What you really need to remember !. Metric System Lab safety (WHMIS, household symbols) ...
-
date post
21-Dec-2015 -
Category
Documents
-
view
224 -
download
4
Transcript of What you really need to remember !. Metric System Lab safety (WHMIS, household symbols) ...
Review Topics Metric System Lab safety (WHMIS, household symbols) Nomenclature (inorganic, organic) Quantum Theory
SI BASE UNITSQuantity Base Unit Symbollength metre mmass gram gvolume litre Ltemperature kelvin Ktime second samount of matter mole molelectric current ampere Aluminous intensity candela cd
SI DERIVED UNITSQuantity Name of Unit Symbol in SI Base
Units
density kilogram per kg · m-3 kg · m-
3 cubic metre (kg/m3)
force Newton N kg · m · s-2 (kg · m /
s2)
pressure Pascal Pa N · m-2
(kg·s-2·m-1 , N / m2)
heat energy Joule J N · m (kg·m2·s-2 )
SI PrefixesPrefix Symbol Multiplication Factor Exponential
Notationexa E 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 1018 peta P 1 000 000 000 000 000 1015
tera T 1 000 000 000 000 1012
giga G 1 000 000 000 109
mega M 1 000 000 106
kilo k 1 000 103
hecto h 100 102
deca da 10 101
THE BASE UNIT 1 100
SI PrefixesPrefix Symbol Multiplication Factor Exponential
NotationTHE BASE UNIT 1 100
deci d 0.1 10-1
centi c 0.01 10-2
milli m 0.001 10-3
micro μ 0.000 001 10-6
nano n 0.000 000 001 10-9
pico p 0.000 000 000 001 10-
12
femto f 0.000 000 000 000 001 10-15 atto a 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 10-
18
Hazardous Materials in the Home The eight-sided outline
(octagonal) signifies that the contents of the container is dangerous.
The triangular outline signifies that the container is dangerous, usually because the contents are under high pressure.
Hazardous Materials in the HomePoison poisons can enter the body in one of
three ways:a) ingestion (eating)b) inhalation (breathing)c) absorption through the skind) injection
Corrosive are chemicals which can act on clothing,
skin, eyes or internally by drinking or eating
can cause symptoms ranging from mild rash to serious skin damage
can damage clothing can cause blindness can cause death if ingested
Radiation radioactive materials emit high energy
atomic particles or high energy radiation (x-rays, gamma rays), or both
found in smoke detectors and involve no danger if kept at a safe distance
Explosive
can cause injury or death as a result a blast or because of the materials expelled by the blast (metal shards)
usually are pressurized aerosol containers which may explode when heated
Class B - Combustible and
Flammable Material may burn at relatively low temperatures, burn
spontaneously or as a result of heat, sparks or friction
hydrocarbons and several chemicals like phosphorus, sodium and calcium carbide would be included in the list.
Class C - Oxidizing Material
may cause a fire, react violently or explode when it comes into contact with combustible materials such as wood.
an oxidizer supplies the oxygen for a chemical reaction.
Class D, Division 1 – Poisonous and Infectious
Material; Immediate and Serious Toxic Effects
these substances have acute toxicity - refers to
a substance which has immediate effects, usually within 24 hours
Class D, Division 2 – Poisonous and Infectious
Material; Other Toxic Effects these substances have chronic toxicity - refers to the
effects of a substance through repeated exposure at low levels over a long period (weeks, months or years).
effects include; organ damage, illness or death the effects can also include cancer,
allergies or chronic diseases (bronchitis, emphysema, cirrhosis of the liver, etc.)
long term alcohol or cigarette use would fall under this category
Class D, Division 3 – Poisonous and Infectious Material;
Biohazardous Infectious Material refers to an infectious agent
(bacteria, virus or some other organism) which may spread disease if improperly handled, also called a biohazard
this symbol is common in hospital emergency rooms on containers where used needles and dressings are deposited
Class E - Corrosive Material
causes severe eye and skin irritation upon contact causes severe tissue damage with prolonged
exposure may be harmful if inhaled the effects are the same as under the household
hazards
Class F - Dangerously Reactive Material is very unstable may react with water to release
a toxic or flammable gas may explode as a result of shock,
friction or increase in temperature undergoes vigorous polymerization all of these reactions happen very quickly; you
have to be extremely careful around these substances
Lab Procedures and Rules1. No eating or drinking in the lab.
2. Treat all chemicals as if they were hazardous:3. Never perform unauthorized experiments.4. Report all accidents immediately. 5. If you get a chemical solution in your eye go to the eyewash
station immediately and wash the eye for at least 5 minutes.6. If you get chemicals on your clothes, wash the clothes
thoroughly.7. Do not wear loose clothing during a lab. Tie long hair back.8. Do not sit on the lab bench; you do not know how clean it is.9. Clean all equipment thoroughly and put it back where it
belongs.10. Follow directions concerning the safe disposal of chemicals
and solutions.11. Clean your lab station thoroughly after a lab.
In Case of An Accident: Inhaled Poison - Remove the patient to fresh air and
apply artificial respiration if necessary. Keep the victim warm with blankets.
Contact of Poison with Skin or Eyes - Flood affected area with water, for at least 5 minutes. Remove contaminated clothing. DO NOT attempt to use chemical antidote.
Swallowed Poison - If the person is conscious and able to swallow, immediately dilute the poison by giving the victim 2 to 4 cups of milk or water.
Swallowed Corrosives - DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING. Give milk and water. If vomiting occurs naturally, hold head below hips to avoid choking.
Laboratory Equipment Be able to identify the items on the
sheet given. Note: the flask is an erlenmeyer flask
Types of Chemical Substances Inorganic
elements molecular ionic
Organic aliphatic cyclic substituted
Common substances inorganic or organic
Elements one kind of atom most are monoatomic (one atom)
Cu, Fe, Al, He 8 elements are diatomic (2 atoms)
H2 N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2 (At2)
2 are polyatomic S8
P4
Common Substances known by names other than their
systematic names be familiar with
formulas systematic name common name
know whether systematic or common name takes precedence
Common SubstancesFormula Chemical Name Common Name
H2O hydrogen oxide waterNaCl sodium chloride table saltHCl hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acidHNO3 hydrogen nitrate nitric acidH2SO4 hydrogen sulfate sulfuric acidH3PO4 hydrogen phosphate phosphoric acidCH3COOH acetic acid vinegarCaSO4 calcium sulfate gypsum (dry wall)NH3 nitrogen trihydride ammonia
Common SubstancesFormula Chemical Name Common Name
H2O2 hydrogen peroxide hydrogen peroxide
C2H5OH ethanol drinking alcoholCH3OH methanol wood alcoholCH4 methane natural gasO3 ozone ozoneC12H22O11 sucrose table sugarKCl potassium chloride potashNaOH sodium hydroxide lye, caustic
sodaCaO calcium oxide lime
Molecular Compounds can’t predict formula so naming is done on
a numbering system. prefixes in front of the element name tell
you how many of that element are present in the compound:
mono 1 hexa 6di 2 hepta 7tri 3 octa 8tetra 4 nona 9penta 5 deca
10
Molecular Compounds N2O5
dinitrogen pentaoxide (note ending) CO2
carbon dioxide (no mono on first atom)
COcarbon monoxide
Cl2O7
dichlorine heptaoxide
-idesC carbide Cl chlorideN nitride As arsenideO oxide Se selenideF fluoride Br bromideSi silicide Te tellurideP phosphide I iodideS sulfide
Molecular Compounds tetraphosphorus decaoxide
P4O10
tetrasulfur tetranitrideS4N4
bromine monofluorideBrF
diarsenic triselenideAs2Se3
Ionic Compounds there is no molecule, rather a crystal
lattice. chemical formula is ratio of cations to
anions in crystal; formula unit ionic substances are recognized
because they contain a metal + non-metal
Writing Formula Units the formula unit of any ionic compound
is the ratio of cations to anions in the crystal lattice.
the net charge of a formula unit is zero. it is written as the lowest ratio of
cations to anions.
Examples K1+ F1- gives KF Mg2+Cl1- gives MgCl2 Al3+ S2- gives Al2S3
Ca2+ S2- gives CaS Sr2+ OH1- gives Sr(OH)2
NH41+ SO4
2- gives (NH4)2SO4
Using Ion Charge to Predict Formulasa) K1+, Br1- f) Zn2+ , O2-
KBr ZnOb) Ca2+, Cl1- g) Mg2+ , NO3
1-
CaCl2Mg(NO3)2
c) Li1+, H1- h) Fe2+, O2-
LiH FeOd) Fe3+, OH1- i) Fe3+ , O2-
Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3
e) Ca2+, OH1- j) Sn4+, F1-
Ca(OH)2 SnF4
k) Hg2+, O2- p) Mn7+ , O2-
HgO Mn2O7
l) K1+, PO43- q) Na1+, SeO3
2-
K3PO4 Na2SeO3
m) Si4+, O2- r) Na1+, SeO42-
SiO2 Na2SeO4
n) NH41+, SO4
2- s) Al3+, SO42-
(NH4)2SO4 Al2(SO4)3
o) Na1+, PO43- t) H1+, S2-
Na3PO4 H2S
Using Formulas to Predict Ion Charge a) ZnSO4 f) KSCN
Zn2+ SO42- K1+ SCN1-
b) Mn(NO3)3 g) Na2SO3
Mn3+ NO31- Na1+ SO3
2-
c) SnO h) Al2(Cr2O7)3
Sn2+ O2- Al3+ Cr2O72-
d) LiHCO3 i) MgC2O4
Li1+ HCO31- Mg2+ C2O4
2-
e) Hg2Cl2 j) SrH2
Hg22+ Cl1- Sr2+
H1-
Simple Ionic Compounds cations from groups 1 & 2, Al, Zn, Ag, Cd,
NH41+ (all have only one possible charge)
anions can be anything on the chart (including polyatomic ions)
only one formula unit possible, so name is a repetition of the ion names:
NaClNa1+ Cl1-
sodium chloride
Simple Ionic Compounds NH4NO3
NH41+ NO3
1-
ammonium nitrate
Al2(CO3)3
Al3+ CO32-
aluminum carbonate
Ag3PAg1+ P3-
silver phosphide
Stock System used when the cation can have more
than one possible charge used for all other metals on the Periodic
Table. the name of the compound includes the
charge of the cation in roman numerals, in brackets after the cation name.
The Stock System of Nomenclature
Formula
Charge of Cation
Charge of Anion
Name of Compound
SnF2 Sn2+ F1- Tin (II) fluoride
SnF4 Sn4+ F1- Tin (IV) fluoride
Co(ClO)
3Co3+ ClO1- Cobalt (III)
hypochlorite
MnO2 Mn4+ O2- Manganese (IV) oxide
US3 U6+ S2- Uranium (VI) sulfide
Classical System older system much, much, older largely replaced by Stock system, but is
still around. if see name be able to give formula. never give classical name for any
formula.
The Stock and Classical Systems of Nomenclature
Formula
Charge of
Cation
Charge of Anion
Stock NameClassical
Name
SnF2 Sn2+ F1- Tin (II) fluoride
Stannous fluoride
SnF4 Sn4+ F1- Tin (IV) fluoride
Stannic fluoride
CoCl2 Co2+ Cl1-Cobalt (II) chloride
Cobaltous chloride
CoCl3 Co3+ Cl1-Cobalt (III) chloride
Cobaltic chloride
Cu2O Cu1+ O2- Copper (I) oxide
Cuprous oxide
CuO Cu2+ O2- Copper (II) oxide
Cupric oxide
Waters of Hydration water molecules physically attached to
ionic and molecular substances. name and formula recognizes their
presence.
Waters of Hydration gypsum typically attracts 4 water
molecules per formula unit:
CaSO4 · 4 H2O
name the substance then use a numbering prefix followed by subscript hydrate:
calcium sulfate tetrahydrate
Naming Hydrated Compounds
Formula Name of Compound
P2O5 · 10 H2Odiphosphorus pentaoxide decahydrate
Na2CO3 · H2O sodium carbonate monohydrate
1) NH3 ammonia2) Fe(NO3)2 Fe2+ NO3
1- iron (II) nitrate3) SO2 sulfur dioxide4) MgBr2 Mg2+ Br1- magnesium bromide5) GeCl4 Ge4+ Cl1- germanium (IV) chloride6) N2 nitrogen7) AlPO4 Al3+ PO4
3- aluminum phosphate8) C2H5OH ethanol9) Li2CrO4 Li1+ CrO4
2- lithium chromate10) KH K1+ H1- potassium hydride11) CuCr2O7 Cu2+ Cr2O7
2- copper (II) dichromate12) NH4NO3 NH4
1+ NO31- ammonium nitrate
13) H2SO4 H1+ SO42- sulfuric acid
14) Pb3(PO4)2 Pb2+ PO43- lead (II) phosphate
15) KSCN H1+ SCN1- potassium thiocyanate
16) CO2 carbon dioxide17) P2O5 6 H2O diphosphorus pentaoxide hexahydrate18) PbO Pb2+ O2- lead (II) oxide19) BaS Ba2+ S2- barium sulfide20) S8 sulfur21) Mo(NO3)7 Mo7+ NO3
1- molybdenum (VII) nitrate22) BaH2 Ba2+ H1- barium hydride23) CaSO4 4 H2O
Ca2+ SO42- calcium sulfate
tetrahydrate24) O2 oxygen25) Al2O3 Al3+ O2- aluminum oxide26) PCl3 phosphorus trichloride27) NO3 nitrogen trioxide28) Mn2O3 Mn3+ O2- manganese (III) oxide29) U(CO3)3 U6+ CO3
2- uranium (VI) carbonate30) SnSO3 Sn2+ SO3
2- tin (II) sulfite
1) sodium fluoride Na1+ F1-
NaF2) potassium carbonate K1+ CO3
2-
K2CO3
3) aluminum sulfide Al3+ S2-
Al2S3
4) calcium bromide Ca2+ Br1-
CaBr2
5) chlorine heptafluoride ClF7
6) silver oxide Ag1+ O2- Ag2O7) ammonium sulfide NH4
1+ S2-
(NH4)2S8) barium hydroxide Ba2+ OH1-
Ba(OH)2
9) phosphorus P4
10) mercurous chloride Hg22+ Cl1-
Hg2Cl211) tin (II) nitrate Sn2+ NO3
1- Sn(NO3)2
12) potassium bisulfite K1+ HSO31-
KHSO3
13) caustic soda Na1+ OH1- NaOH14) boric acid H1+ BO3
3- H3BO3
15) cupric sulfate Cu2+ SO42- CuSO4
16) calcium carbonate Ca2+ CO32- CaCO3
17) ammonium sulfite NH41+ SO3
2- (NH4)2SO3
18) iron (II) hydroxide Fe2+ OH1- Fe(OH)2
19) uranium (VI) nitrateU6+ NO31- U(NO3)6
20) ozone O3
21) lithium dichromate Li1+ Cr2O72- Li2Cr2O7
22) hydrogen nitrate H1+ NO31- HNO3
23) barium bicarbonate Ba2+ HCO31- Ba(HCO3)2
24) nitrogen dioxide NO2
25) carbon monoxide CO26) methanol CH3OH27) ammonium oxalate NH4
1+ C2O42-
(NH4)2C2O4
28) argon octafluoride ArF8
29) gold (III) nitrate Au3+ NO31- Au(NO3)3
30) cobalt (II) chloride Co2+ Cl1- CoCl2 · 6 H2Ohexahydrate
Organic Nomenclature 3 types of organic compounds
important for this class: aliphatic hydrocarbons - chains cyclic hydrocarbons - rings aromatic hydrocarbons - benzene rings
Organic Nomenclature Naming hydrocarbons involves looking at 3 aspects:
1. Number of carbons linked in a continuous chain.
2. The presence of single, double or triple bonds in the carbon chain.
3. The presence of structures other than hydrogen attached to the main carbon chain (functional groups).
1. Length of Carbon Chain how many carbons are bonded in a chain
gives the prefix of the name:
1 meth- 7 hept-2 eth- 8 oct-3 prop- 9 non-4 but- 10 dec-5 pent- 11 undec-6 hex- 12 dodec-
1. Length of Carbon Chain other prefixes include:
13 tridec- 30 triacont-14 tetradec- 40 tetracont-15 pentadec- 50 pentacont-20 eicos- 100 hect-25 pentacos-
2. Family Background carbon atoms make 4 chemical bonds. carbon atoms can be linked to each
other by one pair of electrons (single bond), two pair (double bond), or three pair (triple bond).
the presence of double or triple bonds on the carbon chain changes the chemical family.
2. Family Background alkanes
all carbons are connected by single bonds the suffix –ane is added to the name of the
compound the general formula is CnH2n+2
hexane
alkenes the carbon chain contains at least one
double bond the suffix –ene is added to the name of the
compound the general formula is CnH2n
propene
alkynes the carbon chain contains at least one
triple bond the suffix –yne is added to the name of the
compound the general formula is CnH2n-2
propyne
Isomers is defined as the structure associated
with a chemical formula. for many organic compounds it is
possible to have more than one isomer for a given formula.
the simplest isomers are alkenes and alkynes where the double or triple bond can have more than one location:
Isomers 1- hexene
the double bond is located closest to the left-hand side, so that is where numbering starts.
Functional Groups Hydrocarbon chains are carbon chains
attached to the main chain:
this is calledmethylbutane
Functional Groups Prefixes are used to indicate the
number of carbons in the chain: 1 carbon - methyl- 2 carbons - ethyl- 3 carbons - propyl-
Functional Groups when it is possible to attach the
hydrocarbon in more than 1 place numbering is used:
2-methylpentane
Functional Groups Halogens - group 17 elements
attached to the carbon chain:
1-fluoro-3-chloropentane
Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals
Quantum mechanics is a mathematical treatment into which both the wave and particle nature of matter could be incorporated.
Quantum Mechanics since the electron is both
a wave and a particle it is impossible to give it’s location or speed with certainty.
gives a probability density map of where an electron has a certain statistical likelihood of being at any given instant in time.
Quantum Numbers The probability map reveals the
atomic orbitals, and their corresponding energies.
An orbital is described by a set of three quantum numbers.
Principal Quantum Number, n
This relates to the energy of the electron
As n becomes larger, the atom becomes larger and the electron is further from the nucleus.
This is directly related to the period of the atom on the Periodic Table
Angular momentum quantum number, l
This quantum number depends on the value of n.
The values of l begin at 0 and increase to n – 1.
Theoretical g, h, i, etc. orbitals exist, but no atoms have been created to use them.
This quantum number defines the shape of the orbital.
Value of l 0 1 2 3
Type of orbital s p d f
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
This quantum number depends on l. The magnetic quantum number has
integer values between –l and +l. Magnetic quantum numbers give the
three-dimensional orientation of each orbital.
s Orbitals Value of l = 0. Spherical in shape. Radius of sphere
increases with increasing value of n.
d Orbitals Value of l is
2. Four of the
five orbitals have 4 lobes; the other resembles a p orbital with a doughnut around the center.
Spin Quantum Number, ms
electrons have spin, which creates a magnetic field
there are two spin states possible, +1/2 and -1/2
a single orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, which must have opposite spin.
Pauli Exclusion Principle No two electrons in
the same atom can have exactly the same energy.
For example, no two electrons in the same atom can have identical sets of quantum numbers.
Electron Address thus every electron location is defined
in terms of 4 things:a) Principal Quantum Number - 1 to 7b) Angular Quantum Number – s, p, d or fc) Magnetic Quantum Number – implied by
number of electrons in each shape; s has 2, p has 6, d has 10 and f has 14
d) Spin Quantum Number – why each orbital can contain 2 electrons
Electron Configurations Electrons tend to occupy the lowest available
orbital. The simplest atom, hydrogen has 1 electron. In its’ lowest, or ground state, this electron will occupy
the 1s orbital, the lowest energy orbital available (see chart, page 105)
The next element, helium, has two electrons, both of which will occupy the 1s orbital.
Element three, lithium, has three electrons. The first two will fill the 1s orbital while the third must move up to the next energy level, 2s.
Thus the electron configuration of an atom is the arrangement of the electrons from the lowest energy level to the highest.
Electron Configurations Consist of
Number denoting the energy level. Letter denoting the type of orbital. Superscript denoting the number of
electrons in those orbitals. For instance:
Iron (Fe) – contains 26 electrons 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
watch the order of filling
Electron Configuration Potassium - 19 electrons
1s22s22p63s23p64s1
Silver - 47 electrons 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d9
Tungsten - 74 electrons 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24
f145d4
Plutonium - 94 electrons 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24
f145d10
6p67s25f6
Write the correct electron configuration for the following: Si, S, P, Ca, As, Fe, Br, Kr, At, U, Na1+,
F1-, Ne
Electron Configuration Si - 14 e1- 1s22s22p63s13p3
S - 16 e1- 1s22s22p63s23p4
P - 15 e1- 1s22s22p63s23p3
Ca - 20 e1- 1s22s22p63s23p64s14p1
As - 33 e1- 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p3
Fe - 26 e1- 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
Br - 35 e1- 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
Kr - 36 e1- 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6
At - 85 e1-
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p5
U - 92 e1- 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f4
Na1+ - 10 e1- 1s22s22p6
F1- - 10 e1- 1s22s22p6
Ne - 10 e1- 1s22s22p6
Electron Promotion promotion of an outer ‘s’ electron to the
adjacent ‘p’ orbital. turns non-bonding electrons into
bonding electrons allows atoms to make more chemical
bonds and achieve a lower energy applies to elements from groups 2, 13
and 14 only for these elements promotion is the
rule
Electron PromotionElement Unhybridized
Hybridized
beryllium 1s22s2 1s22s12p1
boron 1s22s22p1 1s22s12p2
carbon 1s22s22p2 1s22s12p3
Orbital Diagrams are another way to illustrate the position of
electrons. They are best learned by comparison with
electron configuration:
Na (11 protons, 11 electrons) electron configuration: 1s22s22p63s1
orbital diagram:
1s 2s 2p 3s
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
Orbital DiagramsRepresentative
Group Element Electron configuration Orbital Diagram
1s 2s 2p 1 lithium 1s22s1 ↑↓ ↑
2 beryllium 1s22s12p1 ↑↓ ↑ ↑
13 boron 1s22s12p2 ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
14 carbon 1s22s12p3 ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
15 nitrogen 1s22s22p3 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
16 oxygen 1s22s22p4 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
17 fluorine 1s22s22p5 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
18 neon 1s22s22p6 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Repeat the last assignment, giving the orbital diagrams for the elements.
Electron dot (Lewis) diagrams gives information only concerning the valence
electrons. Valence electrons are the electrons on the outside
of an atom; they are the electrons responsible for bonding and are also the electrons gained or lost when an atom ionizes.
Valence electrons are electrons in the s and p orbitals of the highest energy level reached by the electrons of an atom.
In this class when valence electrons are mentioned, the only elements concerned are those in groups 1, 2, and 13 through 18.
What do Orbital and Lewis diagrams tell us? both give information about valence
electrons. if valence electrons are paired, they
cannot be used for bonding with other atoms. They are lone-pair electrons.
unpaired valence electrons are bonding electrons.
Orbital Diagrams Each box represents one
orbital. Half-arrows represent the
electrons. The direction of the arrow represents
the spin of the electron. Pauli Exclusion Principle – no two
electrons in the same orbital can have the same spin