,createahomeandtaketheirfamiliesawayfromthiswar.Annu’sfatherhadleftwhenshewaslessthantwo.Hereturnedtothefamilyforshortvisits,butmainlyhispicturewasthemostsheknewofhim.Someday,herparentshadpromised,theywouldallbetogether,anditwouldbeinaplacewheretheydidn’thavetofearfortheirlives,aplacethatwouldbesafe.

Annuwastoldstories,andpromisesweremade.Thosestorieswerejustthat—stories.Wasthereactuallyaplacewherepeopledidn’thavetoliveinfear,wheregunfiredidn’tpunctuatetheday,wherefamilieslivedtogetherinpeace?Shehoped,butshedidn’tknow.

Rightnowshewasjustworriedabouthermothercominghome.Andshethoughtabouthercat,thewayithadrunawayfromher,thelookinitseyeswhenshewasjusttryingtosaveitslife.Itdidn’tunderstandwhyshewastreatingitsoroughly.Annuunderstood.Shehadnochoice,butthecatdidn’tunderstand.

Annu’smotherreturnedshortlyafter.Kuttiwasneverseenagain.

Follow-up:AnnuAnnuandhermotherleftSriLankatobeunitedwithAnnu’sfather.ThefamilyultimatelyimmigratedtoCanada.Annuisnowtwenty-twoyearsofageandrecentlygraduatedfromuniversity.

recentlygraduatedfromuniversity.

HistorySriLankaisanislandcountrylocatedintheIndianOcean,justsouthofIndia.Itcontainsanancientcivilizationwithcontinuousdocumentedsettlementforclosetothreethousandyears.Itexistedasanumberofindependentkingdomsorterritoriesformostofthistimeperiod.

WhilealwayscloselyintertwinedwiththeIndianSubcontinent,thenorthernpartoftheislandwas,atonepoint,seizedbyasouthernIndiandynasty,andaTamilKingdomwasestablished.

ItcameundertheinfluenceofvariousEuropeancountries,beginningwiththePortugueseinthesixteenthcentury,thentheDutchintheseventeenthcentury,andtheislandwascededtoBritainin1796.TheentireislandwasunitedunderBritishrulein1815andwascalledCeylon.Itwasconsideredvaluablenotonlyforthewarmclimateandfertilefieldsthatproducednumerouscrops—especiallytea—butalsobecauseofitsstrategicpositioninthesealanes.

Withevengreaterpotentialforagriculturaluses,theBritishimportedfromsouthernIndiaclosetoonemillionIndianTamilstoworkinthelarge-scaleplantations.Thiscreateda“visitor”populationthatwascloselyrelatedtotheSriLankanTamilsbutconsideredbymany,especiallythemajoritySinhalesepopulation,asnottrulybeingSriLankan.

TheBritishEmpirecontrolledcountriesandpeoplearoundtheworld.Thepeopleinvariouscountries,includingIndiatothenorthandCeylon,beganaskingformorerightsandfreedoms.In1948Ceylonbecameanindependentcountrywithcitizensbeinggiventherighttovotefortheirgovernment.

Withtherighttovote,therewerefearsintheminoritycommunitiesthatthe

Withtherighttovote,therewerefearsintheminoritycommunitiesthatthemajoritygroup,theSinhalese,wouldestablishdominancetosuchadegreethattherightsoftheminoritieswouldbereducedorimpinged.Therewasanacknowledgmentthatthegovernmentwouldprotectminorityrightsandrecognizethecountryasbeingpluralisticinnature.

TheSinhalese,whospokeSinhalaandwerealmostexclusivelyBuddhist,composedalmost75percentofthepopulation.TheTamilswerecomposedoftwogroups,IndianandSriLankanTamils,andtheycombinedtoformthelargestminoritygroup.TheyspokeTamilastheirprimarylanguageandweremainlyHindu,buthadasignificantnumberofCatholicsaswell.Athirdgroup,theMoors,wasMuslim.Whileallthreegroupslivedthroughoutthecountry,theTamilsformedamajorityofthepopulationinpartsofthenorthandeastofthecountry.

AteaplantationinSriLanka.Teaaccountsforalmost25%ofSriLanka’sexportearnings.

Thedreamsofapluralisticcountry,representingallgroups,quicklydissolvedonceindependencewasreached.OneofthefirstactsofthegovernmentwastodisenfranchisetheIndianTamils,removingtheirrighttovote.ThiswasdonedespitethefactthatthevastmajorityofthesepeoplewereborninSriLanka,asweretheirparentsand,insomecases,theirgrandparents.

Subsequently,Sinhalawasmadetheofficiallanguageofthenewlyformed

Subsequently,Sinhalawasmadetheofficiallanguageofthenewlyformedcountry,contrarytoanunderstandingthatTamilwasalsogoingtoberecognizedasanequallanguage.

LeadersintheTamilcommunityattemptedtoundertakepoliticalactiontogetthelanguagerecognizedandtoreceivemorerightsandfreedoms,especiallyinareaswheretheTamilsformedthemajority.TheseeffortswerenotjustsupportedintheircommunitybutbymoderatemembersoftheSinhalesecommunity.But,therewerealsomembersofthiscommunitywhostronglyopposedtheextensionofminorityrights.Therewasbothpoliticalprotestandviolenceagainstthemoderates.Themostextremeexampleofthisoccurredin1959,whentheprimeminister,whowasSinhaleseandwishedtoextendfurtherminorityrights,wasassassinatedbyaBuddhistmonk.

Continuedeffortsbygoodpeopleinbothcommunitiestoresolvetheseissuestoallowminorityrightstobeprotectedwerecontinuallythwartedbyextremeelementsinbothcommunities.SomeTamilssimplywantedcompleteTamilindependenceandwouldnotconsideranythingless.SomeSinhalesewantedcompletedominationandwouldacceptnothinglessthanSriLankabeingconsideredaSinhalese-Buddhiststate.Theseextremepositionsandpeoplecontinuallypushedthemoderatemajoritiesonbothsides,andpeacefulattemptstoapoliticalsolutionwereunsuccessful.Thissituationcombinedwithhistoricalfactorsweretheprecursorsfortheeruptionofacivilwar.

TheConflictSeeingnoprogressinthepeacefulprocessofnegotiation,somemembersoftheTamilcommunitybecamemoreopentoelementswhobelievedthatviolencewastheonlysolution.Variousgroupsevolvedunderdifferentleadership,butultimatelyoneorganization,theLiberationTigersofTamilEelam(LTTE),becamethedominantmilitarygroup.ItwasadvocatingforprotectionofTamilrightsandfreedoms,adesiretocreateasemi-autonomousprovincewithinSriLankaorthecreationofacompletelyseparateTamilnationintheareasinthenorthandeastofthecountrywhereTamilsformedamajorityofthepeople.

ThisgroupwasfundedbylocalTamils,Tamilslivingabroadandsendingbackmoney,and,allegedly,bycriminalactivitiesthatincludedrobbingbanksorgovernmentinstitutions.

Whilethisconflicthadbeenongoinginsomeformformanyyears,thecivilwaristhoughttohavebeenignitedbytwosignificantincidents.TheSriLankanprimeministerwasassassinatedbyasuicidebomberbelievedtobeTamil.On

July23,1983,theTamilTigersambushedandkilledthirteenmembersoftheSriLankanarmy.ThereactioninvolvedmobsattackingandkillingTamils.Vehicleswerestoppedatintersections,andiftheoccupantswereTamils,thevehicleandpeopleweresetonfire.Tamilhousesweresetonfire,lootedordestroyed.Therearedifferentaccountsofthenumberofpeoplekilledandhomesdestroyed.Estimatesrangefrom400to3,000deathswith1,000beinggenerallyacceptedasareasonablyaccuratenumber.Therewerebetween10,000and18,000homesdestroyed,andthefirstmassexodustookplaceastensofthousandsofTamilsleftthesouthandfledtothenorth,whereTamilsfeltsafe.ThishascometobeknownasBlackJulyandiscommemoratedbytheTamilcommunityeveryyearthroughpeacefuldemonstrationsaroundtheworld.

SomemembersoftheTamilcommunitybelievethatthemobswereinstigatedbythegovernment.Whilethereisnocredibleandcertainprooftosupporttheseallegations,itisclearthatpolicemenandsoldiersstoodbyintheearlystagesanddidnotattempttostoptheviolenceorprotectthevictimsandtheirhomes.

TheconflictbetweentheSriLankanforcesandtheforcesoftheLTTEoriginatedasabattlebetweenaregularmilitaryforceandaguerillagroup.Thegovernmentforcesweremuchmorenumerous,hadthesupportofaircraft,heavyequipmentandgreaterweaponry.TheyweresupportedbythemajoritySinhalesepopulationandcontrolledthevastmajorityofthecountry.

TheLTTEutilizedguerillatechniques,includingambushes,roadsidebombings,suicidebombingsandassassinations.Thesetechniquesresultedinthedeathsofmanyciviliansandinnocentvictimsaswellasmembersofthegovernmentforces.

Asthecivilwarcontinued,theLTTEbecamebetterequipped,bettertrainedandbeganengagingtheSriLankanarmyinregularcombat.Theydroveoutgovernmentforcesinsectionsofthenorthandeast,effectivelycreatingaseparateandautonomousTamilstate.

Thegovernmentrespondedtothisbysendingoverwhelmingforces,supportedbyaircraft,toattacktheLTTEstrongholdinJaffna.ItappearedthatthesiegeandsubsequentcombatwasonthevergeofcrushingtheTigerswhenIndiaintervenedinthecivilwarbyusingitshighlysuperiorairforcetodropsuppliestotheTamils,breakingthesiege.

TheroleoftheIndiangovernmentinitsdecisiontointerveneinanothercountry’sinternalconflictwashighlyunusual.ItwasfueledbythefactsthatthereweremanyIndianTamils,thatmostTamilsareHinduandthatthesouthernpartofIndiahasalargeTamilpopulation.

WiththeinterventionofIndia,theconflictonceagainbecameastalematebetweenthetwoforces.Indiathentookthestep,withcooperationoftheSriLankangovernment,ofsendinginalargegroupoftroopstothoseareasinthenorthandeastwheretheconflictwastakingplace.Thisgroup,knownastheIndianPeaceKeepingMission,wasmandatedtosuperviseandseparatethegroups,attempttodisarmtheTamilTigers(LTTE)andprotecttherightsoftheTamilpopulation.

Whatstartedasahumanitarianeffortquicklydegenerated,andviolencebeganbetweentheIndianPeaceKeepingForceandtheTamilTigers.Thisconflictlastedfor32months,endinginMarch,1990.Inthattimetherewereover1,000Indiansoldiersandanestimated4,000Tamilskilled.Thisviolenceevencontinuedafterthewithdrawalofthetroops,whenanLTTEwomanassassinatedtheformerIndianprimeminister,RajivGandhi,inasuicidebombing.

WiththewithdrawaloftheIndianPeaceKeepingForcetherewasapowervacuum.TheSriLankangovernmentforceswerenotabletofillthatgap,andrivalTamilfactionsfought,withtheTamilTigerseventuallytakingcontrol.Theyinitiatedmanygovernmentservicesand,inessence,setupatemporaryprovisionalgovernmentinsomeareas.

Thisshiftalsomarkedanotherphase,wherebattleseruptedbetweenTamilandMuslimfactions.Itisestimatedthatuptotwenty-eightthousandMuslimswereforcedtoleavetheJaffnaareainaninstanceofethniccleansing,movingsouth,fleeinginfearfortheirlivesashomesandbusinessesweredestroyedandpeoplewerekilled.Itwasreportedthatburningbodiesonthesideofroadswasacommonsight.Thegovernmentbeganagaintouseitstroopsandairforcetobringtherebelsundercontrol.Aerialbombingwasaconstantthreattociviliansthroughoutthearea,andrunninggunbattlesbetweentheTamilTigersandgovernmentforcesoftensawciviliansandchildrenasinnocentvictimscaughtinthecrossfire.

In2001,eighteenyearsafterthecommencementofthecivilwar,formaltalksbeganaboutacease-fire.Thisagreement,brokeredbyNorway,calledforthegovernmenttodropitsbanontheTamilTigersandallowasharingofpowerandsomeregionalautonomy.InexchangetheTigersweretodroptheirdemandforanindependentTamilstate.Thisagreementcameintoeffectin2002.

Itisestimatedthatduringthecivilwaroversixty-eightthousandpeoplewerekilled,onemillionpeoplewereinternallydisplacedwithinthecountry,andhundredsofthousandshadleftthecountryandweredispersedthroughouttheworld.

world.Thecease-firewasatemporarymeasuretoallowthetwosidestonegotiatea

lastingpeacesettlementthatwouldsatisfyallparties.Whileitstartedwithhopeandgoodfaith,thenegotiationprocessfailedtofindasolutionandthecease-firewasbrokenonafairlyregularbasis.

ThecoverofanAmnestyInternationallettershowstwochildsoldiersofSriLanka’sTamilTigersguerrillamovement(LTTE)sentaspartofacampaignin

ColomboagainsttheLTTE’srecruitmentofchildren.In2006thecease-firewascompletelyvoided.Inthefirstyearoftheresulting

escalationofviolence,itisbelievedthatover1,000soldierswerekilledandanother100,000Tamilsweredisplaced.Thecivilwarisongoing.

TamilTigers—TerroristsorFreedomFighters?TheLiberationTigersofTamilEelam(LTTE)haveoperatedinsomeformsincetheearly1970s.Theyoriginatedasasmallgroup,oneofmany,whichwereattemptingtoseekprotectionfortheTamilminorityandformeitherasemi-

attemptingtoseekprotectionfortheTamilminorityandformeitherasemi-autonomousTamilstatewithinthecountryofSriLankaoranindependentstateinthenorthandeastoftheisland.Originallythisgroupwassmall,poorlyorganizedandfundedandpracticed,almostexclusively,guerillatechniquesinitsfightagainstthegovernmentforces.

Astheconflictbecameafull-fledgedcivilwarin1983,theTigersbecamethedominantgrouprepresentingthemovementforTamilindependence.Theyhadnotonlyamilitarywingbutapoliticalwingthathadinternationalcontacts.Theorganizationbecamelargerwithovertenthousandmenandwomen,wasbetterfundedandbettertrainedandacquiredmoresophisticatedweaponry.Whiletheycontinuedtoutilizeguerrillatactics,theywereabletoengagetheSriLankansecurityforcesinmoreconventionalbattles.

TheTigers,whileseenasfreedomfightersbymanyTamils,havecarriedonactivitiesthathavealsohadthemlabeledasterrorists.Theseactivitiesincludetheextensiveuseofsuicidebombingsthathaveresultedinthedeathsofinnocentcivilians;targetingpoliticalfiguresforassassination,includingaSriLankanprimeministerandaformerIndianprimeminister;killinginnocentcivilians;theethniccleansingofMuslimsinJaffna;recruitmentanduseofchildsoldiers;andallegationsofkillingotherTamilswhofosteredotherbeliefsorsupportedothergroups.

TheTigershavebeenlistedasaterroristorganizationbycountriesaroundtheworld,includingIndia,theUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,CanadaandtheentireEuropeanUnion.ThislabelisstronglyrefutedbytheorganizationandmembersoftheTamilcommunityinSriLankaandaroundtheworld.Theydenymanyoftheallegationsanddefendcertainactionsasbeingtheconsequencesofanongoingwarfortheirrightsandfreedoms.

IndianConnectionIndiaisthegianttothenorthofSriLanka.Itisthesecondlargestcountrybypopulation,havingoveronebillionpeople,andtheseventhlargestbylandmass.Thetwocountriesareconnectedbygeography—SriLankaisanislandjustoffthecoastofIndia—andbyhistory,bothoncebeingpartoftheBritishEmpireandthenbecomingindependent.

IndiaisahighlydiversecountrythatisprimarilyHindubuthaslargepopulationsofotherreligions,includingthesecondlargestMuslimpopulationintheworld.WhilethenationallanguageisHindi,therearefourteenofficiallanguagesandover400languagesspokenindifferentpartsofthecountry.The

languagesandover400languagesspokenindifferentpartsofthecountry.TheTamillanguageisspokenby61millionpeopleinIndia,primarilyinthesouthintheareasadjacenttoSriLanka.ThispopulationdwarfstheTamilpopulationinSriLankaandisalmostthreetimesaslargeastheentirepopulationofthatcounty.AtonepointtherewasadynastythatlinkedthispopulationofTamilswiththoseinSriLanka,andduringthereignoftheBritishEmpire,amillionIndianTamilsweremovedfromIndiatoSriLankatoworkintheplantations.

IndiahasalwayshadanofficialorunofficialinterestinSriLanka,whichinvolveddirectintervention—theairliftofmaterialsintoJaffnaandtheIndianPeaceKeepingForce—andindirectintervention,includingallowingTamilrefugeestosettlethere,orallegationsthattheyfundedandtrainedTamilindependencefactions.

India’sinvolvementinSriLankahashadtwoprimaryintereststhathavebeendictatedbytherealityofitslargeTamilpopulation.ThecountrycouldnotsitbackandwatchasTamilswerekilled,whichwouldriskinflamingtheirTamilpopulation,butitalsofearedthattheformationofaseparateTamilnationinthenorthofSriLankawouldinspirethoughtsofindependenceintheTamilpopulationinIndia.

ReligionThefourmajorreligionsoftheworld,Islam,Christianity,BuddhismandHinduism,allarerepresentedinthissmallislandnation.

Buddhism:TheBuddhistfaithispracticedbyover300millionpeoplethroughouttheworld,withthelargestconcentrationsbeinginSoutheastAsia.Itis2,500yearsoldandisbasedontheteachingsofSiddharthaGotama.Whileithasbeensubdividedintothreemajorfactions,allascribetoabeliefcenteredonfindingtheMiddleWay,acodeoflifethatseeksmoderation,toleranceandacceptance.Oneoftheprimarypreceptsisthatadherentsshouldrefrainfromthetakingoflifeofanylivingthing.

Hinduism:Itisthethirdlargestreligionintheworldwithoveronebillionadherents.ItiscenteredontheIndianSubcontinentandtheoldestofallmajorreligions.ItisbasedontheVedas,textswhichoriginatedinancientIndia.Withinthereligionisanacceptancethattherearemanygodsandmanydiverseroutestosalvation.

Islam:Itisthesecondlargestreligionintheworldwith1.4billionadherents.ItfollowstheteachingoftheQur’an,whichwasestablishedbytheProphet

Muhammadintheseventhcentury.Ithastwomainsubgroups,theSunniandShi’asects.ItispracticedthroughouttheworldbutcentersintheMiddleEast.

Christianity:Itisthelargestreligionintheworldwith1.8billionmembers.Itisdividedintothreeprimarygroups:theRomanCatholicChurch,theProtestantmovementandOrthodoxCatholicism.AllfollowtheteachingsoftheBibleandbelievethatJesusChrististheSavior,andhisteachingsintheNewTestamentformthebasisofreligioussalvationandpersonallife.

IslamandChristianity,whileinconflictinmanyareasaroundtheworld,sharemanycommonhistoricalroots.

FAROOQ

HomeUnderFireFarooqclimbedthestairs,shieldinghiseyesashesteppedoutintothesunshineofthecourtyard.Itwassobrightcomparedtothedimfaintlightofthebasement.Hesteppedoutandtookadeepbreathofair.Itwascleanandcool.Despitetheclearbrilliantsunlightwithnocloudsinthebluesky,itwasstillwinter,andKabulhadcoldwinters.Hewasbundledupagainsttheweather,buthestillfeltthechillagainsthisface.

Helookedupattheirhouse.Itwasspaciousandfriendly—andnowunoccupied.Theycouldgoinsideduringthedaytoretrievethings—iftherewasnosoundofshelling—buttheyhadabandonedtheirhomeandtakenrefugeinthesmallerbuilding.Itwastheonlybuildingwithabasementanditsatinsidethecourtyardoftheirhomesoitwasmoreprotected.

Beingprotectedwasimportant.Allaroundtheneighborhood—allaroundtheentirecityofKabul—houseshadbeenhitbyrocketsandcannonsandtankshellsandstraybullets.ThecapitalofAfghanistan,Kabulwasabustlingplaceofbusinesses,factories,marketsandmosquesandwashometooveramillionpeople.Now,allacrossthecity,peoplewerebeingkilledandhomeswerebeingdestroyedasrivalmujahideengroupsfoughttogaincontrol.

Ofcourse,Farooq,whowasfive,didn’tknowaboutthisconflict.Hejustknewthatthingsweredifferentforhisfamilyandinhisneighborhood.Hisfather,asuccessfulbusinessman,mostlystayedhome.Farooqdidn’tgotoschool.Theysleptinabasement,cookedinthegarageanddidn’tventureoutoftheirneighborhood.Eventhen,thewarhadcometothem.

Justdownthestreetwasasmallbakery.Hismotherwouldpreparedoughforbread,andoneofFarooq’sjobswastotakethedoughdownthestreettobebaked.Hewasproudtobeofhelptohisfamily,andsinceeverybodyintheneighborhoodkneweachothertherewasnodangerinhimbeingoutaloneevenathisage.

Afghanchildrenwalkpastthewar-damagedDarlamanPalaceinKabul.Sixty-threethousandhomesandmorethan60%ofthestreetsweredamagedinover

twodecadesofconflict.Therewasalwayssomebodyoutwalkingorsweeping,adultsgathering

togethertotalkorlookingoutwindows.Therewerealwaysfriendlyeyeswatchingoutforallthechildren.Afghanisarefamednotjustfortheirhospitalitybutfortheirloveandcaringforchildren.

AsFarooqwalkedbackfromthebakerythatday,carryingthebread,hebrieflystoppedbytheparkonhisstreet.Todaytherewerenochildrenplaying.Thebigrockinthecenterwasempty.He’dbeentoldnottoclimbitanymore.Itwasahighspotwherehecouldseeoutbutalsowherehecouldbeseen.Itwasdangeroustobeseenfromadistance.Hehurriedonhisway.

Suddenlytherewasaloudswooshingsoundandanexplosion.Farooqscreamedandtossedthebreadintotheairashewassplatteredbymudanddirt.Momentarilystunned,heranforhome,findinghismotherandthrowinghimselfintoherarms.

Herfirstquestionwasaboutthebreadandwhathadhappenedtoit,beforesherealizedhowcloseshehadcometolosingherson.Sheheldhimtightly,andheheldon,feelingsafeinherarms.

Thelittlebasementcertainlywasn’thome,butFarooq’smotherhaddoneallshecouldtomakeitcomfortable.Theyhadtakencarpetsandbedsdownintothe

smallbasement.Andbetweenthosethingsandthefire,itwaswarmandcomfortableandkeptoutthecoldwinternights.Together,heandhisparentsandsisterandauntandcousinsleptinthelittleroom.

Farooqmissedsleepinginhisownroom,butpartofhimlikedthemallbeingtogether.Ifhewokeupinthenighthecouldhearthebreathingoftheothers,andinthelightofthefirepeekingoutofthecracksinthewoodstove,hecouldseethesleepingshapesofhismotherandfather.Thosesightsmadehimfeelsafer.

“Farooq,come,”hisfathersaid.Hewascarryingthreewaterjugs.InstantlyFarooqfellinbesidehisfather.Hewasanobedientboy,buthealso

justlikedbeingwithhisfather.Gettingwaterwasadailytask.Thehousehadtapsandrunningwater,but

thathadstoppedworkingweeksbefore.Itandtheelectricitywerethefirstcasualtiesofthefighting.Luckilyforthemtherewasaworkingtapjustafewhousesuponthestreet.

AstheywalkedFarooqheldontoanedgeofhisfather’scoat.He’dbeendoingthatalotlately—sincetheexplosionthathadcomesoclosetohimonhiswalkhomefromthebakery.Hejustfeltbettertoberighttherebyhisfather’sside.WhenFarooqhadfirststartedtodothat,hisfatherhadbrushedhimaway,butnowheknewitwasimportantforhissontobeclose,thatheneededtobeclose.

Astheyapproachedtheysawthattherewasalineupwaitingtogetwater.Thatwasoftenthecase.Theysettledintothebackoftheline,andhisfatherbegantalkingtotheotherswhowerewaiting.Hekneweverybodyandeverybodyknewhim.Theylivedinabigcity,butmainlytheylivedintheirownlittleneighborhood.Almosteverybodylivedcloseby,usedthesamestoresandbusinesses,gatheredonthestreetsandtheparksandworshippedatthelocalmosque.Theywereneighbors,butinsomewaytheywerelikealargerextendedfamily,manyofthemlivingside-by-sideformanygenerations.

Themenplacedtheirwatercontainersonthegroundinalittleline,andtheyclusteredtogetheringroups.Somesquatteddown,whileothersstood.Manysmokedcigarettes,andtheyallexchangedstoriesaboutwhatwasgoingoninthecity.

Farooqwastooyoungtounderstandmuchofwhattheysaid,butsomethingsseemedcleareventoaboyofhisage.Theremighthavebeensomelaughter,butthemenweremainlysomberandserious.Whateverwashappeningwasn’tgood.Heheardstoriesaboutpeople—peopleintheneighborhood—beingwounded,orevenkilled.Theytalkedaboutfamilieswhohadleft.Theyhadgathered

orevenkilled.Theytalkedaboutfamilieswhohadleft.Theyhadgatheredwhatevertheycouldcarry,orputintheircarsorcarts,andabandonedtheirhouses,goingtostaywithfamilyinanotherpartofthecountrywherethefightinghadpassedorhadn’thappened.

Farooqknewofpeoplewhohadleft.Someofthefriendshe’dplayedwith,thematesfromhisschool,weregone.Nowhemainlyplayedwithhiscousinandhislittlesister—twoyearsyoungerandnotmuchofaplaymate.

Farooqwasafraidofthebombs,butthelastthinghewantedtodowasleavehishomeandallhisthingsbehind.Thiswastheonlyplacehe’deverlived,theonlyplacehe’deverknown.Buthealsoknewthathehadnochoice.Hewouldsimplygowhere-everhisfatherdecidedwasbest.

“Itwasbadenoughwhenwewerebeingkilledbyforeigners,”oneofthemeninlinesaidtoanother.“ButnowitisAfghaniskillingotherAfghanis.”

“Abulletdoesn’tcareaboutthenationalityofthepersonithits,”anothermansaid.

“Butitshouldn’tbefiredbyoneAfghaniatanother,”thefirstprotested.“ARussianbulletoranAfghanibulletkillsthesame.”“IjustprayedthatwhentheRussianswereforcedtoleavethatitwouldbe

different,”thefirstmansaid.Farooq’sfatherjustshrugged.Hewasnotapoliticalman.Hewasa

businessman.HehadlivedthroughtheinvasionoftheRussiansthewayhisancestorshadlivedthroughinvasionbytheBritish,andbeforethat,Darius,GenghisKhan,TamerlaneandAlexandertheGreat.ThegreatestarmiesinhistoryhadinvadedAfghanistanoverthecenturies,butnonehadeverbeenabletotameorcontrolitforlong.TheAfghaniswerestrongandtoughandpridedthemselvesontheirindependence.Theyhadalwaysthrownoutinvadersandreclaimedtheircountry.Andnowwiththelatestinvadersexpelled,acivilwarwastakingplaceasdifferentsidestriedtofillthepowervacuumleftbehindbytheretreatingRussians.

AFGHANISTAN

Population:32,000,000Location:Latitude:33°N,Longitude:65°E,southernAsiaArea:647,000squarekilometersClimate:coldwinters,hotsummers,aridtosemi-aridLanguages:AfghanPersian(Dari)(Official)50%Pashtu(Official)35%Turkiclanguages11%Ethnicity:Pashtun42%Tajik27%Uzbek9%Religions:SunniMuslim80%Shi’aMuslim19%Other1%LifeExpectancy:44yearsInfantMortalityRate:157per1,000livebirthsPerCapitaIncome:$800LiteracyRate:28%(male43%,female12%)

Slowlytheyhadmoveduptheline;nowitwastheirturn.Hisfatherfilledthreewatercontainers,givingthefirsttoFarooqtocarry.Astheystartedtowalk,Farooqheldontohisfather’scoatwithonehand.

“Usebothhandsforthecontainer,”hisfathersaid.“Ifyouspillityou’llbegoingbackbyyourselftofillit.”

Farooqdidwhathewastold.Hedidneedbothhandstocarrytheheavycontainer.

“There’snothingtoworryabout,”hisfathersaidtohim.“What?”“There’snoneedforyoutoworry,”hisfatherrepeated.“I’llmakesuremy

familyissafe.”Theydroppedoffthewaterinthegarage.Thiswastheirkitchennow,the

placewheremealswereprepared.Sometimestheyateinthere.Sometimesinthecourtyard,whentheweatherallowed.Othertimes,especiallywhentherewasthesoundofshellingorbullets,theyateintheshelterofthebasement.

Hismotherwasalreadyinthegaragepreparingbreakfast.Farooqputdownhiswatercontainerandquietlywentbackoutsidebeforehecouldbegivenmoreworktodo.Carryingwaterwasonethingbuthelpingtopreparebreakfastwasanother.

another.Ashewalkedoutdoors,hereachedintohispocketandpulledsomemarbles

out.Hehadmanytoysandgames,butplayingmarbleswasoneofhisveryfavoritethingstodo.Hestoppedinalittlepatchofsunnydirtinthecornerofthecourtyard.Hebentdownandwithhisfingerhedrewacircle.Heplacedsomeofthesmallermarblesinside—hewasgoingtousethelargerone,hisluckymarble,toknocktheothersout.

“Canweplay?”Itwashiscousinandhissister.Playingmarbleswithhiscousinwasone

thing,buthissister,Zakia,onlythree,wastooyoungtodoanythingexceptcausetrouble.Hewasn’tpositive,buthethoughtshehadactuallyswallowedsomeofhismarblesbefore.

“Youcanplay,”hesaidtohiscousin.“Andshecanwatch,”hecontinued,pointingtohissister.

Shesatdownontheground.Shedidn’tseemtoodisappointed.Shewasjusthappytobearoundherbigbrother.

Farooqhandedhiscousinoneofthebigmarbles.Theideaofthegamewastotakethebigmarbleand“flick”itsothatithitthelittlemarblesinthecircle.Ifyouknockedoutoneofthelittlemarbles,thenitwasyours.Somethebiggerkidsplayeditfor“keeps.”Theygottokeepwhatevermarblestheyknockedoutofthecircle.ForFarooqandhiscousin,theyjustdiditforfun.Theywere,afterall,justkids,andplayingwaswhattheywantedtodo.Andwhiletheywereplaying,theyforgoteverythingelse—allthosethingsthatwerehappeningoutbeyondtheirhome.

Theykneeleddowninthedirtbesidethecircleandtookturns.Hiscousinwasgood,butFarooqwasbetter.Morethanhalfthetimehehitoneofthelittlemarblesandmostofthetimeitskitteredoutofthecircle.

Suddenlythequietwasbroken.Therewasaloudsound—likeanengine—andFarooqlookedup.Justovertheirheadsstreakedasilvershape,arocket!Therewasaloudshoooshingsoundasitpassedover,andthenatremendousexplosion!

Farooqjumpedtohisfeetandstartedtorunbeforeheheardthescreaming.Hestoppedandturnedbackaround.Hiscousinwascut,bloodpouringfromhisface,andhissisterwaslyinginthedirt,facedown,bloodcomingfromherback!

Hismotherandfatherranover,screaming,andscoopedthechildrenupandcarriedallthreedowntothebasement.Quicklyhisparentslookedattheinjuries.Bothchildrenhadbeenhitbydebristhrownupintheairwhentherockethad

Bothchildrenhadbeenhitbydebristhrownupintheairwhentherockethadlanded—maybeitwasbitsofrockorconcrete.Therewasblood—comingfromthenoseofhiscousin,andfromasmallwoundonhissister’sback—buttheinjurieswereminor.Ittooklongertocalmdownhissisterthanitdidtocleanoutthewound.She’dbefine.They’dallbefine...fornow.

Follow-up:FarooqFarooq,hismother,fatherandsisterlefttheirhome.Theywalkedfortwodaysinthecoldandrain,narrowlyavoidingdeath,withonlythepossessionstheycouldcarry,totraveloutofKabulandtothehomeofarelative.Over25,000people,mainlycivilians,werekilled,andone-thirdofthecitywascompletelydestroyed.

SubsequentlythefamilyimmigratedtoIndiain1996,andthentoCanadain1998,wherehisyoungestsister,Rabia,wasborn.Farooqhasrecentlygraduatedfromhighschoolandistakingfurthercoursestopreparehimtopursueacareerineitherbusinessorlawenforcement.HeisproudofbothhisAfghaniheritageandhisCanadianfuture.

HistoryAfghanistanhasbeenhometohumansettlementforover50,000yearsandwasoneofthefirstdocumentedplaceswherefarmingtookplace.ItisatthecrossroadsofAsiaandhasbeenreferredtoasthegatewaybetweenAsiaandEurope.Ithasbeencontinuallyexposedtotravelers,traders,invadersandconquerors.ItwasconqueredbyDariusofBabylonin500BC,AlexandertheGreatin329BC,Islamicconquerorsinthe7thcentury,MuhmujdofGhazniinthe11thcentury,GenghisKhaninthe13thcentury,variousArabandPersiandynasties(includingTamerlanefromPersia),theBritishEmpireinthe1800sandtheSovietUnionfrom1979–1989.Throughouttheserecurrentinvasions,

andtheSovietUnionfrom1979–1989.Throughouttheserecurrentinvasions,theAfghanpeoplehaverepeatedlydemonstratedafiercesenseofindependence,whichhasmadeitalmostimpossibletoeffectivelycontrolandgovernthem.Inallcasestheyhaveeventuallyexpelledallinvadersandconquerors.

ThissamequalityofindependencehasmadeitverydifficultforAfghanstogovernthemselves.ThecountrywenowrecognizeasAfghanistanhasonlyexistedinitspresentboundariesforthelastpartofitslengthyhistory.Whennotunderthedominationofoutsidepowers,ithasmostlyexistedasanumberofindependentorsemi-independentcountries,states,kingdoms,tribesorclangroups,whichhaveeitherpeacefullycoexistedoractivelybattledeachother.

In1746thePashtuntribeswereunitedintoonegroup.TheyultimatelyconqueredandcreatedagreaterAfghanistanthatwascomposedofallofthepresent-dayAfghanistan,Pakistan,twoprovincesinIranandpartsofIndia.ThisgreaterAfghanistancameintoconflictwiththeBritishEmpire,thegreatestpowerofitsdayandthelargestempireeveramassed.

Therewererepeatedconflictsbetweenthetwogroups(1838–42,1878–80,1919–21).TheBritishfoundthat,whiletheycouldhaveinitialsuccessinthesewars,theAfghanswerenoteasilysubduedordefeated.Greatbattleswithheavylosses,retreatsandre-entrenchmentstakingplace—withtheAfghansregaininglostterritory—wasthepattern.Ceasefires,treatiesandaccordswereultimatelycreatedthatgaveBritainsomemarginalcontroloverAfghanistan’sforeignpolicybutnorealcontroloverthemajorityofthepeopleorthecountry.

In1921AfghanistanwasgrantedindependencefromBritain.EmirAmanullahfoundedamonarchyin1926.Thiskingdomremainedinsomedegreeofcontrolthroughoutthecountryforalmostfiftyyears,althoughtherewerecontinualinternalpowerstruggles,andmanyareasofthecountryoperatedasalmostindependentstates.

In1973thekingwasdeposed,andthemonarchywasreplacedbyarepublic.Thissetoffanotherperiodofturmoilasdifferentgroupsattemptedtogainpower.In1978therepublicwasoverthrown,andaMarxistgovernmentwithclosetiestotheSovietUnionwasformed.

Therewasagreatdealofinternalresistancetothisgovernmentanditsofficialsecularpolicy,asalmostallAfghansareMuslim.Thisresistancebecamesostrongthatitappearedthatthegovernmentwouldfall.

SovietInvolvement1979–1989ThereisdebateastowhetherthegovernmentofAfghanistaninvitedtheSoviet

ThereisdebateastowhetherthegovernmentofAfghanistaninvitedtheSovietUniontosendtroopstosupportitortheSovietssimplyinvaded.InSeptember,1979,itsforcescrossedtheirsharedborderandlaunchedamassiveinvasionofAfghanistan.Theexistingleaderofthecountrywaskilled,andanotherleaderwasinstalledbytheSovietsasthepresidentofAfghanistan.

ThelocalgroupswhohadfoughtagainstthepreviousAfghangovernmentbecameevenstrongerintheiroppositiontotheSovietinvaders.Theresistancefighters,themujahideen,pledgedajihad,orholywar,toexpeltheinvaders.

TheSovietforcesnumberedinthehundredsofthousandsandweresupportedbytanks,themostsophisticatedweaponryavailableatthetime,attackhelicopters,planesandmissiles.TheAfghanresistancewasinscatteredpockets,underdifferentleaderswhodidnotnecessarilycooperateandwere,infact,attimeshostiletoeachother.Thesegroupswerelightlyarmed,somewithoutdatedgunsfromWorldWarII,andoperatedonfootoronhorseback.Regardlessofthedifferencesbetweentheweaponry,theresistancedemonstratedthatsameleveloffierceindependenceandwillingnesstofightthathasbeenthemarkofAfghansthroughouthistory.Andwhilemanyresistancefighterswerekilled,theycontinuedtoinflictheavylossesontheSoviets.TheSovietsdiscoveredwhatallotherpreviousinvadershadlearned:thatwhilethiscountryispossibletoinvade,itisincrediblydifficulttosubdueorcontrol.

ThisinvasionwasduringatimeofgreatconflictbetweentheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica;so,theSoviets’sincursionwasprotestedbythewesternworldandclearlyidentifiedasaninvasionandnotarequestbytheexistinggovernmentfortheirinvolvement.Thiscountry,previouslyignoredbythewesternworld,becamethefocusoftheColdWarconflict.

ThroughWesterncovert—secret—programstheresistancefighterswereprovidedwithsophisticatedarms,trainingandintelligencethatallowedthemtocontinuallyevolveintoamoreeffective,cohesiveanddangerousfoe.AttemptstoexpandSovietandgovernmentcontrolintoareasoutsideofthecapital,Kabul,weremetwithtime-limitedsuccessandcameatthecostofmanydeathsandcasualties.

AlongwithAfghanfighters,therewerecallsforMuslimstocomefromothercountriestocontinuethejihadagainsttheSoviets.AmongtheseoutsiderswasaSaudimannamedOsamaBinLaden.ItisallegedthathereceivedtrainingandfundingfromtheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)oftheUnitedStates.

Equippedwithincreasinglysophisticatedweapons,includingportablemissilesthatcoulddestroyhelicopters,theresistancemovementbecamemoredeadlyaswellasmuchmorecoordinatedinitsefforts.Thewarbecame

deadlyaswellasmuchmorecoordinatedinitsefforts.ThewarbecameincreasinglyviolentastheSovietarmyattemptedtoputdowntheuprising,andtherewereenormouscasualtiesonbothsides.

Thosemostaffectedthoughweretheordinarycitizens.Theongoingwarplayedhavocwiththeeconomy,destroyedinfrastructureandmadedailyliving,andevensurvival,impossibleformillionsofpeople.Theyfledtheirhomes.ItisestimatedthatclosetofivemillionAfghansfledtheirhomes,eithertakingrefugeinotherpartsofAfghanistanorleavingthecountry.OveramillionrefugeesfloodedintoPakistanandIran,andhundredsofthousandssettledincountriesaroundtheworld.

Asthewarcontinued,itbegantotakeatollontheSovietUnion.Thewarwascostingbillionsofdollarstopursue,includingthecostofproppinguptheAfghangovernment.Therewasalsoanincreasinglossoflife.Externalworldopinion,internalpoliticalpressurewithintheSovietgovernmentaswellaspublicdisapprovalcontinuedtomount.Thewarwasbeingfoughtataterriblecostofmoneyandmenand,justasimportant,wasbeginningtoappeartobehopeless.

AftertheSovietWithdrawal1989–1992In1989anagreementwasreachedwherebytheSovietUnionwouldwithdrawitsforcesandtheWesternpowerswouldstopprovidingsupportfortheresistancefighters.

BythetimetheSovietsretreatedfromAfghanistan,theyhadsufferedthelossofoverfifteenthousandlivesandmanymoretimesthatnumberofwounded.

WiththewithdrawaloftheSovietforces,theAfghangovernmentwasinaveryweakstate.Thevariousresistancegroupswhichhadalreadyestablishedcontroloverlargeswathsofthecountrysetupprovisionalgovernmentsinmanyruralareas.ThesegroupshadcontinuedtofighttheAfghangovernment,butsomealsostartedtonegotiateandcooperate,andevenbattleothergroupstopositionthemselvestotakecontroloftheentirecountry.Asthemujahideencontinuedtogainpowerthroughoutthecountrytherebecameafeelingthatthegovernmentwouldultimatelybedefeated,andmembersofthearmedforcesbegantoplanhowtocooperatewiththosewhowouldeventuallytakepower.InAprilof1992,thegovernmentandthecapital,Kabul,fell.

TheTaliban

Whiletherewerevariousfactionsbattlingforcontrolofthecountry,onegroup,theTaliban,slowlyestablishedaplaceofdominance.ThisgroupwasdefinedbyaverystrictunderstandingofthepracticeoftheMuslimfaith.Itimposedharshfundamentalistlaws,includingstoningforadulteryandseveringhandsfortheft.Therewerepublicexecutionsandbeatings.Womenwereprohibitedfromworkandschoolandhadtocoverthemselvesheadtofoottogoinpublic,andtheycouldn’tgooutwithoutamalerelative.MusicandInternetwerebanned.Menwererequiredtowearbeards,andnopublicevents,likesoccerorkite-flying,wereallowed.By1998theyhadeffectivelygainedcontrolofover90percentofthecountry.

ThenorthernsectionsofthecountryremainedinconflictwiththeTaliban.TheNorthernAlliance,astheycametobeknown,tendedtobeShi’aMuslimwhiletheTalibanwereprimarilySunni.Aswell,theTalibanweremostlyethnicPashtun,andtheNorthernAlliancebelongedtoothertribalgroups.

Theinfrastructureofthecountrycontinuedtobedestroyedandtheeconomywasweak.Infantmortalityratesrose,lifeexpectancyfellandpeoplewerenotabletoobtainthebasicsoflife,includingfood,waterorshelter.Millionsofpeople,somewhohadreturnedhome,onceagainfledeitherinternallywithinthecountryorovertoothercountries.

AnAfghanboystandsoutsidehistentinKabul.ManyfamilieshavebeenforcedtorelocateafterfightingincreasedagainsttheTaliban.

Duringthisperiod,thewesternworldpaidlittleattentiontotheinternal

Duringthisperiod,thewesternworldpaidlittleattentiontotheinternalbattleswithinAfghanistan.Therewasnomilitaryinvolvementandverylittleforeignaidgiventothecountry.WhilemanycountrieswereappalledbythestrictinterpretationoftheQur’anandtheharshnessofpunishmentandpositionofwomen,thereweresomethingsthatwereapplauded.Afghanistanhadalwaysbeenamajorworldsourceofillegaldrugs—opiumandheroin—andthispracticewasalmostcompletelyeliminatedundertheTaliban.Regardless,thiscountrywasnownotseentohaveanysignificantmilitaryvalue,andnocountriesintervened.

TheTalibaninPower1998–2001OutsidemujahideenhadbattledalongsideAfghanstooverthrowtheSovietsandthecommunistgovernmenttheyhadleftbehind.OncetheTalibanestablishedagovernment,thesefighterswereallowedtoremaininthecountry.Oneofthesegroups,al-Qaeda,underthedirectionofOsamaBinLaden,sawlittledifferencebetweentheSovietUnionandthewesternworld.InbothcasestheywereseenasenemiesoftheMuslimfaith.Al-QaedahadtheobjectivesofeliminatingforeigninfluencesonMuslimcountriesanderadicatinginfidels.TheUnitedStateswasseenastheprimaryenemyandattackswereplanned.In1993atruckbombexplodedintheparkinggarageundertheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCity.In1998theAmericanembassiesinKenyaandTanzaniawerebombed.In2000thedestroyerUSSColewasattacked.Asal-Qaedabecamelinkedtothisattack,theUnitedStatesandtheinternationalcommunitydemandedtheTalibanturnovertheterroriststointernationalauthorities.TheTalibangovernment,whichhadbeenrecognizedbyonlyafewcountriesintheworldasthelegitimategovernment,chosetoignorethesedemands.Thiswasinpartbasedonitslackofconnectionorwillingnesstobeconnectedtotheoutsideworld,itsbeliefthattheinternationalcommunitywouldnotactandfinally,astronglyheldAfghanobligationthatthesepeoplewereguestsandthatguestsneededtobeprotected.

TheUnitedStates,actingwiththeapprovalofmanyofitsallies,launchedaseriesofcruisemissilesagainstal-Qaedatrainingcampsinresponsetothebombingoftheembassies.Thisactionhadverylimitedsuccessand,insomeways,simplyelevatedthisterroristgroupinstatusandemboldenedthembymakingthembelievethattheinternationalcommunitywouldnottakesignificantactions.

September11,2001

Themembersofal-QaedahadvowedtotakethewaracrosstheoceanandstrikeattheUnitedStatesonitsterritory.ThisthreatbecamerealitywhenfourairplaneswerehijackedonSeptember11.TheseplanescrashedintobothofthetwintowersoftheWorldTradeCenterinNewYork,thePentagoninWashington,DC,andthefourthplanecrashedbeforereachingitstarget,alsoinWashington.

Theinitialreactionofthismassiveattack,whichresultedinthelossofovertwothousandlives,wasstunneddisbelief.NotsincePearlHarborhadtherebeensuchamassiveandcoordinatedattackonAmericansoil.Andinthisattackalmostallthefatalitieswerecivilians,includingtheindiscriminatedeathsofwomenandchildren.Inthatinstanttheworldcommunitybecamegalvanized,andtheentireworldcondemnedthelossofinnocenthumanlife.

Thereactionoftheworldcommunitywasstrongandinstant.OnSeptember18,theUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilissuedaresolutiondemandingthattheTalibanturnoverthosepeopleresponsiblefortheSeptemberattack.TheTalibangovernmentrequestedproofofitsinvolvementandagainrefusedtofollowthisdirection,butsomeattemptstonegotiatethroughathirdpartywereinitiated.Theseattemptswereseenasinsincerebythewesternworld.

Whilethepoliticaldiplomaticprocesscontinued,membersoftheAmericanandBritishSpecialForcesbegantoinfiltrateAfghanistanandlinkupwiththeNorthernAlliance,agroupwithinthecountrywhichhadbeenatongoingwarwiththeTaliban.OnOctober7,amassiveaerialbombingcampaignbegan,whichtargetedal-Qaedatrainingbases,militarytargetsandairports.Nexttheytargetedcommunicationandcontrolassets.Whilethisbarragewasmilitarilysuccessful,therewereundoubtedlylargenumbersofciviliandeaths,andthecountry,alreadypoorandlackingininfrastructure,wasfurtherweakened.

AtthesametimetheNorthernAlliancebeganastepped-upcampaignagainsttheTaliban,attackingitspositions.TheseattacksgainedlimitedsuccessuntiltheWesternpowersdirectedairpoweragainsttheTalibanpositions,destroyingequipment,killingfightersandprovidingaccurateinformationtohelpdirecttheNorthernAllianceattacks.BythebeginningofNovember,theTalibanforcesweredecimated,andthecombinedNorthernAllianceforcessurgedthroughthelinesandmadetheirwaytothecapital.KabulwastakenandcitiesacrossthecountryfellfromTalibanhands,withthebruntofitsforcesretreatingtothesoutheast,surroundingthecityofKandahar.

AllthroughtheassaultUSSpecialForcestroopshadbeenonthegroundtoassisttheNorthernAlliance.AttheendofNovember,therewasamajorinfluxofUScombattroops.ByDecemberthelastoftheTalibanandal-Qaedaforces

ofUScombattroops.ByDecemberthelastoftheTalibanandal-Qaedaforceswerekilled,subdued,wentunderground,orfledthecountryandtookrefugeinthemountainareasofPakistan.ThousandsofUSandalliedtroopswerenowstationedinthecountrytotrytoprovideastableenvironmentforthecreationofaninterimgovernment.

InDecember,HamidKarzai,aPashtunandtheleaderofthePopulzaiclan,wasnamedheadoftheinterimgovernment.InJune,2002,heformallybecamepresident.ThispositionandhislegitimacywerefurtherconfirmedinOctober,2004,whenthefirstelectionswereheldandhewaselectedpresident.

ThedefeatoftheTaliban,theoustingofal-Qaedaandthedemocraticelectionofapresidenthavenot,however,ledtostabilitywithinthecountry.TheUS-ledcoalitioncontinuedtocontributelargenumbersoftroops,equipmentandexpertisetosupportthegovernment.Itwashighlyquestionableifthegovernmentcouldmaintainorderwithoutthesupportoftheseexternalforces.Attackshavebeencontinuallylaunchedongovernmentforces,andlargepartsofthecountryremainunderonlymarginalcontrolofthecentralgovernment.

In2006theUS-ledcoalitionwasformallyreplacedbyaUN-mandatedforce—theInternationalSecurityAssistanceForce(ISAF),whichiscomposedofNATOcountries.ThiswasthefirsttimethatNATO,createdforthedefenseofEurope,hadoperatedoutsideofEurope.

Over30,000NATOsoldiers,fromthirty-sevencountries,areintheISAFandareservinginAfghanistan.Theyareinthecountry,withtheapprovalofthegovernment,togiveassistancetotheAfghanistanarmytoprovidestability,fightTalibanandal-Qaedaforcesandallowthegovernmenttoretainpowerandcreateanenvironmentforthecountrytobestabilizedandrebuiltandtocontinuetodevelop.

InAugust,2006,amajoroffensiveinvolvingAfghanistanandNATOforceswasbelievedtohavekilledovertwothousandTalibanfightersandonceagainprovidedafurtheropportunityforAfghanstogovernthemselves.

WhilethefalloftheTalibanforcestookplaceoversixyearsago,thecoalitionforceshavediscoveredwhatallotherpreviousarmieshaddiscovered:takingthecountryisdifficult,butholdingitisevenmorechallenging.

NATOTheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionwerealliesinWorldWarII,actingtodefeatNaziGermany.Attheconclusionofthewar,havingdefeatedthisenemy,thetwoformeralliesfoundthemselvespoliticallyandideologicallyopposedto

thetwoformeralliesfoundthemselvespoliticallyandideologicallyopposedtoeachother.TherewerefearsinWesternEuropethattheSovietUnionanditsallieswouldturnagainstthem.Inresponse,theNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganizationwascreatedin1949.ThiswascomposedofCanada,theUnitedStatesandtenEuropeancountries—theUnitedKingdom,Belgium,Denmark,France,Iceland,Italy,Luxembourg,theNetherlands,NorwayandPortugal.

Atthecenterofthistreatywasanagreementthatanattackonanycountrywouldbeconsideredanattackoneverycountry.ThiswasconsideredamajordeterrenttoanyofthesecountriesbeingattackedbytheSovietUnionoritsallies.

In1952,GreeceandTurkeyjoinedNATO.In1955,WestGermanywasaddedandfinallySpainin1982.

WiththebreakupoftheSovietUnionin1991,theWarsawPactdissolved.Infact,manyoftheformerWarsawPactmemberspursueddemocracyandaskediftheycouldbecomemembersofNATO.

ThisshiftinpowerleftNATOwithoutapurpose.Therewasnolongeraclearlydefinedreasonforitsexistence,andwiththesubsequenteffortsofmanyformerWarsawPactcountriestopursuedemocracy,therewasnolongeramilitaryforcecapableofchallengingNATOinEurope.TherewerequestionsconcerningtheverypurposeofNATO,andwhetheritshouldalsobedissolved.However,itdidhaveadistinctpurposeinsupportingandreplacingUNforcesinbothBosniain1995andKosovoin1999inthecontinuedbattleswithintheformerYugoslavia,inpursuingapolicyofactivelyprotectinghumanrightsandcreatinganenvironmentwherepeacecouldtakeroot.

NATO’sinvolvementinAfghanistanisthefirstinstancewherethisorganizationhasleftEuropeandtakenonaveryactiveroleinanotherregion.ItsactionsinAfghanistanarenotsomuchinmaintainingpeace,butinactivelyfightingagainstanarmedforceandtryingtodestroythatenemy,andtherebycreateanatmospherewhereAfghanistancansurvive,rebuildandprosper.

ItissignificantthatwhileAfghanistanisalmostexclusivelyMuslim,allNATOmembers,withtheexceptionofTurkey,areChristiancountries.NATO’sinvolvementhasledtofurtherclaimsbyal-QaedaandotherMuslimorganizationsthatitis,insomeways,amodern-daycrusadeagainsttheMuslimfaith.

Ethnic,ReligiousandLanguageDivisionsAfghanistanisalmostexclusivelyMuslim,andtheregionisofficiallyknownas

AfghanistanisalmostexclusivelyMuslim,andtheregionisofficiallyknownastheIslamicRepublicofAfghanistan.ThevastmajorityoftheseMuslims,over80percent,areSunni,whilealmost19percentareShi’a.Theconflictbetweenthesetwogroupshasbecomeverypronounced,evenleadingtodeadlyviolenceinmanyMiddleEasterncountries.

TheofficiallanguagesofAfghanistanareAfghanPersian(orDari),whichisspokenasthefirstlanguageof50percentofthepopulation,andPashtu,whichisthefirstlanguageof35percentofthepopulation.Otherlanguages,includingUzbekandTurkmen,makeupthenextlargestlanguagegroups.Therearemorethanadozenotherlesspopularlanguages,andmanypeoplespeakmorethanonelanguage,includingeitherAfghanPersianorPashtuorboth.

AfghanwomenandchildrenoutsidetheirtentinacampfordisplacedpeopleoutsideKabul.

ThelargestethnicgroupisthePashtun,whomakeupover40percentofthepopulation;theTajikareover25percent,andlargenumbersofUzbekandHazaragroupsconstitutealmost10percenteach.Historicallythesegroupshavebeeninconflictorhavemaintainedatentativepeacewhilenotintegrating.

PovertyAfghanistanhasbeenoneofthepoorestcountriesintheworldoverthepastonehundredyears.Thealmostconstantwarsofthepastthirtyyearshavefurtherdestroyedtheinfrastructureofthecountry,killedhundredsofthousandsof

destroyedtheinfrastructureofthecountry,killedhundredsofthousandsofpeople,displacedmillions,damageditsindustrialbase,hamperedinternationaltradeandseverelyrestrictedfarmingandagriculturetothepointwherethecountryisnotabletofeeditself.

RecentmassinfluxesofcapitalandexpertisesincetheoverthrowoftheTalibanregimehavebeguntoreversesomeofthesetrends,andprogressisbeingmade.However,thisprocessisslowmoving,andformanyAfghanstheydonotseeanyprogressorhaveasensethattheirliveshaveimproved.Itremainsacountrywithanextremelyhighinfantmortalityrate,highlevelsofilliteracyandlowlifeexpectancy,andmillionsofpeoplehaveno,orlimited,accesstofreshwater,reliablefoodsuppliesorguaranteesofsecurityinthefaceofongoingconflicts.

NADJA

LifeinSniperAlleyNadjaturnedoverandopenedhereyeseversoslightly.Itwaslight,sothesunwasup,butthatdidn’tmeanshehadtobeup.Itwasn’tliketherewasmuchofareasontogoout.Therewasn’tanyschooltoday—therehadn’tbeenformonths—andshewasn’tevensupposedtogooutside.

Sheshiftedaroundtryingtogetcomfortableandgetbacktosleep,butsheknewthatwasn’treallypossible.Comfortablewouldhavebeeninherbedinherroominsteadofonthisthinmattressonthefloorbythefrontdoor.Itwasn’tsafetosleepinherroom.Therewastoomuchdangeroftheglassbeingshatteredbyanexplosionorastraybullet.Instead,herdisturbedsleepwasgoingtogivewaytoanequallydisturbingreality.

Outsidethewindowlaythecitythatwasherhome—Sarajevo.Itwasacityofnaturalbeauty.TheMijackaRiverranthroughthecore,anditwassurroundedbyheavilyforestedhillsandmajesticmountains,theDinaricAlps.

ItwasthesemountainsthatbroughttheworldtoSarajevoin1984,whenithostedtheWinterOlympics.ThatwaseightyearsagowhenNadjawasonlyfive,butshestillrememberedtheatmosphereofthecityduringthattime.Athletesandofficialsandtouristsfilledthestreets,sightseeing,singing,sharinginthecelebrationofathleticexcellence.Inalltherewere1,200athletesfrom49countries,tensofthousandsofofficials,10,000volunteersandhundredsofthousandsofvisitorstothecity.

TheOlympicswererecordedandbroadcastaroundtheworldbyalmostseventhousandmembersofthemedia.Theyreportedontheathleticeventssetagainstthebackdropofpeace,goodwill,diversityandthebeautyofthesetting.

Nadja,aged14.AllofYugoslaviacelebratedwhenoneoftheirathletes,JureFranko,won

theircountry’sfirst-everWinterOlympicmedal,thesilverinthegiantslalom.Ofcourse,thatwasbeforethewar—beforedifferentregionsseparatedfrom

Yugoslavia.BackthenSarajevowasacityintheregionofBosniainthecountryofYugoslavia.NowitwasthecapitalofthenewlyindependentBosnia-Herzegovina.Andwhileofcoursethemountainsstillremained,theyweren’thometowintersportsbuttothecannonsandtanksandsnipersthatraineddowndeathuponthecity.

Nadjaheardhermothermovingaroundinthekitchen.Maybeitwastimetogetup.Sheknewhermothermustbefixingbreakfast,becauseshecouldhearherbangingaround.Itmighthavejustbeenherimagination,butNadjathoughtthatthelessfoodthatwasavailable,themorenoisehermothermadewhenshewaspreparingit.Shewasmakingsomuchnoisethismorningthattherewasn’tmuchhopeforwhatwasbeingprepared.

NotthatNadjawouldcomplain.Shedidn’tcomplainbecausesheknewherparentsdidthebesttheycould.Asthesiegecontinued,thefoodsupplybecamelessandless,notjusttheamountoffoodbutthetypeoffood.Nadjawouldhave

lovedtohavehadsomefruit...abananaoranorangewouldhavebeenlikealittlepieceofheaven.

Whilethelackoffoodhadbeendifficultforeverybodyinthefamily,Nadjafeltitwashardestonhereighteen-year-oldbrother,Sanel.Itseemedlikehewasalwayshungry.SometimesNadjawouldtrytogetextrafoodjusttogiveittohim.ThatwasjustlikeNadja.

Nadjaclosedhereyesandthoughtaboutthesortofthingstheyusedtohaveforbreakfast.Shehadawonderfulimagination,andshecouldpicturetheminhermindsoclearlythatshecouldalmostsmellthemealcooking,thearomawaftingthroughtheair,andtastethosetender...Sheopenedhereyesagain.Therewasnopointindreamingorimagining.Notwhentherewerethingstobedone.

Nadjarolledoffthemattress,stoodupandstretched.Sheneededtogetdressedandgetreadyforschool...oratleastwhatpassedasschool.Sheopenedthedoortoherbedroomandcoldairrushedin.Itwaslikesteppingoutside.Mostofthewindowsweregone,replacedbysheetsofplastic.Itservedtokeepouttherainandsnowbutcouldn’tkeepoutthecold.Theydidn’tevenbothertotrytoheattheroom,andthewallswerepatternedwithmouldandmildew.

Sheopenedtheclosetandremovedtheclothesshewouldwearthatday.Theywereoldandcold,butclean.Attimestherewaswater,butmostoftentheyhadtocarryitupthestairs—fourteenfloors.Andeventhentheelectricitywasoffandwashinghadtobedonebyhand.Somehowdespitethesedifficultieshermotheralwaystriedtomakesurethattheyhadcleanclothes—justherwayoftryingtocreatealittlepocketofnormalinaworldthatwasfarfromnormal.

Nadjaretreatedtothebathroomtochange.Thelittleroomwasdark—therewerenowindows—andthelittlecandlewasn’tlit.Sheleftthedoorpartwayopentoallowinalittlemorelight.

Thislittlebathroomwasalsotheroomthatthefamilywouldretreattoiftherewasartilleryorgunfire.Itwasinthecenteroftheapartmentand,withnowindows,offeredthemostprotection.Itwasn’tsafe—justsafer.

Inthecornerwasalargecontainerofwater.Ithadalreadybeenusedforcookingandcleaning.Now,afteritwasusedandreusedforotherthings,itwaseventuallyusedtopourinthetoilettoflushit.

SometimesNadjabroughtthewateruptotheapartment.Onedayshemadeseventripsupthetwohundredandfifty-twostairs,eachtimecarryingaten-litercontainer.Itwassomucheasierwhenwaterjustflowedupthroughthepipes.

Nadjagavebothhermotherandherfatherakissonthecheekandthenahug.Itfeltgoodtobewrappedupinherfather’sarms—warmandsafe...atleastassafeasshecouldfeelanywhere.Shethoughtbacktoatimewhenshebelievedthatherfathercouldprotectherfromanything.Nowsheknewbetter.Herparentstriedtoactbrave,topretendthattheyweresafe,butNadjaknewbetter.Shefeltthatthewarhadturnedeveryoneintofrightenedchildren.Nobodycouldguaranteesafety.Itwassafefornobody,nowhereinSarajevo.

Nadjasatdownforbreakfast.Onceagainhermotherhadbeenasmuchamagicianasachef.Shehadtakennothingandmadeitintosomething.Notliketheoldmeals,butatleasttherewasfoodonthetable.Shealmostfeltguiltyforwantingmore,fordreamingaboutit.Thiswasenoughandmorethanmanypeoplehad.

Whateverfoodthatenteredthecityhadtocomeatahighprice,eitherairliftedinbytheUnitedNationsordriveninbytruckswhilesnipersshotatthem,tryingtokillthedrivers.

Nadjadidn’tknowthepeopleinthehillsandmountainsthatsurroundedhercity,butsheknewwhattheyweredoing.TheyweretryingtokilleverybodywholivedinSarajevo.Theyweredoingitbyfiringbulletsandbyrainingdowntankandcannonshellsontothecity.

BOSNIAANDHERZEGOVINAPopulation:4,500,000Location:Latitude:43°N,Longitude:18°E,southeasternEuropeArea:51,000squarekilometersClimate:moderatewithhotsummersandcoldwintersLanguages:Bosnian,Croatian,SerbianEthnicity:Bosniak48%Serbian37%Croatian14%Other1%Religion:Muslim40%

OrthodoxChristian31%RomanCatholic15%Protestant4%Other/Non10%LifeExpectancy:78yearsInfantMortalityRate:10deathsper1,000livebirthsPerCapitaIncome:$5,600LiteracyRate:97%(male99%-female94%)

Sometimestherewerejustafewshells—shecouldhearthemwhizzingoverheadandthentheexplosionsastheyhit.Othertimesthereweredozensanddozensofexplosions,sofastandfuriousthattherewashardlyabreakbetweentheexplosions.Andthenwhenthingsgotquietagain,shecouldgooutsideandseethedamage,thedestroyedbuildings.Someofthosedestroyedbuildingswereschoolsandchurches.Otherswerewaterorpowerplants.Thatwaswhythereweretimeswithnoelectricityorwater.Nadjahadstartedtorealizehowyoutookthingslikethatforgranteduntilyoudidn’thavethemanymore.Therewasnoelectricityforcookingortorunthevacuumcleanerorwashingmachineortv.Andthewaterhadtobecarriedupallthosestairsbecausetherewasn’telectricityfortheelevators.

OverthepastsixmonthsNadjahadcometorealizeallthesethings.Whatshereallydidn’tunderstandwaswhythiswasallhappening.Whywouldpeoplewanttokillsomebodythey’dneverevenmet?Shewantedtoknowifthosepeopleinthemountainswerehappywhentheywereshootingandkillingpeople.

Andtheydidkillpeople.Everyday.Sometimesitwasasniper’sbulletkillingsomebodyashewalkeddownthestreet.Othertimesitwasanexplosionanddozensofpeoplewerekilledorinjuredinjustaninstant.Oneminuteapersonwouldbestandinginlinewaitingforbread,orgatheringcherriesorfirewood,andthenextmomentshewaslyingdeadinthestreet.

“Areyougoingtoworktoday?”Nadjaaskedhermother.“It’saworkday,soI’mgoingtowork.”Nadjaknewwhattheanswerwasgoingtobebeforesheevenaskedthe

question,butstillshehadtoask.HermotherwasabusinessmanagerattheNationalBank.Everyworkdayshewentdowntothecenterofthecitytowork.Somedaysshecouldgetarideatleastpartwaythere.Mostdaysshewalkedalmostallofthetwentykilometerstoandfromthebank.AndeverydayNadjaworrieduntilshereturnedhome.

worrieduntilshereturnedhome.“I’llbefine,”shesaid.“Didyoulistenforthereports?”herfatherasked.Hermothernodded.Theradiowastheirlifeline.Alittletransistor,powered

bybatteries,gavereports.Intheolddays—thedaysbeforethewar—theradiomightsaywheretherehadbeenatrafficaccidentorifthetrolleywasrunningontimeoriftherewassnowcoming.Nowtheygaveupdatesonwherethesniperactivitywastheworst.Theradioreportedwhichstreetsshouldbeavoided,wherethemostshootingwastakingplace.Ofcoursethereweresomestreetsthatshouldalwaysbeavoided.Themainstreetwascalled“SniperAlley,”anditwasalwayscrossedinarushorhidingbehindavehicleforprotection.

“Iknowwhichstreetsaresafe,”hermothersaid.“Notsafe,”Nadjasaid.“Justsafer.”“I’llbefine.Areyougoingtoschooltoday?”Nadja’smotherasked.“IwishIcouldgotoschool.”“Imeaninthebasement.”“Ifthat’swhatyoucallit,thenyes,I’llbegoingtoschool.”Itwasn’tsafeforstudentstogototheirregularschool.Insteadallofthe

childrenintheapartmentbuildingmetinthebasementtotakelessons.Sincetheycouldn’tgotoschool,theschoolcametothem.

Nadjalikedschoolandshelikedbeingabletobewithfriends,butshedidn’tlikethebasement.Itwasdarkandcoldandmoldy.Thiswasalsothesameplacewhereeverybodyinthebuildingwentwhentheshellinggottoobad:twohundredandseventypeopleallcrowdedtogetherinthreesmallundergroundrooms.

Andiftheshellingdidn’tstop,theyallsleptdownthere,lyingonblankets,crammedtogetherinthatlittlespace,allpretendingthattheyweresleeping,butreally,hardlyanybodydidsleep.Whentheywentdownthereatnight,Nadjapackedabagwithsomecrackers,playingcardsand,ofcourse,herteddybear.

SARAJEVO

Population:529,000Location:Latitude:44°N,Longitude:18°EFounded:1263ADbutexistedasasettlementsinceprehistorictimes

Climate:moderatewithhotsummersandcoldwintersSetting:SurroundedbytheDinaricAlps:theMiljackaRiverdissectsthecity.Architecture:Oldbuildings,churches,mosquesonsteepnarrowstreets.

Itwashometomuseums,artgalleries,theaters,librariesandfilmfestivals.Itsresidentsincludedpoets,painters,performersandNobelPrizewinners.Itwasreferredtoasthe“JerusalemofEurope”andpeopleofMuslim,Catholic,OrthodoxandJewishfaithallpeacefullyco-existed.

Whenthebombshitcloseby,shecouldfeelthem,seetheceilingshaking,andshecouldn’thelpbutthinkaboutwhatwouldhappenifoneofthoseshellshittheirbuilding.Thebasementwasthesafestpartofthebuilding,butitcouldn’tprotectthemfromadirecthit.

NadjaintheruinsoftheNationalLibrary,Sarajevo,summer1996.“Maybeyoucouldbringdownyourguitartoday,”Nadja’smothersuggested.Nadjalovedtoplayherguitarandsing.Beforethewarshewaspartofthe

famedchildren’schoir,Palcici.ThischoirwasjustoneexampleoftheculturethatwasanintegralpartofSarajevo.

AndasmuchasNadjalovedtosingandplayandperform,shewasalsoawriter.Shewrotepoetryandkeptajournal.Theseactivitieswereasnecessaryforheraswasfood.Creativitywas,bynature,partofNadja’ssoul.Butduring

forheraswasfood.Creativitywas,bynature,partofNadja’ssoul.Butduringthewar,theyalsobecameanoutlet,awayforhertoexpressherfeelings,herfears,andtotrytounderstandwhytheseterriblethingswerehappening.Whileshedidn’tnecessarilyhaveanswers,shehadquestionsandthoughts:“Ithinkyoureallyonlyappreciatesomethingwhenyouloseit.”“Arethosepeopleinthemountainshappywhentheyshootandkill?”“Howcantheydothisandthenlookintheeyesoftheirownchildren?”“Forhowlongwillmylifeconsistofthedeadspacebetweentwo

explosions?”“Idon’tknowhowmanymoredayswillbescratchedoutofmylife

calendar.”Formonthsnowthechildreninthebuildinghadbarelygoneoutside.They

hadschoolinthebasementandplayedinthehalls.Theytriedtoneverplaytoomuchononefloor—theydidn’twanttobotherthetenants.Whattheywantedwastogooutsideandplay...nottogotoofarorfortoolong...justtogooutside—torideabikeorgoforanicecreamorplayagameoftag.Buteverybodyknewthedangers,sowhiletheydidsometimesgooutside,mostofthetimetheystayedinside.

Theradioandthenewspaperscarriedstoriesandpictures.Everydaytherewerepeoplekilled—waitinginlineforbread,tryingtogettoworkorgatheringfirewood.AndNadjaheardthereports,readthepapers,sawthepicturesintheobituaries.Menandwomenandchildren,someolderandsomeyoungerthanher—alldead.

Somedayswerebetterandsomewereworse.Onthebaddaysthesnipersseemedtofilltheairwithbullets,andtheshellswerefallingsoquicklythattherewashardlyagapbetweentheexplosionofoneshellandthenext.Ononeterribleday,overtwentythousandshellsfellonthecity.

Onthebestdays,Nadjawasallowedtoventureoutside,sometimeswithherparentsandsometimesjustoutsidethebuildingwithherfriends.Thatdidn’thappentoooften.Allofthechildrenwerepalebecausetheymainlystayedinside.

Todayhadbeenstrangelyquiet.Nadja’ssleephadbeensolid,undisturbedbyshelling.Therehadbeennoexplosionssinceshewoke,andtheradiohadn’treportedanysnipersintheirarea.Therewasbeautifulsunshinepouringinthroughthekitchenwindow.Couldtodaybeadayshecouldventureout?

“Mama...couldIgooutsidetoday?”Nadjaasked.

“Mama...couldIgooutsidetoday?”Nadjaasked.Hermotherdidn’tanswer.Shelookedanxiousandscared.“It’squietandIwon’tgofar...justoutside...justforafewminutes.”Nadja’sfatherhadjustgoneout.Itwasuptohermothertomakethedecision

alone.“Please!”Nadjapleaded.Hermotherwantedhersafebutknewthatshecouldn’tkeepNadjainside

forever.“Justforamoment,allright?”hermothersaid.Nadjaracedoutthedooranddownthestairs,takingeachflightmorequickly

thanthefirst.Shefeltlikeshewasflyingdownthestairs.Sheranoutsideandjuststoppedandstoodthere.Thewarmthofthesunagainstherfacewassogood.Shefeltlikeshewasdrinkingthesuninthroughherskin.

Theneverythingchanged.Shewasn’tsureifsheheardtheshellfirstorfeltthevibrationorwasblindedbythesmokeanddustthatengulfedher.Shestaggeredbackward,rubbedhereyesandlookedup.Thefrontofherbuildingwashangingthere—ashellhadhitherbuilding!Forabriefsecondshestoodthere,hermindnotabletobelievewhathersensesweretellingher.

Thensheranforthebuilding.Shestaggeredforward,screaming,andthenfeltasharppaininherlegs.Shereacheddown...therewasblood!Shehadbeenhitbytheshrapnel!Shekeptrunning,reachingthedoortothebuildingandthrowingherarmsaroundaneighborwhowasstandingthere.

Itwaslikethewholeworldhadchanged.Shewasontheground,andtherewassomuchconfusion.Dozensofneighborsgatheredaroundher.Somebodypressedsometowelsagainstherlegtoslowdownthebloodflow.

Shecouldhearvoicestalkingandscreamingandcrying,butshecouldn’tmakeoutwhattheyweresayingasshestartedtodriftinandoutofconsciousness.Thenfromallthevoicessheheardherfather.Hepickedherupinhisarmsandpressedhertightlyagainsthischest,herbloodseepingintohisshirt.Fatheranddaughterwereplacedinaneighbor’scarandrushedtothehospital.

“Dad,pleasedon’tletmelosemylegs,”Nadjawhispered.Heheldhertightertohischest,offeringhercomfort,reassurancesthathe

couldn’tpossiblyknow.Theyarrivedatthehospitalandherfathercarriedherinside,whereNadja

Theyarrivedatthehospitalandherfathercarriedherinside,whereNadjawastakenbyanurseandplacedonastretcher.Allaroundher,onstretchers,andevenlyingonthefloor,wereotherpeoplewhohadbeenwounded—thosewaitingtobetreatedandthosewhowerebeyondtreatment,thosewhoweredead.Everywherewaschaos:peoplescreaminginpain,crying,doctorsandnursesrushingaroundtryingtosavethelivesofthosefloodingthehospital.

Nadjatriedtoremainbrave,butitwassohardwaiting,notknowing,scared,fearfulthatshemightloseherlegs.Shehadheardaboutthishappeningtopeople.Sheknewwhatwaspossible.

Finallyanurseandadoctorcame.Theycutopenherpantsandexaminedherlegs.Thepainwassointense,shootingthroughoutherbody.Peoplearoundherwerecryingoutinpain.Shebitdownonherlip,tryinghardtostopherselffromscreamingout.Nadjalookeddownasherlegs.Shecouldseebloodandplaceswherethefleshhadbeenrippedopen.Shecouldfeelthepain.Shecouldhearthescreamsandcries.Butnoneofitseemedreal.Itwaslikeshewaswatchingitallhappen,butthatitwasn’thappeningtoher,thatitwasn’therlifeandlegsthatwereatstake.

Thedoctorexaminedherlegs.Hesaidthingstothenurse,thingsthatNadjadidn’tfullyunderstand.Whatshedidunderstandwasthatpiecesoftheshell—shrapnel—hadpenetratedherlegs.

Nadjaknewallaboutwhatcouldhappen.Shehadheardaboutpeoplewhohadbeenhitbyshrapnelandhadhadtohavetheirlegsamputated—cutoff.Thatwashergreatestfear,evenmorethandying.

Thedoctorlookedupather.“Youareaveryluckygirl.”Nadjacouldn’tunderstandhowhecouldpossiblythinkthatshewaslucky.

Unless...“Theyallmissedthebone.We’llcleanthewounds,giveyouatetanusshot

andbandageyouup,andwehopeyou’llbefine.”Nowshewantedtocryforadifferentreason.Thedoctorprobedaroundintheflesh,cleaningthewounds.Nadjatriednot

tomoveorcryout,butthepainwastremendous.Shelaybackandstaredupattheceilingandprayedforthetimetopass.Finally,afterwhatseemedlikehoursbuthadbeenonlyminutes,thedoctorcomplimentedheronbeingsobraveandleftthenursetobandagethewounds.

Asshelaythere,shelookeddownathernewlybandagedlegs,andlittleredspotsbegantoform—bloodseepingthrough.Sheknewthattheworstwasover,buttherewasalongroadaheadofher.

buttherewasalongroadaheadofher.

Nadjarecoveredfromherwounds.Itwasalongslowprocessinwhichsheneededtobegivenconstantloveandcare,andhadto“learntocrawlandwalkforthesecondtime”inherlife.

NadjaremainedlivingwithherfamilyfromthestartofthesiegeofSarajevoonApril6,1992,untilAugust28,1995,whenshewassmuggledoutofthecity,firstgoingthroughatunnelandthenbytruck,undertheever-watchfuleyeofsnipers.ShetraveledtotheUnitedStates,whereshebeganlivingwithanAmericanfamilythathadagreedtocareforher.Sheleftbehindherfamily,hercountry,hercultureandthelifeshehadknown.Shehadlivedthroughoneofthelongestmilitarysiegesinhistory.

Follow-up:NadjaNadjaisnowtwenty-nineyearsold.ShelivesinCanadawithherhusband.ShewroteacompellingbookaboutherexperiencescalledMyChildhoodUnderFire(KidsCanPress).Alongwithherwriting,sheisalsoaperformerandpublicspeaker,andshepresentsatschoolsforaudiencesofallagesaboutwar—andmoreimportantly—peace.Sheisachampionfortherightsofchildren.Shecanbecontactedtoarrangevisitsatmychildhoodunderfire@yahoo.com.

HistoryofBosnia-HerzegovinaThecountryofBosnia-HerzegovinasitsincloseproximitytothecentersofthelargeempiresthathavedominatedEuropethroughthelasttwentycenturies.Assuchithasbeenunderthedominationofoneempireoranotherforthecourseofalmostitsentirehistory.

TheRomanEmpire,centeredinItaly,dominatedtheentireMediterraneanforhundredsofyears,endinginapproximately400AD.DuringthetimeoftheRomanEmpire,Christianityspreadthroughoutmuchoftheregion,includingBosnia.

Bosnia.WiththedeclineoftheRomanEmpire,anotherpoweremergedfromtheeast

—theByzantineEmpire—centeredinConstantinople.Thisempire,whichwasdominantforclosetoonethousandyears,alsospreaditsreligiousbeliefsystem,OrthodoxChristianity,whichwasincompetitionwiththeCatholicfaithofRome.

TheByzantineEmpirestartedtofalter,andtherewerecompetingpowers,includingSerbians,Croats,HungariansandVenetians,allofwhom,atdifferenttimes,hadinfluencein,orover,Bosnia.Forbrieftimesbetweentheseinfluences,Bosniahadvaryinglevelsofindependence.

Theperiodsofindependenceanddominationbylocalpowersendedin1463,whenthenextgreatempire,theOttomanEmpire,expandedwestwardintoEurope,defeatedtheSerbsandmadeBosniaaTurkishprovince.Withthisconquestcameyetanotherreligiousinfluence—theMuslimfaith.

UltimatelythepoweroftheOttomanEmpiredeclined,particularlyinEurope,andin1878Bosnia-HerzegovinacameunderthecontroloftheAustro-HungarianEmpire.ThischangeagainallowedgreaterEuropeaninfluence,aswellasChristianity,tobecomemoredominant.Theresentmentfelttowardthisdominationcametoaheadwiththeassassination,inSarajevo,oftheheirtothethroneoftheempire.Theentirecontinentwasthrownintoconflict,whichbecameWorldWarI.AttheconclusionofthewarandthedefeatoftheAustro-HungarianEmpire,therewasanotherrealignmentofpower.

ApanoramicviewofSarajevoillustratingthevulnerabilityofthecitytoattackfromthesurroundinghills.

TheKingdomoftheSerbs,CroatsandSloveneswascreatedandBosnia-Herzegovinabecamepartofthatmonarchy.Thiscountry,whosenamewaschangedtotheKingdomofYugoslaviain1929,remainedindependentuntilitwasinvadedandconqueredbyNaziGermanyduringWorldWarII.

1945–1981Attheconclusionofthiswar,andthedefeatofNaziGermany,allofEuropewasreformed.Duringthereformation,theKingdomofYugoslaviacameunderthecontroloftheleaderoftheresistancemovement,JosephTito.Tito,whosefatherwasCroatianandhismotherSlovenian,broughttogethersixrepublics,Serbia,Croatia,Bosnia-Herzegovina,Macedonia,SloveniaandMontenegro,andtwoprovinces,KosovoandVojvodina,toformtheFederalPeople’sRepublicofYugoslavia.Underhisironrule,hewasabletokeepethnicdifferencesandnationalsentimentsincheckandcreatedapan-Slaviccountry.

TheconclusionofWorldWarIIwasalsothebeginningofafurtherconflict,whichwascalledtheColdWar.ThispittedtheforcesofWesternEuropeandcapitalismanddemocracy,unofficiallyledbytheUnitedStates,againstEasternEuropeandcommunism,ledbytheSovietUnion.ThesetwoarmedforcesbecameNATO(NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization)andtheWarsawPact,respectively.Whilethetwoforcesneverengagedinarmedconflict,theyengagedinanideologicalwararoundtheworld.AlthoughYugoslaviawascommunist,TitomaintainedindependencefromSovietdomination.Hewasabletomaintainthiscountry,whilealsolimitingtheoutsideinfluencesofbothWesternEurope(democracyandcapitalism)andEasternEurope(communism).Withhisdeathin1981,thecountrybegantounravel.

1991–2007Theethnicinterestsandnationalsentimentscontinuedtorisewithinthedifferentrepublics.WiththeendoftheColdWarbetweentheEastandWest,thedesireforindependencebythedifferentrepublics,whichhadbeenescalatingforthepreviousdecade,cametoaboil.

In1991twooftherepublics,SloveniaandCroatia,votedtoleaveYugoslavia.TherewasoppositiontotheattemptsofthesetworegionstoleavetheFederation.Sloveniawas90percentSlovenianwiththeremaining10percentrepresentingmanyothergroups,includingasmallminorityofSerbians,andtheseparationwasaccomplishedwithaminimumofviolence.

ThiswasnotthecasewithCroatia,wheretherewasmoreethnicdiversity,including12percentofthepopulationbeingSerbian—thedominantethnicgroupwithintheFederation.Croatiabecameinvolvedinasubstantialwar,withtheminorityofSerbswithintheCroatianRepublicbeingsupportedbythearmedforcesofYugoslavia,whowereprimarilySerbian.TherewasawarlastingoverfouryearswithminoritySerbianseitherfleeingorbeingevictedbyforcefromCroatia,andtheSerbianarmyexercisingitsforceandpowerintheongoingwar,tryingtobringCroatiabackintotheFederationanddriveCroatsfromterritorytheybelievedbelongedtoagreaterSerbia.

InJanuary,1992,theRepublicofMacedoniabecamethethirdrepublictodeclareitsindependencefromtheFederation.

InApril,1992,avotewasheldinBosnia-HerzegovinatodetermineiftheyshouldbecomethefourthrepublictoleavetheFederation.ThemembersofthecountrywhowereSerbianboycottedtheelection,refusingtovote.Thosewho

didparticipateinthereferendumoverwhelminglyvotedtoleave,andindependencewasdeclared.

OfalltherepublicsoftheYugoslavianFederation,Bosnia-Herzegovinawasthemostethnicallyandreligiouslydiverse.Whiletherearedifferentaccountsofthebreakdownofthepopulation,therewasnogroupthatformedaclearmajority.Oftheclosetofourmillionpeopleinthenewlydeclaredcountry,48percentwereBosniaks,37percentSerbsand14percentCroats.Thesegroups,forthemostpart,belongedtodifferentreligiousgroups,withtheSerbsbeingOrthodox,theCroatsCatholicandtheBosniaksmainlyMuslim.Tofurthercomplicatethesituation,thesegroups,whichhadpreviouslylivedinrelativepeace,werenotlimitedtodifferentgeographicareasoftherepublicbutwerelivingsidebysidethroughoutthecountry.

Bosnia-HerzegovinahaddeclaredindependencebecauseitfeareditwouldbedominatedbytheSerbs,whonowformedaclearmajorityofthepopulation,oncetheotherrepublicsdeclaredindependence.ThoseSerbianmembersofthisnewlydeclaredcountrynowfearedthattheywouldbedominatedbytheothergroupswhowouldbethemajorityofthepopulationinBosnia-Herzegovina.AwarbrokeoutwhichpittedtheSerbs,supportedbyYugoslavia,againsttheCroats,supportedbyCroatiaandtheBosniaks.Thisconflict,whichwentfromApril,1992,untilthesigningoftheDaytonaPeaceAccordinNovember,1995,effectivelydividedBosnia-Herzegovinaintotwoseparatesub-states,oneprimarilycomposedofSerbsandtheotherBosniaks.Theconflictresultedincloseto100,000deathsand1.8millionpeoplebeingdisplaced.

Sarajevobecamethecapitalofoneofthestates,theCroat-BosniakFederation.ItisestimatedthatduringthesiegeofSarajevoatleast10,000citizens,including1,500children,werekilled,tensofthousandsofotherswerewoundedandhundredsofthousandsofpeoplewereforcedtofleetheirhomestotakeupanewlifeelsewhere.

ReligionThethreeprimaryreligionsintheregionareIslam,EasternOrthodoxandRomanCatholic.

TheOrthodoxChurch—Ithasover200millionadherentsandistheprimaryreligioninmanyEasternEuropeancountries,includingBulgaria,Cyprus,Greece,Macedonia,Moldova,MontenegroandSerbia.ItconsidersitselftheoriginalchurchofChristandtheonethatmostcloselymaintainsthetraditions

andteachingsoftheearlychurch.TheRomanCatholicChurch—ItisthelargestoftheChristian

denominationswithoveronebillionadherentsthroughouttheworldandisthedominantreligioninmanyWesternEuropeancountries,includingItaly,France,SpainandPortugal.ItiscenteredintheVatican,inItaly,andisundertheauthorityofthepope.ItwascreatedafterdifferenceswiththeOrthodoxChurch,andformallysubdividedintheeleventhcentury.TherewasafurtherschisminthefifteenthcenturywiththecreationoftheProtestantmovement,whichpresentlyisthesecondlargestChristianfaithwith590millionadherents.

Islam—Itisthesecondlargestreligionintheworldwith1.4billionadherentsworldwide.ItfollowstheteachingsoftheQur’an,whichwasestablishedbyMuhammadintheseventhcentury.Ithastwomainsubgroups,theSunniandShi’asects,whichhavedividedintoothergroupings.IslamrecognizesmanyoftheprophetsoftheBible,includingAdam,NoahandMosesandbelievesthatJesuswasaprophet,butthatMuhammadwasthefinalprophet.

Differences/SimilaritiesThesimilaritiesbetweentheOrthodoxChurchandtheRomanCatholicChurcharemuchmoresignificantthanthedifferences.Infact,allChristiandenominations,aswellasIslamandJudaism,havecommonroots.AllthreereligionsshareAbraham/Ibrahimasoneofthemostimportantprophets.However,despitetheircommonthreads,thethreeconsiderthemselvestobeinherentlyandfundamentallyincompatibleconcerningtheirideasaboutGodandfaith.

CleantheFieldYugoslaviawasanethnicallydiversecountrywithnoonegroupformingaclearmajorityofthepopulation.Withinthecountry,however,thereweremanyplaceswhereonegroupdidformaclearmajority.Whendifferentregionsofthecountrydeclaredindependencethisdecisionwasbasedonthatregionfeelingthatitwasethnicallydifferentfromthecountryasawhole.Withintheseregions,therewasmostoftenonegroupthatdid,infact,formaclearmajority.Themembersoftheminoritygroupsoftenmigratedtoaplacewheretheywouldnolongerbetheminority.

Someofthismigrationcouldbedescribedasvoluntary.Priortothedeclarationofindependence,orsubsequently,thesepeopledecidedtheydidnot

declarationofindependence,orsubsequently,thesepeopledecidedtheydidnotwishtobepartofthenewlycreatedcountryorinapartofthecountrywheretheywouldbeinaminority.Itisimportanttonotethatevenifthedecisiontomovewas“voluntary,”itwasoftenfueledbyfearofpersecution,violenceorevendeath.Peoplemadeadecisiontomovebeforetheywereforcedtomove—orwerekilled.

Unlikeotherregionsthatdeclaredindependence,BosniaandHerzegovinahadnoclearethnicmajority:varioiusethnicgroupslivedineveryregionofthecountry.ClosetohalfofthepopulationofBosnia,1.8millionpeopleinatotalpopulationof3.9millionpeople,weredisplacedbythewar.

AtthetimetheconflictstartedinSarajevoin1991,thepopulationwas50percentBosniaks,34percentSerbsand7percentCroats.In1997thepopulationwas87percentBosniaks,5percentSerbsand6percentCroats.

Theterm“ethniccleansing”hasbecomesynonymouswiththeconflictinYugoslavia.Membersofminoritygroupswerebeatenandhadtheirhomes,schoolsandchurches/mosquesattackedordestroyed.The“fieldwascleaned”oftheminoritygrouptoallowthemajoritygrouptotakeoverthelandortoeliminatethepossibilityofsupportfortheopposingarmedforces.IntheBosnianconflict,therewereregularforcesmadeupofarmiesandmilitiasandtherewereguerillagroupscomprisedofcivilians.TheChineserevolutionaryleader,MaoZedong,statedthataguerillafighter“mustmoveamongthepeopleasafishswimsinthesea.”Ethniccleansingdrainedthesea,givingthefighternoplacetohide.

Whenanindividualiskilledbecauseofhisorherethnicity,itiscalledahatecrime.Whenlargenumbersofpeoplearekilledforthisreason,itiscalledgenocide.GenocideisdefinedbytheUnitedNationsas“actscommittedwithintenttodestroy,inwholeorinpart,anational,ethnic,racialorreligiousgroup.”Itisacrimeunderinternationallaw.TheUnitedNationsdeterminedthatgenocidedidtakeplaceduringtheBosnianconflict.Whiletheydidnotassignblametoanyonecountry,theyhavebroughtcriminalchargesagainstindividualmilitaryleadersoftheSerbian-supportedarmedforcesandmilitia.

TOMA

HowCouldSoMuchbeLostsoQuickly?Tomahelpedhermotherbringoutthefoodforthemiddaylunch.Astheoldestdaughterinthehome,atnineyearsofage,shewasresponsibleforhelpingwiththemeals.Theysetdownthebowlsandthebigpotonthetable,whichsatintheshadeunderthebigtreeinthecourtyardoftheircompound.

Hermother,Arbaba,beganfillingthebowlswiththesweet-smellingporridge,madewithsorghum,onions,okra,allinatomatosauce.Everythinginthemealwasgrownonthelandfarmedbyherfather.Tomapassedthebowlstoherfamilywhowerealreadyseated.

Thefirstbowl,thebiggestofcourse,wentfirsttoherfather,Khamis.Hewasnotonlyasuccessfulfarmerandtheheadoftheirfamily,buthewasthechiefofthevillage.Hewasthepersontowhomeveryonecameforadvice,tosolvedisputesor,ifanagreementcouldnotbereached,tofinallymakethedecisionthatallwouldabideby.Hewasknownasbeingfairandhonorable,andhewas,insomeways,likethefatherfortheentirevillage.

NextTomaputbowlsdownforherbrothers.First,cameSadam11,thenAmed7,andMalik,whowas6.Afterservingthemales,sheservedhersister,Sayeda,whowas8.Finallysheplacedabowlbeforehermother’splaceandthelastoneforherself.

Tomawassadthattheycouldn’tbeatschooltoday.Theyhadn’tbeentoschoolforweeks.Itwasn’tclose.Theywouldleaveatseveninthemorning,takingsomeofthefamily’sdonkeys,andridefortwohours.Then,afterbeinginschoolforfourhours,theywouldrideback.Itwasn’tthedistancethatwasstoppingthemnow,though,itwasthedanger.

Armedmen,rovinggangsofmilitia,knownastheJanjaweed,attackedmembersofthetribalgroups.Villageswereraided,burnedtotheground,peoplekilled,kidnappedorraped.Anditwasrumoredthatthesemenweresupportedbythegovernmentsoldierswhoweresupposedtobeprotectingthevillagers.

Toma,right,inForbranga,arefugeecampontheborderwithChad.ForTomathesewerealljuststories.Inhervillageallwasquietandcalmand

peaceful.Itwasasitalwayswas.Shecouldn’timagineanyofthosethingshappeninghere.Herfatherwouldn’tallowanythingbadtohappen.

Withthemealfinished,thegirlsbegancleaningupandtheboysbegantohookupthewatercontainerstothreeofthedonkeys.Theyweregoingtobringwateruptothehousefromoneofthevillagewells.That’swhentheyheardthesounds.Itwasfaintatfirst,likeapoppingsound...thenitgotlouder.Itwasgunfire.

Theystoppedandturnedtostareattheirfather.He’dknowwhattodo.Helookedscared.NowTomawasscared.

“Everybodyintothehuts!”heyelled.Tomafrozeinplace,unabletocomprehendwhatwasgoingon,unableto

move.“Everybody,hideinthehuts!”herfatheryelled.Stillshedidn’tmove.Thesoundofthegunfiregotlouder,andshecouldhearscreamsandthe

horses’hoovespoundingagainsttheground,butstillshecouldn’tmove.Tomawaspracticallyyankedoffherfeetashermothergrabbedherbythe

handandpulledherandSayedaintothegirls’hut.Theirfatherledtheboysinto

handandpulledherandSayedaintothegirls’hut.Theirfatherledtheboysintothehutwheretheboysslept.Theyweretwolittlestructures,madeofbranchesandstraw,thatsatoneithersideofasmallbuildingconstructedofbrickandstonewhereherparentsslept.

Astheyscrambledintothehut,Tomalookedback,tryingtoseeoverthefencethatsurroundedtheirwholecompound.Strawandbranchescouldkeepthechickensinandwildanimalsout...butwhatgoodwoulditbeagainstmenonhorses?

“Quickly,getunderthemattresses,hideunderthebeds!”hermotheryelled.Bothgirlsbegancrying,andtheirmothergrabbedSayedaandforcedherto

hide,pilingthemattressandblanketsandclothingontopofheruntilshehaddisappearedcompletely.Tomasuddenlyfeltsoexposed,sovulnerable,andshetooscrambledunderherbed.Shefelthermotherpilingthingsontopofher.

“Bothofyoustopcrying!”theirmotheryelled.“Iftheyfindyoutheywillkillyou!”

Hearingthosewords,thesobsgotcaughtinherthroat.Shewasterrifiedbutknewsheneededtobesilent.Sheplacedahandagainsthermouth,tryingtoforcethesoundtostayinsideofher.

Thesilenceinsidethehutonlymadethesoundsoutsideevenlouder.Thereweretremendousshrieksandscreaming,punctuatedbyrapidloudgunfire,allagainstthebackgroundofthehorses’hooves,soloudthatitwasalmostasifshecouldfeeltheearthtremblingunderher.Shetriedtopicturethesceneoutsidebutknewshecouldn’tallowthat.Sheclosedhereyestightlyandcoveredherears,blockingoutthesound,tryingtopretendthatnoneofthiswasreal,thatnoneofthiswashappening...butsheknew.

Theadultsofthevillagetriedtokeepthingsawayfromthechildren,butTomawasoldenoughtonotonlyhearthehushedstoriesbuttounderstandwhatwasbeingsaid.Evenworse,shehadseenstrangerspassingthroughhervillage—peoplewhohadhadtheirhomesburnedandtheirlivestocktaken.Justthenshethoughtofthefourfamilydonkeysthatweretiedupjustoutsidethegate.Whatwasgoingtohappentothedonkeys?No,forgetthedonkeys,whatwasgoingtohappentoherfamily...whatwasgoingtohappentoher?

Shewasn’tsureofthepassageoftime.Itseemedlikeshelaythereunderthemattressforhours.Thesoundsstartedtofade,andthentherewassilence.Finallysheheardmovementinthehutandwasrelievedtohearherfather’svoice,callingforthemtocomeout.Shepushedawaytheblanketsandcovers,andthemattresswasliftedoffofher.

“Aretheygone?”shewhisperedtoherfather.Henodded,andshefeltaninstantsenseofrelief.“Theyaregone,”hesaid.“Fornow.”Hersenseofreliefvanished,replacedbythefearshehadjustexperienced.Outsidethehut,everythingseemedthesame.Thesunwasstillshining

brightlyoverheadandthebowlswerestillthereonthetablewherethey’dbeenleft.Therewasnosightorsoundofanything...therewasnosoundatall.Itwasjustsilent,asthougheventhewindhadstoppedblowingandwasholdingitsbreath,waiting,watching,wondering.

Itwasthenthatshenoticedthesmokerisingintothesky,thickandblack.Herfatherhadnoticedaswell.Theyfollowedbehindhimashewentthroughthegateoftheirfence.Thedonkeysthathadbeentiedtothefenceweregone.Lookingbeyondthatshesearchedforthecattlethathadbeengrazing.Theyweregoneaswell.Maybethey’djustbeenspookedandhadrunoff.Shecouldhope,butsheknewthatwhentheJanjaweedcametheyoftentookallofthelivestock.Shewasgratefulthatthegoatsandsheepandchickensthatwereinsidethefencewerestillsafe,andshehopedthattheanimalsatthefarmwouldbeallright.

REPUBLICOFTHESUDANPopulation:39,000,000Location:Latitude:15°N,Longitude:30°E,NorthernAfricaArea:2,500,000squarekilometersClimate:ariddesertinnorth,tropicalinsouthLanguages:Arabic(Official)NubianTaBedowiedialectsofNiloticEthnicity:Black52%

Arab39%Beja6%Religions:SunniMuslim70%Indigenousbeliefs25%Christian5%LifeExpectancy:49yearsInfantMortalityRate:92deathsper1,000livebirthsPerCapitaIncome:$2,400LiteracyRate:61%(male71%,female50%)

Theymovedtogethertowardthesourceofthesmoke.Itwascomingfromthefarsideofthevillage.Otherpeoplecameoutoftheirhutsandastheywalkedtheirnumbersincreaseduntilitseemedlikeeverybodyinthevillagewaswiththem.Thereontheoutskirtsofthevillagewerethecharredremainsofpeople’shuts.Sittingonthegroundwerethewomenandchildren—peopleshehadknownherwholelife—crying.Themenpokedthroughtheashestryingtofindanythingthathadsurvivedtheflames.Therewasalmostnothing,justliketherewasalmostnothingthatcouldbedonetohelp.

Themengatheredtogetherandtalked.Loudangrywordswerespoken,butshewasn’twelcometohearwhattheyspokeabout.Insteadshestayedwiththewomenastheymadearrangementsforthefamiliesthathadbeenburnedouttostaywithotherpeople.Whateverwaslostwasgone.Whatremainedinthevillagewouldbesharedwiththosewhonowhadnothing.

Thewomentalkedaswell,andTomaheardthemspeak.Theysaidhowterribleithadbeen—thehutsburnedandlivestocktaken—buttheyweregratefulthatnobodyhadbeenkilledandtheJanjaweedweregone.Maybetheywouldn’treturn.Maybeseemedlikesuchasmallword.Noprotectionfromwhatmightstillhappen.Theyweregone,butwhatwastostopthemfromcomingback?

Therewasapoundingonthedoorofthehutandpeoplewerescreaming!Tomaandhersisterjumpedtotheirfeetandranouttothecourtyard.Hermotherandbrotherswerealreadythere,butwherewasherfather?Thensheremembered...he’dalreadybeatthefarm.Outsidethefence,peoplewererunningaway,ridingdonkeys,tryingdesperatelytodrivecattlethatdidn’twanttobedriven.

NobodyneededtotellTomawhatwashappening.Herfamilyranthroughthegateandjoinedthepeoplerunningfromthevillage.Assheransheheardshots.Sheturnedandlookedoverhershoulder,andherheartfroze.Comingintothe

Sheturnedandlookedoverhershoulder,andherheartfroze.Comingintothefarsideofthevillagewerearmedmenonhorsesandcamels.Theywerefiringtheirgunsandscreaming.Peoplewererunninginfrontofthem,buttheywerenomatchfortheracinghorsesandwouldbequicklyovertaken!

Thepeopleinfrontofherranoffthepathandscrambledintothetallgrass,hidingfromthepursuingmen.Stillholdinghersister’shand,hermotherholdingtheother,andherbrothersinfrontofthem,theyallabandonedthepathandfollowedbehind,hopingtohidebeforethemenreachedthem.Offtheroadtheycontinuedtorunthroughtheundergrowth,movingquickly,tryingtostaysilent.Finallythepeopleinfrontstoppedrunning,satisfiedthattheywerefarenoughtobesafe,nothearinganysoundspursuingthem.

Tomalayinthegrass,herheartpounding,strainingtocatchherbreathagain,whiletryingdesperatelytolistentoanysoundsinthedistance.Allwasquiet.

“Whatarewegoingtodo?”Tomaasked.“We’llwaitalittlelongerandthengotothefarm.”Tothefarm!Totheirfather!He’dknowwhattodo.Toma’smothergotthechildrentotheirfeet.Itwastimetomove.Thefamilyfarmwasasmallpatchoffertileland,closetogroundwater.

Theretheygrewthevegetablesandfruitsthattheyeitherateortradedtosupportthefamily.Itwasn’tfar—theycouldonlyhopeitwasfarenoughthatithadn’tbeennoticedbythearmedmen.

Someofthepeoplefromtheirvillagemovedalongwiththem.Othersbranchedoutheadingtotheirownpatchesoflandortowheretheyknewsomebodywastendingtoaherdofgrazinganimals.

Itwasn’tlongbeforetheyreachedthefarmandtoldtheirfatherwhathadhappened.Hehadn’theardanyofthesounds,butbynowtheskywasfilledwithevidenceofwhatwashappeningbackinthevillage.Theystoodtheretogether,watchingasthickblacksmokeroseupintotheair,markingthespotwherethevillagewaslocated.Morehomeswerebeingburned.

“Wehavetohide,”Toma’sfathersaid.“Everybodycome.”Heledthemintothetallgrassthatlayontheonesideoftheirfarm,andonce

againtheytookrefugewheretheycouldn’tbeseen.Aftersometimetheyheardadifferentnoise,butitwasn’thorsesandit

wasn’tfromtheground.Itwasthesoundofahelicopter.Theyscannedtheskyuntiltheycouldseeit—abigmilitaryhelicopteroffinthedistance.ForafleetingsecondTomathoughtthatmeantthatthegovernmenthadsentit,filled

fleetingsecondTomathoughtthatmeantthatthegovernmenthadsentit,filledwithsoldierstochaseawaythearmedmen—thensherememberedwhatshehadheard.Thehelicoptersandthesoldiersweren’ttheretostopanything.Theyweretheretowatch,sometimeseventohelpthearmedmenonhorses.Evenifthereweresoldiers,theyweren’tgoingtostopanything.

Theystayedinthegrassallday,eatingsomecucumbersandwatermelonsfromthefarm.Thehelicopterhadlongsincegone,andthefireshadstopped.Theevidence,theblacksmoke,hadbeenblownawaybythewinds.

Slowly,cautiouslytheymovedbacktowardthevillage.Astheywalkedtheywerejoinedbyothermembersoftheirvillage.Largernumbersseemedsafer,butreallytherewasnosafety.Theyjustpresentedabiggertarget.

Someofthemen,includingherfather,wentahead.Whenitwasdeemedsafethewomenandchildrenwerecalledtofollow.

Tomacouldnotbelievewhatshesaw.Thevillagewasgone.Allthatremainedofalmostallofthebuildingsandfenceswerecharred,still-smolderingremains.Afewdeadchickensanddogsthatlitteredthegroundwereallthatwasleftoftheanimals.Therestweregone,stolen.

Peoplemovedthroughthevillage,expressionsofstunneddisbeliefontheirfaces.Hopelessly,desperately,menpokedthroughtheashestryingtogleananythingofvaluethatmighthavesurvivedthepillagingandtheflames,butthereseemedtobenothing.Possessionsthatcouldn’tbetakenwerescatteredaboutthegroundwherethehutshadstood.

Howcouldsomuchbelostsoquickly?Whatwoulddrivethesementonotjuststeal,buttodestroy?Whydidtheyhatethemsomuch?Whycouldn’tanybodystopthem?SomanyquestionsswirledthroughToma’smind.Andthenshesawthebodies.

Lyingontheground,scatteredthroughthesmolderingremainswerethebodiesofpeoplewhohadnotbeenabletofleeintime.

“Lookaway,”hermotherwarned.“Don’tlookatthebodies.”Tomawantedtolookaway,butshecouldn’t.Theseweren’tjuststrangers.

Thesewerefriends,neighborsandevenfamilymembers.Tentativelythesurvivorsmovedaway,pickingtheirwaypastthebodies.Somelookedliketheywerejustsleeping.Others,though,boretheevidenceofwhathadkilledthem—crushedskulls,woundsandpuddlesofdarkened,blood-staineddirtflowingoutfrombeneaththem.

Theystoppedinfrontofwheretheirhomeusedtobe.Thefenceandthetwo

Theystoppedinfrontofwheretheirhomeusedtobe.Thefenceandthetwohutswerenothingmorethansmolderingembers.Allthatremainedwasthestoneandbrickbuildingwhereherparentsslept.Scatteredaboutthepropertywereafewitems—ablanket,someclothing,cookingpots.Everythingelsewasgone.

Toma’smotherslumpedtothegroundagainstthetree.Sheburiedherfaceinherhandsandbegantocry.Atfirstitwassoft,butthenitbecamelouderandlouderuntilherwholebodywasconvulsedinsobs.Tomatriedtoconsolehermother,andthechildrenallgatheredaroundtryingtoconsoleherwiththeirwordsandtouches.Neverhadtheyseentheirmotherthiswaybefore.

Finally,theirfatherappearedandspoketoher,stoppingthetears.“Adecisionhasbeenreached,”hesaid.“Tomorrow,beforelightcomeswe

willleave.”Tomawasshockedtohearthesewords.Howcouldtheyleavetheirhome,

andwherewouldtheygo?“Weshouldstayandfight,”Saddamsaid.“Fightwithwhat?”theirfatherquestioned.“Theyhavegunsandwehave

nothing.Theyhavetakenouranimals.Theyhavedestroyedourhomes.Whentheycomeback,therewillbenothingtotakeexceptourlives.Wehavetoleavebeforetheyreturn.”

“Maybetheywon’treturn,”Tomafoundherselfpleading.Herfatherplacedahandonhershoulder.“Theywillreturn.Imustprotect

myfamilythebestwayIcan.Themenofthevillagehavespoken.We’vedecided.Tomorrowweleave...allofus...thewholevillage.”

Follow-up:TomaToma,herfamilyandmembersofhervillagewalked,mainlyhidingduringthedayandmovingatnight.Atonepointduringtheirjourney,theyweremetbySudanesesoldiers.Thesoldiersbeatherfatherandsomeothermen,takingwhatlittlemoneytheyhad,beforeallowingthemtoleave.IttookfivedaysofwalkingforthevillagegrouptoreacharefugeecampontheborderofChad.

Nowthreeyearslatertheyremainthere,unabletoreturntotheirhomeduetoongoingdangerspresentedbythemaraudingmilitia.Toma’sfamily,alongwithuptothreemillionSudanese,arealiveduetothehumanitarianreliefeffortsofinternationalaidorganizations,includingtheworkoftheUnitedNations.Toma’sfather,Khamis,asarespectedelder,isresponsibleforhelpingtoensurethataidisdistributedfairlyintheircamp.

thataidisdistributedfairlyintheircamp.Despitethemassiveeffort,theaidhasnotbeensufficientandtensof

thousandscontinuetodiefromstarvation,lackofmedicalattentionanddiseasescausedbymalnutrition.

Tomaremainsanongoingvictimofwar.

GeographySudanisthelargestcountryinAfrica,aboutone-fourthofthesizeoftheUnitedStates,andstretchesfromthesub-SaharatotropicalAfrica.Itsharesborderswithninecountries(CentralAfricanRepublic,Chad,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,Egypt,Eritrea,Ethiopia,Kenya,LibyaandUganda)andtheRedSea.

TheNileRiveranditstributariescutthroughthelengthofthecountry.Despitethepresenceofthesemajortributaries,lackofwateranddroughtaremajorissuesthroughoutthecountry,particularlyinthenorth,andlessthan7percentofthecountryisarable.Thislackofwaterandarablelandhasoftenputdifferentpeopleinconflictoverthescarceresourcesavailableforfarmingandgrazing.

Thecapital,Khartoum,issituatedattheconjunctionoftheWhiteandBlueNileriversandishometoclosetothreemillionpeople.Literacylevelsarelow,especiallyforfemales,andhealth,educationandsocialservicesareverylimited.Attimesofdrought,manypeoplesufferfromfamineandareseverelylimitedintheirabilitytofeedthemselves.

HistoryThelandthatnowconstitutesSudanhasbeensettledforoversixtythousand

ThelandthatnowconstitutesSudanhasbeensettledforoversixtythousandyears.InancienttimesitwasknownasNubia.TheEgyptianDynastydominatedtheNile,andthenorthernpartsofSudancameunderEgyptiancontrol.ChristiancrusadersoverwhelmedtheareainthesixthcenturybutwereeventuallyreplacedbyArabs,whospreadtheIslamicfaith.Inthesixteenthcentury,theFungconqueredthenorthernpartsofSudanwhiledifferentAfricantribalgroupscametodominatethesouth.In1874Sudanonceagaincameunderthecontrolofitsneighbortothenorth,Egypt.Thiswasshort-lived,asitbecamepartoftheBritishEmpirein1898.

TheBritishsawSudanasbeingtwoverydifferentregionsandadministeredthenorthandsouthastwodistinctentities—thenorthwasArabicandMuslim,andthesouthwasAfricanandAnimist.

AttheconclusionofWWI,therearoseincreasedinternaldesireswithinthesecountriestoseekindependence,andtheinfluenceoftheBritishEmpirebegantowane.ThepeopleoftheSudancontinuallypressedforindependence.In1956thetworegions,northandsouth,becametheindependentcountryofSudan.

RecentHistorySudanhasbeenpoliticallyunstablethroughoutitsentirehistory,withnumerousgovernments,politicalcoups,militarydictatorshipsandalackoftruerepresentativegovernment.ItwasoftenseenasabattlegroundintheColdWarbetweentheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates.AttimesitwascontrolledbyaMarxistgovernmentandhasbeenseenassupportinginternationalterrorism.IthasbeenthetargetofWesternorUSeconomicsanctionsand,in1998,acruisemissileattackonafactoryinthecapital.

Partlybecauseofandpartlyasaresultofthislackofstability,Sudanhassufferedthroughanalmostcontinuouscivilwarthroughoutitstimeasanindependentnation.Therehasbeenaconstantconflictbetweenthepeopleandinterestsofthenorthandsouthofthecountry.

Priortogainingindependence,therewasconcerninthesouthernregionsthattheyweregoingtobedominatedbythenorth.Throughpoliticalnegotiations,andthenviolence,peopleinthesouthfoughtagainstbeingincludedaspartofthelargernationandfoughttohavegreaterpowerandwealth.Civilwarbrokeout,pittingtheMuslim,Arabic-speakingnorthernregion,againstthesouthernregion.

Whilethereweretimeswhenthewarwaslessintenseandotherswhenitwasmorelethal,itextendedfromoneyearbeforeindependencein1955andlasted

morelethal,itextendedfromoneyearbeforeindependencein1955andlasteduntil1972.Thisleftatleast1.5millionpeoplekilledandmillionsdisplacedbothinternallywithinthecountryandtocountriessurroundingSudan.

Thisconstantstateofwarleftanalreadydestitutecountryunabletoharnessitsresources,eithernaturalorhuman,aswardestroysinfrastructureanddivertsmoneyandattentionawayfromcaringforthepeoplethrougheducation,healthorgeneralwelfare,tosecurityandweapons.

ThecivilwarwasfinallyendedwhentheAddisAbabaPeaceAccordwassignedin1972.Thisallowedforthesouthernareatobecomeasingleadministrativeregionwithdefinedpowerandconsiderableautonomyinmakingmanypoliticaldecisionsthatrelatedtotheirregion.Thisagreementallowedthetworegionstocoexistinrelativeharmonywithnomajorcivilunrest.However,therewasalwaysasenseofmistrustbetweenthepeopleinthetworegions.

ThecookingareainToma’sfamily’sshelterintheForbrangarefugeecamp.UptothreemillionSudanesearedisplacedandlivingincamps,relyingon

internationalaidgroupsforhumanitarianrelief.Duringtheearly1980sitwasfeltthatthecentralgovernment,inthenorth,

wasattemptingtounderminetheautonomyofthesouthernregion.TherewereattemptstoreplacelocaladministrationandtoimplementIslamiclawsandtheArabiclanguageinthesouth.ThiswasincompleteviolationofthePeaceAccord,andtheseeffortsweremetwithprotest—bothpeacefulandviolent—in

Accord,andtheseeffortsweremetwithprotest—bothpeacefulandviolent—inthesouthernregion.

Thisconflictwasalsofueledbythediscoveryofdepositsofoilinthesouthernareaofthecountry,anddisputesoverhowtheseresourceswouldbeexploitedandhowtherevenuewouldbedividedbetweenthetworegions.

TheSudanPeople’sLiberationArmy(SPLA)becamethedominantrebelgrouptobothprotectthepeopleofthesouthfromthesoldiersofthenorthandtoadvocateforthecreationofgreaterindependenceandachangetoamoredemocraticformofgovernment.Theylaunchedattacksagainstgovernmenttroopsandfacilities.

Thissecondcivilwar—althoughsomehistorianssimplyviewitasanextensionofthefirstsinceitwasdrivenbybasicallythesameunresolvedissues—brokeoutin1983.Onceagainpeoplewerekilled,property,cropsandinfrastructureweredestroyed,millionsofpeoplefledthefightingandthelimitedresourcesofthecountryweredirectedtowarratherthanthebettermentofthepeople.Ifanything,thiswarwasevenmorebrutalandlethalthanthefirstphaseofthecivilwar.Itisestimatedthatbythetimetheconflictendedin2005,thatalmosttwomillioncivilianswerekilledandthatoverfivemillionpeopleweredisplaced,fleeingthewaranditseffects.

InJanuary,2005,apeaceaccordwassignedthatonceagainallowedthesouthernregionconsiderableautonomy,ashareofrevenuefromoilproductionandtherighttopeacefullyformaseparatecountryinsixyearsifthemajorityofthepeoplewishedthatend.Insomewaysthismirroredthepreviousagreementwiththefurtherconditionbeingtheconsiderationoftotalindependence.

TheCrisisinDarfurInacountrywithlimitedresources,waranddroughtleftitevenmoredestitute.Thisbecameacrisispointinthewesternregionofthecountry,knownasDarfur,borderingthecountryofChad.Thisconflicthadbeensimmeringforyearswithoccasionalflaresofextremeviolence.

ThemajorityofpeopleintheregionarefromthreeAfricantribalgroups—theFur,MasalitandZaghawa.Theytendtobemainlyfarmerslivinginsmallvillages,definedbytribeandextendedfamily.TheArabgroupsoftensurvivedbytendingtomigratoryflocks.ItisimportanttonotethatbothgroupsareprimarilyMuslim,soreligionwasnotseenasasourceofconflict.Instead,inacountrywhichexperiencedperiodsofdrought,thesetwogroupsoftencameintoconflictforscarceresources.

conflictforscarceresources.In1998amajorepisodeofviolenceensuedinwhichoversixtyMasalit

villagesandoneArabvillagewereburnedtotheground,andhundredsofpeoplewerekilled.Thegovernmentattemptedtoquellthesedisturbances,buttherewasalwaysafeelingthattherewasabiasagainsttheAfricantribalmembersandthattheArabic-speakingpeopleweresupportedbythegovernment.TheAfricanpeopledidnotbelievethatthegovernmentwouldsupportandprotectthem,orprosecuteArabswhowerecommittingcrimesagainstthem.Twomilitiagroups,theSudanLiberationArmy(SLA)andJusticeandEqualityMovement(JEM),actedtoprotecttheinterestsofthetribalgroupsandtoadvocateforgreaterautonomy,orevenindependence,fromKhartoum.

Outrightconflictbrokeoutin2003.GovernmenttroopsweresentinlargenumberstotheDarfurregion.Rovinggangsofmilitia,knownastheJanjaweed,beganattackingmembersofthetribalgroups.Thesemilitiasweresupportedandarmedbythegovernment.Villageswereraided,burnedtotheground,andpeoplewerekilled,kidnappedorraped.Thesemilitiamemberswereoftenaccompaniedbygovernmentsoldiersorgivenairsupport(providingreconnaissance,droppingbombsorstrafingciviliansontheground).

Internationalattentionbecamefocusedonthisconflict.Itwasidentifiedbyoutsidesourcesasbeinggenocide,andtheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilpassedaresolutiondemandingthatthegovernmentinterveneandcontrolthemilitia.Basicallythegovernmentdeniedallallegationsagainstit,refusedtorestrainthemilitiaandwouldnotallowtheinterventionofUnitedNationstroopstoprovidesecurityandprotection.TheUnitedNations,oftendividedbytheinterestsofmemberstates,wasnotabletolaunchanysortofeffectiveresponsetowhatwasclearlyseenasgenocidalinnature.

Sudandid,however,originallyallowasmallnumberoftroopsfromtheAfricanUnion(AU)tobestationedinthecountry.Thesetroopswerepoorlyequipped,underfundedandundersuppliedandwerefartoofewinnumbertoprovideanyformofsecuritytotheregion.Theywerealsogivenamandatetoonlyobservebutnotinterveneorprotectcivilians.Theycoulddocumentmassacresbutnotacttopreventthem.

Inaddition,attemptstoprovidehumanitarianaid—food,waterandshelter—tothedisplacedpeoplewerethwartedbytheongoingdangerandwarfareinthecountryandeffortsbythegovernmenttonotallowthemtointervene.Violenceandthreatsofviolencetowardinternationalaidworkerscausedgreatrestrictionsintheabilityofthesenon-governmentalorganizationstoprovideaid.Aswithmanyconflicts,thedeathtoll,especiallyforchildrenandtheelderly,washigher

manyconflicts,thedeathtoll,especiallyforchildrenandtheelderly,washigherduetotheeffectsoftheconflict—disease,famineandlackofshelter—thanfromtheactualviolenceoftheconflict.

HundredsofthousandsofciviliansfledSudanduringthisconflict,movingintoChad.ThishashadadestabilizingeffectonChad—acountryaspoorasSudan—whichdoesnothavetheresourcesorwealthtoeasilyabsorblargenumbersofrefugees.TheChadiangovernmentalsobelievedthattheSudangovernmentwassupportingandarmingrebelgroupswithinitscountry,aswellasallowingtheJanjaweedmilitiatocrosstheborderandattackChadvillages,stealcattleandkillChadiancitizens.

Children,manyorphanedandalone,remainvictimsoftheongoingcrisisintheSudan.

Throughouttheongoingconflict,therewerecontinualattemptsbytheUnitedNationstoadvocateforthedisarmamentofthemilitia,allowaidtodisplacedpeopleandpursueacourseofpeace.TheUnitedNationsissuedstatementssayingthattherewasa“scorchedearthcampaign”ofethniccleansing,thatitwastheworld’sgreatesthumanitariancrisisandcomparingittothegenocideinRwanda.

Inresponse,theSudanesegovernmentconsistentlyrefusedtoacknowledgetheextentofthecrisisoritsroleinsupportingthemilitia,orfollowthroughoncommitmentstodisarmthem,orprotectaidworkersandsupplies.Attemptstobrokeracease-firecontinuallyfaltered.Itwasonlyin2007,fouryearsaftertheconflictreachedaboilingpoint,thattheSudanesegovernmentagreedtoallowajointUNandAfricanUnionforcetobedeployedinitscountry.Thiswillprovideamorecomprehensivepeace-keepingmissionandallowforbetterdistributionofhumanitarianaidtohelpthosewhohavebeendisplaced,theirvillagesandlivelihooddestroyed.Thiseffortcontinuestobethwartedbypoliticalinterests.

Itisestimatedthatwellinexcessoffourhundredthousandpeople,mostlyblackAfricans,werekilledbytheJanjaweedmilitiaandtheconditionstheycreated,andoverthreemillionpeoplehavefledtheirhomestoseekrefugeefromthekilling.Thesepeopleremainunabletoreturntotheirhomesforfearthattheywillbekilledorbecausetheysimplyhavenoplacetoreturnto.

AnimismThetermcomesfromtheLatinwordanima,whichmeansbreathorsoul.Itisconsideredtheoldestofhumanreligions.Whilemanyreligions(Islam,Christianity,Judaism)believethatpeoplepossessasoulthattranscendslife,theAnimismbeliefisthatallobjectscontainasoulorspiritandthatthesespiritsarecontinuallyinteractingthroughouttheuniverse.Italsodiffersfromthosereligionsinbeingapolytheism—abeliefinthousandsofGods—asopposedtoabeliefinonesupremebeingormonotheism.Inthisregard,AnimismismorecloselylinkedtotheHindufaith.InAnimismthereisahighlyinterconnectedrelationshipbetweenpeople,otherlifeforms,inanimateobjectsandnaturallyoccurringphenomenon,suchasstorms,fireorearthquakes.Allthesepossessspiritsandsouls,andthesecaninteractinapositiveornegativemannerwithhumans,dependinguponthecare,circumstancesandceremoniesthattakeplace.Whileitisancientinorigin,itisstillpracticed,indifferingforms,bymillionsofpeoplearoundtheworld.

ColonialismanditsongoinginfluenceinAfricaThroughoutthecourseofhumanhistory,differentcivilizationshavebecomemoredominantatdifferenttimes.IntheeighteenthcenturytheEuropeanpowersweredominant.Theypossessedweapons,transportationandtechnologythat

allowedthemtoexerttheirinfluenceonplacesaroundtheworld.TherewasagreatdealofcompetitionbetweenEuropeanpowerstosecuretheresourcesofcountriesaroundtheworld.InAfrica,virtuallytheentirecontinentwascarvedupbytheEuropeanpowers.TheBritishEmpirecontrolledalmostone-thirdofthecontinent,andFrance,Belgium,Portugal,Spain,GermanyandItalyallhadextensivecolonies.Thecreationofthesecoloniesoftenfollowedgeographicfeatures—rivers,mountains,lakes—butdidnotalwaystakeintoaccountthecultureorlanguageofthepeople.Tribalgroupscouldbedividedamongtwoorthreecountries,andsomecountrieswerecreatedthatcontainedtribalgroupswhowereverydifferentoreventraditionalenemies.Inaddition,therewereoftendifferentrolesandpowersgiventothevarioustribalgroupswhichcausedexistingconflictstobecomemoredeeplyrootedandproblematic.

Withthecollapseoftheseempiresthecoloniesbecameindependentcountriesbasedontheartificialborderscreatedbythecolonialpowers.Thesedivisionscreatedtensionsthathaveledtocertaingroupstakingadominantpositionattheexpenseofminoritygroups,orcivilwars,orongoingwarsbetweendifferentcountriesinattemptstogainpower,peopleorland,ortoofferprotectiontotheirtribalgroupsbeingpersecutedinothercountries.

Theboundariesbetweencountriesarenotalwaysclearlydefined,andinmostcasesalmostimpossibletodefendorprotect.Peoplemovefreelyovertheseborders,attimesnotevenawarethattheyhavecrossedfromonecountrytoanother.Thesebordersarealsonotalwaysrecognizedaslegitimate,asallegiancetotribalmembers,whomayliveacrossaborder,isseenasastrongerloyalty.

Attimesofconflictorcrisisinonecountry,itiscommonfortensofthousands,orevenhundredsofthousands,ofrefugeestoseekshelterinaneighboringcountry.Thisinfluxofpeoplecreatespoliticalinstabilityandtaxestheverylimitedresourcesofthehostcountry.ThereisvirtuallynocountryinAfricawiththeresourcestoadequatelycareforhundredsofthousandsofrefugees.

Asnoted,Sudanisanartificialgroupingoftwoverydistinctpeopleswhichisarootcauseofmuchofthecivilunrestthathasdominatedthecountry’shistory.Inaddition,theboundariesbetweenitanditsneighborsare,insomeinstances,stillthesourceofconflictandcompetition.TheongoingcrisesinSudanhavehadadestabilizingeffectonitsneighbors,asrefugeeshavefledtothem,seekingprotectionandsustenance.

AFTERWORD

WhenElephantsFighttellsthestoriesoffivechildhoodvictimsofwarandconflictfromaroundtheworld.Therearecountlessotherstorieslikethese—manyotherchildrenlikeJimmy,Nadja,Farooq,AnnuandToma.Thisbookhopestogiveaface—ifnotavoice—tothesufferingthatistheresultofadultconflicts.Childrenareunwillingparticipantsintheviolencethatcontinuestorageinmanyplacesaroundtheworld,andonlywhenadultstakeresponsibilityfortheiractionsandrecognizetheincalculablecostofwarontheirchildren,canthegrassbeprotectedfromthesenselessviolenceandindiscriminatewastethatiswarfareandconflict.

FiftypercentoftheroyaltiesfromthisbookwillgodirectlytoGuluWalkandwillhelpthechildrenofnorthernUgandawhocontinuetosuffertheimpactsofwar.

Formoreinformationandtofindouthowtogetinvolvedvisitwww.guluwalk.com.

ItistheenergyandhopeofthechildrenthatinspirestheGuluWalkFoundation.