What Should a Learner's Dictionary Include

7/23/2019 What Should a Learner's Dictionary Include

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Department of Translation

University of Petra - Jordan

An evaluative study of the quality and effectivenessof three English-English Learners Dictionaries

ATIDA E-Librarywww.atida.org/[email protected]

Dictionary Include?Dictionary Include?Dictionary Include?Dictionary Include?

Mohammed Y. Abu-Risha

What Should a Learner'sWhat Should a Learner'sWhat Should a Learner'sWhat Should a Learner's


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Content

Abstract

.... 2

Abbreviations and Definitions of Terms Used in This Study ... 3

I. Statement of Problem ... 4

II- Review of Related Literature ... 4II.1. Bobda (1998) . 4II.2. Ahulu (1998) ........ 5II.3. Hamdan and Fareh (1997) .... 5

II.4. Jackson (1996) .... 6III. Significance of Study ...... 6

IV. Developing a Heuristic Checklist ...... 7

V. Corpus Analysis and Discussion ... 9V.1. Semantic Information . 9V.2 Grammatical Information .. 22V.3. Morphological Information . 25V.4. Ancillary Information . 27

VI. Conclusion and Recommendations .... 30VI.1. Conclusion .... 30VI.2. Recommendations ... 32

Bibliography .. 34Online References .. 35

Appendices .. 36Appendix 1: Idioms that can be learnt from each

dictionary under study....

36Appendix 2: Collocations, idioms and fixed expressionsthat can be learnt from each dictionary . 37

Appendix 3: Table summarising the results of study 40


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Abstract

The present study aims at the comparison and contrast of three monolingual

(English-English) dictionaries namely: Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of

Current English, Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary and Cambridge

International Dictionary of English, with the learner in mind. It has been found

that there are differences in presenting lexical items in each of the three

dictionaries, which prompted me to invent a heuristic checklist against which each

dictionary is evaluated with reference to twenty six representative lexical itemschosen at random. While CCELD has been evaluated as No.1 among the three

dictionaries, the research is not meant to prefer one dictionary to another as much

as to reveal the characteristics that can meet the persisting needs of the learner.

Based on linguistic and statistical analysis, the discussion of the research results,

indeed, concludes that a good learner's dictionary is more than a paraphrase aword.


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Abbreviations and Definitions of Terms Used in This Study

CCELD : Collins Cobuild English Language DictionaryCIDE : Cambridge International Dictionary of EnglishOLDCE : Oxford Learners Dictionary of Current English

Par= Paraphrase DF= Derivational Forms

Lexi= Lexical relations IF= Inflectional FormsFT= Formality and register BrP= British PronunciationCIE= Collocations, Idioms andFixed Expressions

AmP= American Pronunciation

PS= Part of Speech DIC= DictionaryCL= Classification of Lexemes Var= Variation of usageVAS= Verb Argument Structure T= Total.1= A method is available 0= A method is not available

Lexical relations: synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms etc Classification of Lexemes: attributive or predicative or gradable

(adjective), countable or uncountable (nouns), etc.

Variation of usage: variation according to country as Britain, USA,Australia, etc, Variation in spelling.

Verb Argument Structure transitive, intransitive, ditransitive etc.

Formality and register: formal, informal, slang, colloquial, vulgar,scientific, literary, medical etc.


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I. Statement of Problem

A learner's dictionary is by definition targeted to satisfy the needs ofthe learner who should be helped not only to learn the meanings of lexical

items (new to him/her), but also how to use each correctly andidiomatically. It is our belief, therefore, that any dictionary, especially alearner's dictionary should employ specific methods of presenting a wordto the learner. This paper propounds a set of methods to help assess theefficiency of an English-English dictionary (See Appendix 3).

The present piece of research will shed light on these methods withreference to the assessment of three English-English dictionaries, namelyCambridge International Dictionary of English (CIDE), the Oxford

Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English (OLDCE) and CollinsCobuild English Language Dictionary (CCELD).

II- Review of Related Literature

II.1. Bobda (1998)

In his article on British and American usage, Bobda argues that thedivergences between American and British English pose problems ofintelligibility that cannot be altogether overlooked (Bobda: 1998, 17). Notonly do these divergences emerge on the spelling or semantic levels, butalso transcend them to the syntactic properties of words. Quoted below aresome interesting examples provided by Bobda:

Accommodation: Singular (British English) Plural (US English )

(Bobda:1998, 16)

- Snuck out in British English sneaked out (US English) (Bobda: 1998,16).

I visited with my friends (American English) for I visited my friends

(British English) (Bobda: 1998, 16) underlines added

The above example shows that the uncountable becomes countable,the transitive becomes intransitive and so forth. With learners dictionaries

in mind, there is no doubt that problems of usage among the differentvarieties of English are significant.


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II.2. Ahulu (1998)

Samuel Ahulu, in his article entitled Grammatical Variation inInternational English, points to the grammatical divergences existing

between standard English on the one hand, and written English inpostcolonial countries on the other. Noun countability, for example, doesnot seem the same in both British English and some postcolonial English.The word furniture is uncountable in British English, and could occur inutterances like: a piece of furniture and pieces of furniture. Someuncountable nouns, however, are used as countable in English written inpostcolonial countries as: luggages, furnitures, accommodations,informations, etc.

II.3. Hamdan and Fareh (1997)

Quite a large number of foreign learners are obsessed with the ideathat if two words are synonyms, they can be used interchangeably in anycontext whatsoever. Hamdan and Fareh, In their discussion of verbargument structure, have observed that not only is this idea wrong, but alsothat this misconception may sometimes be inherent in and reinforced by anumber of dictionaries. Two sets of verbs have been chosen and scrutinisedin terms of their respective VAS (Verb Argument Structures). Each twoverbs are semantically synonymous, but do not share the same argumentstructure. The following is an illustrative example:

Build can occur in (1)a. and (1)b. below, whereas its generally cited

synonym construct can only occur in (2)b.

(1) a. Ali built a grand palace for Salma.

b. Ali built Salma a grand palace.

(2) a. Ali constructed a grand palace for Salma.

b. * Ali constructed Salma a grand palace.

(Hamdan and Fareh: 1997, 197) underlines added

Upon discussing the various problems besetting some monolingualdictionaries, in this specific area, the researchers have recommended that


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dictionary compilers consider the provision of some more detailedinformation on the syntax of verbs (Hamdan and Fareh: 1997, 215).

II.4. Jackson (1996)

Jackson is of the opinion that a learners dictionary should take intoaccount that EFL learners employ language in two functions: decoding (i.e.listening and reading), and encoding (i.e. speaking and writing) (Jackson:1996, 176). Therefore, if a dictionary is to meet these two needs, it should bekeen to include such essential information as context(s) of use and cleardefinitions of all senses of a word (lexeme) in addition to the appropriateregister and field. But first and foremost, Jackson maintains that a learnersdictionary must provide for accurate and detailed grammatical

information so that correct and natural sentences can be encoded (Jackson:1996, 176). To these, he adds collocational information.

If these suggestions, posited by Jackson, are carefully observed, theEFL learner may be able to get rid of his/her native language interference inhis speaking or writing in the second language (herein English).

III. Significance of Study

The English learner's monolingual dictionary is very essential forstudents of English as a foreign language. It is usually in this dictionary astudent learns a word and learns how to idiomatically use it in English. It istherefore important to check how far successful a dictionary is in fulfillingthe needs of the learner's.

A search on the internet revealed many sites giving assessments on learner'sdictionaries (the key words searched for are: "evaluation, assessment,dictionary, dictionaries, learner's". One of these sites is:http://www.geth.demon.co.uk/voc.html. This site however, like other onesfound, presents assessment on the use of monolingual learner's dictionariesbased on personal experience only.

An interesting example about groundless evaluations of dictionariescould found at the aforementioned site is an advice by the writers, i.e.Gethin and Gunnemark, saying that "Dictionaries tooare often the great

enemies of word-learning". Paradoxically, the writers talk about studentswhose repertoire of vocabulary is poor and are tired of checking the


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dictionary every now and then while reading. So what is and where is theproblem? Is it in the dictionary or in the learner?

This illustration shows how some assessments of dictionaries have

either lacked systematicity and authenticity or haven't been based on solidgrounds.

This study therefore fills in the gap by suggesting a systematic andlinguistic method of evaluating a learner's dictionary, something that willbenefit both the user and the researcher in this field.

IV. Developing a Heuristic checklist

The following heuristic checklist shows what a learner expects orneeds to find in a learners dictionary:

1- Semantic Information:

A- Definition by paraphrase (para)B- Lexical Relations (Synonyms and/or antonyms and/or semantic

field and/or co-hyponyms)

C- Formality and Technicality (formal, informal, slang, colloquial,and register)

I- Collocations, idioms and fixed expressionsII- Illustrative examples showing the actual grammatical usage of the word

2-Grammatical Information:

I-Parts of SpeechII-Verb Argument Structure

III-Classification of a non-verb Lexeme (i.e. countable anduncountable nouns, gradable, attributive and predicative(Adjectives), etc.)

IV-Grammatical use in sentences

3- Morphological Information:

I-Derivational forms of lexemesII-Inflectional forms of lexemes

4-Ancillary Information


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I-Pronunciation (with special reference to BrE and AE)II-Variation (Variation of usage or spelling in the various Englishes:British, American, New-Zealand, Australian, Canadian, etc.)

The above points will be the parameters of examining the chosen lexemes inthis study.

5. The Corpus

The corpus incorporated in this study includes twenty six lexemeschosen randomly to represent the English alphabets. They are as follows:

Awning (n), buy(v), cybernetics (n), dwell (v), exult (v), fuse (n),

gutter (n), hypochondriac (adj), itinerary (n), justice (n), knot (n), luster (n),muzzle (n), nurture (v), owe (v), pussy (n), quirk (n), ruse (n), syntax (n),typewriter(n), utilize (n), voucher (n), write-up (n), xenophobia (n), your(pro), zigzag(n).

6. Method

A comparison has been drawn among the chosen incorporated wordsin terms of the parameters mentioned in V above. A table of these words is

appended to this research, providing a comparison between the threedictionaries in question. The different methods have been checked. Thesymbol 0 signifies the absence of a method, while 1 stands for its presence.The existing methods with respect to each word have been checked and thetotal amount of these methods for each dictionary has been calculated forstatistical purposes.

Each parameter will be defined below. Samples of lexemes will bediscussed and compared vis--vis the three dictionaries: CCELD, OLDCE

and CIDEL.

Our ultimate goal will be to provide insights for producing a newgeneration of learners English dictionaries, i.e. to answer the questionposited in the title of paper.

A detailed analysis of the corpus is provided in the appendix of thisstudy.

7. Limitations of Study


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The present study is restricted to the selected lexemes mentioned in Vand the heuristic checklist in IV above. Optimal arrangement of entries,pictorial illustrations or computerised versions of the same threedictionaries (i.e. OLDCE, CIDEL and CCELD) will not be considered in this

study. This study is not concerned with word etymology as well. The factthat this research tackles three dictionaries only does not, however, limit itsscope of application to other ones.

V. Corpus Analysis and Discussion

V.1. Semantic Information

V.1.1. Paraphrase:

Paraphrase is perhaps the most commonly used method of defining aword in a dictionary. It provides a semantic analysis of the word in termsof a number of features as shape, type, manner, constituents, etc. all ofwhich pertain to what the word stands for. Consider, for example thefollowing entry:

Awningn canvas or plastic sheet fixed to a wall above a door or

window and stretched out as a protection against rain or sun.(Sinclair et al, 1990)

Here, paraphrase enables the learner to learn that an awning could be(1) made of canvas or plastic (2) placed above a door or window, or (3) usedfor protecting the doors or windows from rain.

The table below shows that paraphrase has been used to aconsiderable degree in the three dictionaries in question:

Table (1)The Percentage of Using the Paraphrase Method

in the Three Dictionaries

CIDE OLDCE CCELD

Wd No. 26 26 26

Wd No.

Para.

23 25 26

Percentage 88.46% 96.15% 100%


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Obviously, CCELD is the only dictionary that makes full utilisation ofparaphrase method in word definition. OLDCE follows, and then comesCIDE.

Paraphrase is an effective device, which can be used however in aninefficient way. It is supposed to provide considerable details on themeaning of the word in question. The following is an illustrative review ofhow the method of paraphrase has been used in the three dictionaries. Thisreview will enable us then to test the efficiency of this method in worddefinition.

1- Dwell (v)

The way CCELD paraphrases this word is rather poor in comparison withthe rest of dictionaries. It states that if you dwell somewhere, you livethere. Such a definition wouldnt be sufficient, for the learner is likely tobe at a loss in differentiating between dwell and live. OLDCE providessome further information but its paraphrase is still inefficient. CIDE statesthat dwell is associated with a particular way but still it does not explainhow this word is distinct from live.

2-Exult (v)

The three dictionaries share the meaning of exult as "to show pleasure."They differ however in explaining the way it is used, as follows:

a- to show great pleasure or happiness esp. at someone elses defeat orfailure (CIDE)

b- you feel and show great happiness and pleasure because of sometriumphor successyou have. (CCELD)

- you speak in a way which indicates how pleased or proudyou are of something that has happened. (CCELD)

a-get great pleasure from something; rejoice greatly. (OLDCE )

3- Fuse (n)

CIDE again is more detailed on the matter. It states that a fuse melts

when the electric current is too high and so it prevents fire or other


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dangers. CCELD roughly states the same information. OLDCE howeveris so brief as it does not denote the use of fuse in electrical devices.

4- Hypochondriac (adj.)

CCELD makes use of paraphrase here, while CIDE does not define theword at all. As for OLDCE, it uses a narrow paraphrase in such a way asthe learner will be obliged to refer to the noun of this adjective tounderstand the meaning. This way of definition is tiring and timeconsuming for the learner who has to refer every now and then to otherderivatives in other entries to fully understand the word in question.

5- Itinerary (n.)

This item shows clearly how OLDCE is so concise in its paraphrase oflexeme. The present item is not made clear through paraphrase, a matterthat may lead the learner to misunderstand the whole word. This in turnwill negatively affect the idiomatic use of the word in question.

CIDE, on the other hand, makes clear the notion of itinerary bydistinguishing it from plan, for an itinerary is a detailed plan. Butstill this paraphrase is still rather vague and needs to be more illustrated by

means of specifying exactly the very nature and the use of the signified ofthe word itinerary.

CCELD renders a plausible paraphrase of itinerary elucidating thenature of the signified meaning. However, it still lacks some importantinformation, as for instance, the fact that an itinerary is a detailed plan.

Other pieces of information not given through paraphrase in thepresent example are something like:

- a person who uses itinerary is likely to be a tourist ortraveler.

- An itinerary is likely to be used when you visit a place thatyou don't have an idea about.

6- Justice (n.)

The major difference between the three dictionaries lies in the first

sense of the word or the first meaning to be paraphrased. While the legalsense comes first in CIDE, the general sense of the word (referring to fair


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behavior or treatment) is dominant in the remaining two dictionaries. Inthis regard, the researcher is of the opinion that the most familiar sense ofthe word should be stated first. This familiar sense is likely to be the one alearner wants to look up in the dictionary. The most successful dictionary,

here, would be CCELD, which seems to have divided the word into senseson a scale of the learners familiarity with the word. Each sense isparaphrased precisely giving the learner much information on how use theword in different contexts.

OLDCE starts with the most familiar sense of the word, i.e. right andfair behaviour, yet its paraphrase is not so satisfactory as that of CCELD.CIDE begins with the very legal sense of the word, i.e. the putting of thelaw into action. The other senses are not mentioned here.

7- Knot (n.)

The problem of sense arrangement occurs once again in this item.OLDCE begins with the most familiar sense which is a fastening made bytying a piece or pieces of string, rope, etc., moving downward to theuncommon senses ending with knot as a unit of speed measurement.What distinguishes OLDCE from the other dictionaries is the addition ofanother sense of the word ornament or decoration made of ribbon, etctwisted and tied. Paraphrase in this dictionary however is still concise andcould hardly let the learner perceive and use the word properly.

CIDE begins with paraphrasing the word in its most common sense,but then it suddenly mentions something related to another sense, i.e. to feeluncomfortable. Despite the inappropriateness of sense arrangement, CIDEseems to give well-constructed and easy-to-understand paraphrase of thesenses pertaining to the word in question.

CCELD is more elaborate in its paraphrase of the word knot. Itspecifies that a knot may occur not only in ropes and strings, but also inany other material where one end or part has passed through a loop andbeen pulled tight. There seems to be a good arrangement of senses on ascale of familiarity. The most common sense is placed before the lesscommon ones.

8-Nurture (IV.)


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CCELD and CIDE are roughly the same in their presentation anddefinition of the word nurture. The problem is with OLDCE, whichignores one of the senses, i.e. nurturing emotions, ideas, plans, etc.. Eventhe senses it provides are not made clear enough, for what do we expect a

learner to learn when we tell him that to nurture is to encourage thegrowth of something, or to nourish something? How can the learner besure that he is correctly saying, for example: "They are nurturing theirbusiness"?

We notice here that the paraphrase method has been effectivelyutilised in both CCELD and CIDE. This is not the case with OLDCE, whichdoes not seem to have successfully used the paraphrase method, whichproves to be very important in this example.

9- Syntax (n.)

OLDCE here is the most elaborate one. It precisely mentions thatsyntax is the arrangement of words into phrases and phrases intosentences. Next comes CIDE which does not mention anything about"phrases". Finally comes CCELD which pays no attention to "phrases" or"sentences".

From the above discussion we conclude that paraphrase is animportant method that may provide the learner with significantinformation. It has also been obvious that even an efficient use ofparaphrase may not lead to the learners full understanding of a word. Thismeans that such purpose could be realised only when paraphrase goeshands in hands efficiently with other methods.

V.1.2. Lexical Relations:

Following paraphrase, dictionaries usually resort to some items thatshare lexical relations with the word under consideration for elucidatingpurposes. These relations may include references to other words of similarmeaning (synonyms), broader meaning (superordinates), opposite meaning(antonyms) or of the same semantic field (hyponyms). Before we begin ouranalysis, it is important to tackle a problem of using synonyms. We mustnot, however, assume that a learners dictionary should be involved intelling all possible lexical relations, because this would fall in the domain of

a thesaurus rather than a dictionary.


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As seen in II.3, Hamdan and Fareh (1997) have shown somereservation against the use of synonyms in illustrating the meaning of aword. Arguing that a dictionary may be a potential source of error, theysay that two synonyms may be similar in meaning but differ in their

syntactic properties. The researcher, however, believes that this reservationshould not address a learners dictionaries, but rather dictionaries ofsynonyms. For illustration, consider the following citation quoted fromWebsters Dictionary of Synonyms (WDS) in connection with the synonymsBuy and Purchase (that are among the pairs examined by Hamdan andFareh (1997):

.the words [buy and purchase] are often used

interchangeably without loss. buy may almostalways be substitutedfor purchase withoutdisadvantage.

(Webster, 1951:135) emphasis added

If a learner were to follow the above quotation, he would inevitablythink that both buy and purchase enjoy the same syntactic properties.

You can say for instance:

He bought me a house.But not:* He purchased me a house.

This misconception may also extend to other pairs of synonyms.

This problem inheres only in dictionaries of synonyms. As forlearners dictionaries, synonyms are words through which a sense is madeclear by means of mentioning a more common word of similar meaning.

Nevertheless, it is the DUTY of all learners' dictionaries to point out thequestion of synonymy in their front matters warning the learner againstsuch misusage of synonyms.

Another point worth mentioning is the fact that a dictionary is not areference book of syntax. If a dictionary must allude every now and then tothe syntactic differences among synonyms, then it is likely going to beanything but a dictionary.

The present study, accordingly, will consider synonyms, antonymsand hyponyms as important advantageous devices for meaning


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clarification. The following table shows to what extent the threedictionaries observe lexical relations:

Table (2)

The Percentage of Using the Lexical Relations Methodin the Three Dictionaries

CIDE OLDCE CCELD

Wd. No. 26 26 26

Wd No. Lex. 10 6 19

Percentage 38.46% 23.08% 73.08%

It seems that sense relations have been observed and employed to aconsiderable degree by CCELD. Following comes CIDE and then OLDCE.It should be noted, however, that CIDE and OLDCE sometimes providesynonyms implicitly in their paraphrase of words.

As far as CIDE is concerned, a close scrutiny reveals that thisdictionary resorts to sense relations, namely synonyms, to serve otherpurposes than elucidating the meaning of a word (Consider relevantdiscussion on Awning and Buy for example.)

1-Awning (n)

Two synonyms and one superordinate are mentioned in CCELD,while CIDE observes other synonyms sunshade and sunblind. OLDCEstates no synonyms. Although synonyms in this example are noterroneous, the absence of these synonyms may not prevent the learner's fullunderstanding and consequently use of the word in question, which hasbeen fully explained by paraphrase.

CIDEs mentioning of the two synonyms is intended to differentiatebetween various usages of different varieties of English. CIDE says herethat Awning is mainly used in British English, while sunshade andsunblind are used to express the same meaning in the USA and Australiarespectively.

2-Dwell (v)

The paraphrase of dwell attempted by CCELD has been insufficientto provide for a good understanding of the same item. A superordinate


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reside is placed to fill in the gap. This is not the case with OLDCE, whichimplicitly states that dwell = reside in terms of meaning. It is nowobvious that while a dictionary may discern the relationship between twowords as synonyms, other ones may consider them as hyponym and

superordinate in a semantic field.

3-Exult (v)

CCELD specifies two superordinates: rejoice and say in additionto two synonyms: glory and crow. These lexical items are not placedrandomly, but in such a way as to the learner some knowledge of lexicalrelations with the word in each relevant sense. This will enhance thelearners understanding of the polysemous nature of some words. CIDE

should have resorted to such synonyms to fill in the gap created by a briefparaphrase.

4- Buy (v)

CCELD uses only two synonyms: purchase and gain in additionto one superordinate bribe. Other synonyms should have been statedsuch as those observed (implicitly) in OLDCE. In its paraphrase of theword, OLDCE mentions such synonyms as purchase, obtain, believe

and delay. CIDE, on the other hand, mentions such synonyms as payfor and believe (referred to by CIDE as GUIDE WORDS) for purposes ofentry design. CIDE uses such guide words to help the learner find whichmeaning he wants quickly.

None of the dictionaries has observed the antonym sell.

5- Gutter (n)

Channel is the only synonym mentioned in CCELD, CIDE andOLDCE. Other synonyms could have been given including cesspool,sink, drain and sump, but paraphrase is sufficient in explaining thisword.

6- Itinerary (n)

The meaning of this item could be grasped without resorting to lexicalrelations. In this example, we note how synonyms could be used

inappropriately. CCELD gives programme as a synonym of the subject


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item, which is totally incorrect. A programme is far distinct in meaningfrom an itinerary. This will lead us to conclude that an overuse ofsynonyms could be unhealthy. A better synonym could be something likeguidebook, while programme, schedule and timetable could be

stated as co-hyponyms.

7- Pussy (n)

Pussy in its informal or slang usage refers to the female genitals.There are of course other slang and informal synonyms of the word, none ofwhich is mentioned by any of the three dictionaries. The researcherbelieves that a dictionary in explaining such an item must provide the moreformal or technical synonyms that could be used safely without causing any

kind of embarrassment or inconvenience. Such synonyms could be like themore common term vagina or the more technical theca.

8- Quirk (n)

The synonym idiosyncrasy is used by CCELD. This synonym,however, may be somewhat vague for non-native speakers of English. It isrecommended therefore that other synonyms are stated such as"eccentricity, peculiarity, distinctive feature, trademark, mannerism, foible"

V.1.3. Formality and Technicality

A learner must be kept aware of the social attitude of native speakerstowards a specific word. Any use of a word in an inappropriate contextmay lead the learner to an embarrassing situation or may cause him to utteran odd, even awkward, utterance in the foreign language. It is anadvantage for a dictionary, therefore, to provide where necessary, in whatsituation the item could be used, such as in informal, formal, frozen

or other situations. The present study shows that in terms of formality andtechnicality, CCELD seems to dominate, followed by CIDE and then byOLDCE as shown in the table below:


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Table (3)The Percentage of Using

Formality and Technicality Method in the Three Dictionaries

CIDE OLDCE CCELDWd. No. 26 26 26

Wd. No.Formality

6 6 11

Percentage 23.08% 23.08% 42.31%

The above table tells us that the three dictionaries do not cover allitems in terms of formality. Consider for instance the following examples:

- CIDE does not observe as formal the following items:Fuse, itinerary, owe, ruse, and your

- As for OLDCE, these are:Dwell, nurture, ruse and syntax

- CCELD ignores the formality of:Fuse, itinerary, and owe

Consider also the verb buy. CIDE seems to be the only one to state

that the expression to buy yourself is used in the military in BritishEnglish.

V.1.4. Collocations, Idioms and Fixed Expressions

Recognising the meaning of a word, its lexical relations with otherwords and its level of formality does not guarantee an idiomatic use of thesame word. There is in every language a specific non-systematic way ofcombining words together. A collocation is simply a habitual co-occurrence

of two or more words. For instance, you can say I go home but not I gohouse, or greenwith jealousy and not bluewith jealously. Also, onecan discern the meaning of the collocation through the accumulation of themeanings of its various constituents. Idioms on the other hand are morefossilised due to the fact that they are syntactically restricted and thatthey are rather metaphorical as to the meaning of the whole idiom is not theaccumulation of the meanings of its constituents. Consider the followingexample:

He kicked the bucket. (= He died).


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* The bucket was kicked by him.

The outstanding problems and difficulties besetting the lexicographer,in this regard, could be summarised in the following questions:

1.

Where should collocations and idioms be extracted from?2.

How could it be tested that the selected collocations and idioms areactual and real utterances said by native speakers of English? Howcould one be sure that an idiom or collocation one chooses are notmere idiosyncrasies.

3. Are the selected idioms and collocations up-to-date, or have theybecome obsolete?

A learner my understand the meaning of specific words, but maycombine them erroneously, in terms of collocational and idiomatic meaning.Thus, providing some collocations and idioms within the dictionary entryseems to be inescapable.

Collocations and idioms grow with the growth of everyday languageand are unlikely to be limited. Thus, they and may not be comprehensivelyencompassed in the learners' dictionary. The most commonly used ones,however, should be stated and explained. In the following, we shall try to

see how much collocations the three dictionaries provided in this field. Thetable below shows the percentage of using the method of idioms andcollocations in the three dictionaries:

Table (4)The Percentage of Using

Idioms and Collocations Method in the Three Dictionaries

CIDE OLDCE CCELD

Wd. No. 26 26 26

Wd. No.CIE.

10 6 5

Percentage 38.46% 23.08% 19.23%

In appendix 2, a table shows how the three dictionaries have provided

for collocations and idioms.


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V.1.5. Illustrative Examples of Usage

We close our analysis in the semantic domain with illustrativeexamples of usage, which are perhaps the most important feature a

learners dictionary must exhibit. A learner may understand the meaning ofa word through paraphrase, yet he may be unable to use it correctly andappropriately. A review of the most recent English-English learnersdictionaries would tell us that the current trend is towards using authenticillustrative examples of actual use by native speakers of English. Thefollowing table shows the extent to which the three dictionaries have usedthis method:

Table (5)

The Percentage of UsingThe Illustrative Examples Method in the Three Dictionaries

CIDE OLDCE CCELD

NW 26 26 26

NWI1 25 18 26

Percentage 96.15% 69.23% 100%

Once again, we have to consider an important question: do the threedictionaries use the method of illustrative examples to the optimal degree?Or in other words, is this method efficiently utilised?

In order for an illustrative example to function efficiently, it should(among other things):

1.

be actually said by a native speaker (it should not be thelexicographers own invention)

2.

provide the user with some basic syntactic characteristics of the word3. provide the user with some basic semantic characteristics of the word

(collocations, idioms, etc)4.

Social Use

Syntactic properties include questions on transitivity, word order,countability, gradability etc. This information has been on the wholeprovided in examples by the three dictionaries.

Number of Words using the Illustrative Examples Method


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Take for instance the following examples:

1- Buy (v)

Let me buy you a drink (CCELD)

buy + Oi + OdMoney cant buy happiness (OLDCE ) buy + Od

Notice also the following self-explanatory example given by CIDE:

He bought his mother some flowers/ He bought some flowersto his mother.

2- Cybernetics (n)

CCELD is the only dictionary here that illustrates the use of the word.This use, however, seems to be a luxury. The world of cybernetics or thecybernetics department are unlikely to add to our knowledge of the wordin terms of its syntactic or semantic properties. For that reason, it seemsthat CCELD and OLDCE have preferred not to give any example.

3- Dwell (v)

There are three examples in CIDE, and one in each of COBUILD andOLDCE. CIDE stresses two important uses of the verb dwell, so we cansay: dwell in + Place or Dwell with + Someone.

4- Exult (v)

Examples have been given in each dictionary illustrating how to usethe word with in/at. CIDE, however, adds exult over.

5- Owe (v)

Notice:

We owe you our thanks / We owe our thanks to you (CIDE)

I owe my parents an enormous amount / I owe an enormous amountto my parents. (CIDE)

One way of examining the efficiency in using the illustrative examples

methods is by answering the following question: How many idioms and


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expressions or collocations have I learnt from the examples provided in thethree dictionaries? The answer is illustrated through the following table:

Table (6)

The Efficiency of the Illustrative Examples Method

CIDE OLDCE CCELD

NW 26 26 26

Collocations 51 30 45

Idioms 14 7 19

Col + Idioms 65 37 64

The above table tells us that CCELD and CIDE are more useful thanOLDCE on terms of illustrative examples efficiency. It is worth mentioningthat OLDCE seems to be focusing, in an unjustifiable manner, and relyingon condensed examples and phrases rather than clauses or completesentences.

V.2 Grammatical Information

One of the main properties that distinguish a learners dictionary is

that grammatical information is more detailed than an ordinary dictionary.Part of speech, for instance, could be said to be ancillary in any dictionarybut the learners. Take the following example:

In Arabic, to use the word

is used as an intransitive verb, while in

English the counterpart of this word is usually transitive:

The man disguised himself as a policeman.

Should a learners dictionary be oblivious to this fact, it would be moreamenable to causing perplexity and language interference problems in theuse of words by a non-native speaker.

It is interesting to note that CIDE disperses many syntactic rules andgrammatical information, not only within word entries, but also in thecourse of its body. After explaining the word compare, for example,


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CIDE draws a frame in which the concept of comparing and grading isexplained and discussed elaborately.

In the ensuing sections of this part, we shall look into three basic

elements of grammatical properties of words, i.e. the part of speech, verbargument structure and classification of lexemes (other than verbs).

Grammatical information is restricted in this paper to: part of speech,verb argument structure and grammatical classification of non-verbs.

V.2.1 Part of Speech

The part of speech has been fully observed by the three dictionaries

with respect to all words of the present corpus. CCELD, however, has anadvantage over the other two dictionaries for its clear labeling of the part ofspeech. All labels referring to nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. are placed onthe left margin with respect to each sense of the word, so these labels areeasy to notice and easy to understand. The other two dictionaries havepreferred to place the label directly after the pronunciation or the sense ofthe word.

V.2.2 Verb Argument Structure

The most detailed grammatical information in a learners dictionary isthat given to verbs since:

verb syntax is essentially the syntax of the clause, and it is wherethere are probably more differences between languages. The verblexeme in a clause determines the potential occurrence of the otherelements in the clause.

(Jackson, 1996:180)

Of the twenty six words of the corpus, only six words are verbs.These are: buy, dwell, exult, nurture, owe and utilise. Other words of thecorpus that could be used as nouns are excluded, simply because they havebeen randomly chosen as non-verbs.

As we have mentioned earlier, grammatical properties, including verbargument structure, are clearer in CCELD than the other two dictionaries.Not all the selected verbs are covered in terms of their arguments. Consider

the following table:


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Table (7)Verb Argument Structure

CIDE OLDCE CCELD

No. of Verbs 6 6 6Wd. No.explainingVAS

5 6 6

Percentage 83.33% 100% 100%

The verb buy is excluded form the verb argument structure analysis.

1-Dwell (v)CCELD states that dwell is followed by an adverbial, but the illustrativeexample is a bit syntactically perplexing. The problem is with the wordsomewhere, for this may impede a learners interpreting of the word.After reading the definition of the word, an Arab EFL learner has producedthe following sentence which is totally erroneous:

* He has dwelt Amman.

S V somewhere

OLDCE, on the other hand, does not state that dwell could occur inan NP-VP-PP structure, through it does say that dwell is intransitive.

The problem is resolved in CIDE, which states that dwell is a verbthat is always followed by an adverb or preposition. Two illustrativeexamples are given to show how the word is used with the prepositions inand with.

The word dwell should have been syntactically defined as: int.,V+A/PP.

2-Exult (v)

The syntactic information regarding exult is made implicit, throughillustrative examples, in CIDE and in OLDCE, the latter of which providessome vague symbols like I, Ipr, It. Although illustrative examples help usunderstand the syntactic properties of the word in CIDE and OLDCE, these


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properties seem to be much clearer in CCELD. Consider the followingsyntactic features of exult as mentioned in CCELD:

a)

The first sense of exult is usually used with an adverb

b)

The second sense of exult is used after a quotationc) The third sense of exult is usually used with an adverb

3- Nurture (v)

There is nothing remarkable concerning the syntactic properties ofthis word, as the three dictionaries mention that it is transitive and takes anobject.

4-Owe (v)

CIDE states that the word is stative and cannot be used in the progressivetense as to say: is owing. This has been indicated by the mentioning of:[T not be owing]. CCELD however is more elaborate and clear in terms ofthe syntactic features of the different senses when specifying the followingarguments:

a. V+O

b. V+O+Oc. V+O+A (to)d. V+O+Oe. V+O+Of. V+O+A+ (to)

OLDCE is still vague in its representation as it provides mere symbolslacking illustration, which is not a good feature of a learners dictionary.

5-Utilise (v)

Nothing of much importance could be said regarding this word, asthe three dictionaries state that the word is transitive, and provideillustrative examples.

It seems, however, that none of the three dictionaries have indicatedwhether a verb is stative (cannot occur in the progressive) or dynamic (canoccur in the progressive).

V.2.3 Classification of Non-verb Lexemes


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Here, we talk about noun countability and adjective gradability.These two features should be observed in learners dictionaries, because ofthe lack of a one-to-one correspondence among words of differentlanguages in this regard.

Beside verbs, the twenty-six-word corpus incorporates twenty nounsand adjectives. By observing the countability of noun, a learner becomessure that he may derive a plural of this noun, or use an indefinite articlebefore it. Gradability, on the other hand, would inform us if we can derivethe comparative and superlative forms by adding -er and est respectively,or pre-modifying it by very. The three dictionaries, once again, differ inusing this method. The following table is illustrative:

Table (8)Classification of Lexemes (Other than Verbs)

CIDE OLDCE CCELD

Total No. 20 20 20

Feature Used 13 8 14

Percentage 65% 40% 70%

CCELD, therefore, makes more use of the classification feature. Theopposite is true for OLDCE, which does not seem to rely to a large degreeon countability and gradability.

As for adjectives, Quirk et al (1972) observe that:

adjectives are distinguished positively by their ability to function

attributively and/or their ability to function predicatively afterintensive verbs, including 'seem'

(Quirk et al. 1972: 234)

Two adjectives appear in the corpus, namely hypochondriac andxenophobic. None of the three dictionaries provide an explicitexplanation on the correct use of these adjectives (i.e. in terms ofattributivity and predicativity). CCELD and CIDE at least illustrate throughexamples how these adjectives are used predicatively. OLDCE is short onthis specific point.


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ancillary information may provide the learner with a further degree ofknowledge concerning the word in question. These pieces of informationare ancillary, as they may be omitted altogether from the entry withoutaffecting the learner understands of the word.

A problem, however, may arise on the surface if we take into accountthe diversity of learners levels of education. A beginner, for instance, mayfind every single detail important for learning the word, while an advancedlearner may find a lot of methods in dictionaries nothing but a luxury, thathe can do without.

Ancillary information may include regional dialects, pronunciations,variations of usage, formality and technicality etc. For the purposes of the

present study, ancillary information will be restricted to pronunciation andvariation of usage.

V.4.1 Pronunciation

With regard to the British pronunciation, all words of the corpus havebeen observed in CCELD and CIDE. As for OLDCE, it ignores one singleword only, that is xenophobic.

Beside the British pronunciation, CIDE provides for American andAustralian pronunciations where applicable. Examples are: awning,cybernetics, gutter, quirk, etc.

CCELD observes the British pronunciation only, simply because itstates that the dictionary is directed for those who are mainly interested inlearning British English.

The three dictionaries use the same standard phonetic symbols.

V.4.2 Variation of Usage

It has been stated above in II.1 that American English and BritishEnglish may differ in using the same word semantically and syntactically.It has also been stated that a good learners dictionary may have to mentionthese differences of usage. The term variation of usage will be used hereto refer to either of the following two notions: (1) variation in spelling, and(2) syntactic and/or semantic variation in usage.


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Table (10):Variation of Usage

CIDE OLDCE CCELD

Total of Words 26 26 26Wd. No. VAR 8 3 2

Percentage 30.77% 11.54% 7.69%

In this arena CIDE, dominates. 30.77% of the total words in thecorpus have been observed in terms of variation of usage among BritishEnglish, American English and Australian English. Consider the followingfor examples pertaining to the present analysis:

1-Awning (n)

CIDE draws the attention of the learner that this word is mainly usedin British English, while other synonyms are used to refer to the samemeaning in Australian English sunshade and Australian Englishsunblind. English and American pronunciations are provided.

2- Buy (v)

CIDE observes that the following expressions that involve the verbbuy are used only in British English:

-

We bought in (=bought for future use)- You buy yourself (=you pay a sum of money so that you

can leave earlier)

It also observes the following expression as used in informal AmericanEnglish:

- You buy the farm (you die)

3-Fuse (n)

CCELD states one of the senses of the form as used in informalEnglish. CIDE, however, observes the following usage:

The fuse has gone / has broken (British and Australian English) (The

neutral expression is The fuse has blown)


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4- Justice (n)

Consider the following usages observed by CIDE and CCELD:

-

Justice is a judge (American English)- Justice as a part of a title of a judge (British English) [CIDE adds thatit is also used as such in Australian English)

-

Justice of the peace (American English as CIDE specifies)

Of the three dictionaries, OLDCE does not seem to give muchconsideration to this method.

VI. Conclusion and Recommendations:

VI.I. Conclusion:

This study has been concerned with three dictionaries: OxfordAdvanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, Collins Cobuild EnglishLanguage Dictionary and Cambridge International Dictionary of English. Aset of methods has been set up in the form of a heuristicchecklist andtwenty six words have been randomly chosen to form the corpus of the

study. The corpus has been examined with respect to three major domains:Semantic Component, Grammatical Information and Ancillary Information.The findings have been organised and provided in the appendices of thisstudy.

The findings of the present piece of research have proved useful inevaluating how much the learner learns in consulting any of the threedictionaries named above. In other words, the ultimate goal of ourdiscussion is to arrive at a point where we can understand whether the

learners knowledge with respect to a word has been enhanced or not.Following is an overall analysis and evaluation of the three dictionaries:

1-Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English

OLDCE has proved to be somehow insufficient and inefficient in the threedomains of the heuristic checklist. Paraphrase is rather concise, illustrativeexamples are limited and restricted to fragments and phrases instead ofclauses and sentences. Lexical relations are also rare (23.08%). There are,however, a few examples illustrating the use of words, though these


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examples are in the form of fragments and phrases rather than fullsentences or clauses. These illustrative examples are also poor incollocations and fixed expressions.

In the syntactic standpoint, OLDCE pays attention to all verbs of thecorpus in terms of their argument structures. This is a good advantage, yetOLDCE needs to revise the nature and positions of symbols in this regard.These symbols have proved to be difficult to understand by the learner, andshould be placed on the margin of every sense so they can be clearly andeasily identified. Stative and Dynamic labels should also be taken intoaccount.

OLDCE still needs to further its presentation in terms of noun

countability and adjective classification (gradable and non-gradable,attributive or predicative).

It is optional for OLDCE to enter the variation of usage ininternational English as a new feature or method of defining a word. Also,it is not obligatory for it to display the pronunciations of British English andAmerican English simultaneously.

2-Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary

On the semantic level, this dictionary has been satisfactory inproviding a good paraphrase of words, lexical relations includingsynonyms, antonyms and superordinates. Formality and technicality havebeen observed in 42.31% of the words, but what gives CCELD advantageover other dictionaries is its use of illustrative examples with respect to allthe twenty six words of the corpus. CCELD has passed the efficiency testwe have previously posited for examining this use against the question:How much do these illustrative examples provide for collocations andidioms? The result is amusing, 64 collocations and expressions could belearnt from the twenty six words definitions.

On the syntactic level, CCELD has been keen in providing allargument structures of each single sense of the 6 verbs incorporated in thecorpus. Noun countability has been fully observed, but the dictionaryneeds to specify explicitly the gradability of adjectives. The illustrativeexamples should be reviewed in a manner that they would contain much

syntactic information of the word when it comes in a clause or a sentence.


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CCELD has well observed, as well, the derivational and inflectionalforms of the majority of words concerned. CELD states its main interest inthe introductory as the target learner of British English. In view of this, itwould not be obligatory that CCELD observes the variations of spelling,

pronunciation and lexical usage among the various English varieties. It hashowever, in some cases, provided for information on specific expressionsused only by the American English speakers.

3- Cambridge International Dictionary of English

The dictionary on the whole is interesting and satisfactory, with somereservations on the style of presentation. CIDE, nevertheless, ischaracterised by the organisation of its word-senses and labeling each sense

with a Guide Word that facilitate the process of looking up a word.Syntactic information and rules are also made available in the front matteras well as in the body (where appropriate). Illustrative examples are alsoefficiently utilised. These provide the learner with some syntactic andsemantic features of the word concerned. Collocations, idioms andexpressions exist. CIDE, moreover, has the following unique features:

1. It pays attention to the pronunciations of other varieties of English,such as American English and Australian English in addition toBritish English.

2.

It warns the learner of using false friends. This will help reduce theinterference of the learners mother tongue in his learning of English.

3.

It keeps the learner aware of the semantic differences in using wordsby various English varieties. An example has been noted in the abovediscussion, when CIDE states that while British English uses awning,American English uses sunshade and Australian English usessunblind to refer to the same meaning.

CIDE is on the whole presentable, meaning that is comfortable to use, yetit needs a re-arrangement of its symbols regarding the verb argumentstructure features and other ones pertaining to other classes of words suchas adjectives, nouns, prepositions, etc.

VI.2. Recommendations

What should a learner's dictionary include? This question, the title

of the paper, should be answered by both the learner and the lexicographer.On the one hand, the learner should define his needs and know exactly


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whether a dictionary he has bought fulfills his needs in learning a foreignlanguage. On the other hand, the lexicographer should be aware of the realneeds in all the fields according to the heuristic checklist devised in thispaper.

We recommend also that further studies touch on some areas notcovered in this paper such as: overall presentation, cultural informationnecessary for understanding a word or one of its senses, word etymology,false friends, computerized versions of learner's dictionaries.

The learner's dictionary is in fact not a book of syntax or morphology,i.e. such pieces of information should not be very elaborate in thedictionary, but it should be satisfactory when the learner learns a word or

one of its senses.

As far as ancillary information is concerned, it is recommended that adictionary provides such information as: tables that shows frequency ofwords, irregular verbs, colors and words ending with certain suffixes like logy, -ism, etc.


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Bibliography

1- Allee, John. 1951. Websters Dictionary of Synonyms. G. & C. MeriamCo. Publishers, USA.

2- Ahulu, S. 1998. Grammatical Variation in International English. EnglishToday, 14(4): 13-18. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.

3- Bobda, A. 1998. British or American English: Does it matter?. EnglishToday, 14(4): 13-18, Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.

4- Cowise, Anthony (ed.). 1995. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary ofCurrent English. Oxford. Oxford University Press.

5- Hamdan J. and Fareh, S.1997. Dictionaries as a potential Source of Errorfor Arab EFL Learners: Evidence from verb Argument Structures StudiaAnglica Posaniensia, XXXII, pp. 21-41

6- Jackson, H. 1996.Words and Their Meanings. London. Longman

7- Loughridge, B. 1990. Which Dictionary?. London. Library AssociationPublishing Ltd.

8- Procter et al. 1997. (low-price edition), Cambridge InternationalDictionary of English. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, UK.

9- Quirk, R. Greenbaum, S. Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. 1972. A Grammar ofContemporary English. London. Longman

10- Sinclair, J. et al. 1997 (reprinted edition). Collins Cobuild Dictionary ofIdioms, Williams Collins Sons & Co. Ltd., UK

11- Sinclair, J. et. al. 1990. Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary.London. Williams Collins Sons & Co. Ltd.


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Online References:

1- Abu-SEleek, Ali. The Syntactic Consequences of Differences in Americanand British English Usage in Longman Dictionary of English Language And

Culture. Retrieved from: http://alifarhan11.tripod.com/1.htmon January 1, 2001

2- Gethin, A. and Gunnenmark, Erik. Learning Vocabulary1. Retrievedfrom: http://www.geth.demon.co.uk/voc.html

3- Meho, Lokman. DICTIONARIES: Outline of Significant Points.Retrieved from: http://www.albany.edu/~meho/isp605/dictionaries.html

4- Szynalski, Tomasz and Wojcik, Michal. Review of the Collins COBUILD

English Dictionary for Advanced Learners Retrieved from:http://www.antimoon.com/how/cobuild-review.htm on January 20, 2003


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Appendices

Apendix 1

Idioms that can be learnt from each dictionary under study

Item CIDE CCELD OLDCE

Buy (v)

buy yourself outbuy the farmbuy it

the amount a certainsum of money buysbuy freedomIll buy thatbuy someone

he cant be boughtbuy a pig in a poketo buy time

Fuse (n)

the fuse has blownthe fuse has gonethe fuse has brokento blow a fuseto lit the fuseto light the fuse

1- on a short fuse

Gutter (n) 1- the gutter press / /

Justice (n)

1- a miscarriage of justice2- to bring someone to

justice3- to obstruct the course

of justice4- justice of the peace

(he) brought to justicedo justice to someonedo yourself a justice

1- a miscarriage of justice2- bring somebody to

justice3- do oneself justice

do justice tosomebody/something

justice of the peace

Knot (n)to tie a knot in the ropemy stomach was in

knotsknot of people

to be tied up in knotsa knot of peoplea knot in the stomachat a rate of knots

cut the Gordian knot tiesomebody/oneself in

knotstie the knotat a rate of knots


Nurture(v) 1- to nurture talent nurture plans, ideasor peopleto nurture an motion

/

Owe (v)to owe thanks toI owe you oneto owe someone a

living the worldowes him a living

to owe someonesomething

to owe someone aliving

owe something tosomeone

the world owes one aliving

Pussy (n) 1- to get himself a pussy / /

Quirk (n) by some strangequirk

an odd quirk of fate

/ 1- by a quirk of fate

Zigzag (n) 1- in zigzags / /


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Appendix 2Collocations, idioms and fixed expressions

that can be learnt from each dictionary

N= Not provided CO. = collocation FX= fixed expressions or idioms


Awning (n) N N N

Buy (v) to buy her silenceIm afraid Pats

bought the farm

this time.To buy the guardTo buy time.buy the story

(believe in)He was going to

buy it sooner orlater (to bekilled)

buy freedomthings that it buysto buy someone

Ill buy thatHell never buy it

-The best educationthat money couldbuy

The victory wasdearly bought.

To buy an excuseTo buy time

Cybernetics(n)

N N N

Dwell (v) Dwell inDwell with

Dwell somewhere N

Exult (v) Exult in / at / over, he exulted

Exult at., he exultedExult in

Exult atExult in

Fuse (n) A thirteen-amp fuseThe fuse has blownThe fuse has goneLight/ lit the fuse

Mend the fuseHas the fuse blown

then/Theres been a fuse

A four-hour fuse

Gutter (n) The gutter Dirty gutters, the littlegutter girl, havegone to the gutter

The gutter

Hypochondriac (adj.)

Certain hypochondriactendency

N N

Itinerary (n) Fix their own itineraryChange their

announced itinerary

A luxurious itinerary N

Justice (n) The system of justiceMiscarriage of justiceTo bring to justice

Obstructing (thecourse) of justice

A sense of justiceEconomic justiceSystem of justice

Administration ofjustice

Social justiceWith some justiceMr. Justice Smith

To do himself justiceFull justice to


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The Supreme CourtJustice

Mr. Justice Ellis

Justice will come yourway

Bring to justiceThey did justice to himI can do it justice

Supreme Court JusticeMr. Justice Dillon

-Since wed alreadyeaten, we couldntdo justice to hercooking (i.e. couldnot eat all the food

she had cooked)

Knot (n) Tie a knot in the ropeMy stomach was in

knotsKnots of anxious

people

Tied a crude knotThe knot of her

headscarf hungbeneath her head.

A tight knot of bodiesConstant knots of

sightseersShe was tied up in

knots

He could tie himself upin knots over thesimplest thing

Knots of tensionAt a rate of knots

N

Lustre (n) Restore the lost lustreto your car.

A rich lustre# He loved the curve

of her cheek, thebrightness of hereyes and the lustreof her hair.

Add lustre to

The extraordinarylustre of her eyesLustre of encrusted

goldThe tarnished lustre of

his name

The deep lustre ofpearls

Add lustre to onesname

Muzzle (n) N N N

Nurture (v) Nurture childrenNurture young talentNurture democracyNurture ambitions

Nurture childrenNurture plantsNurture the landNurture a projectNurture personnelNurture passion

Nurture childrenNurture a projectNurture plans

Owe (v) He owed so muchmoneyI owe him $10.00We owe you our

thanks/ we oweour thanks to you

You owe me anexplanation

The world owes him aliving

You owe it to yourself

to ask the childrento leave home.

You owe me a fiverHe owed me ahundred and eightypounds

She owed her methodto his teaching

We owe you ourthanks

He owes me anexplanation

The world owes her a

living

He owes his success toluckOwe loyalty to a

political partyI owe my parents a

great dealI owe a lot to my wife


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I owe my success tomy education

He owes his life to thestaff

Pussy (n) He is a pussy-cat

He wanted to gethimself a pussy

N N

Quirk (n) Quirks and foiblesA quirk in the rulesBy some strange quirk

of fateBy an odd quirk of fate

Little quirks andoddities

By a quirk of fateAtmospheric quirks

Odd historical quirksBy a quirk of fate

Ruse (n) N His ruse has failed Think up a ruseMy ruse has failed

Syntax (n) N N N

Typewriter(n)

Electric typewriter N Typewriter ribbon

Utilise (v) Utilise earlier research N Utilise solar power

Voucher (n) A voucher system Ten-pound-giftvoucherPay voucherMeal voucher

Gift voucherSpecial discount

voucherLuncheon voucher

Write-up (n) Favorable write-up Terrific write-up Enthusiastic write-up

Xenophobic(adj.)

A xenophobic mistrustXenophobic violence

A curiouslyxenophobic attitude

N

Your (pro.) Its non of your

business

Whats your name?

You saw it with yourown eyes

Your Majesty, YourLordship

You and your bright

ideas!Your Majesty,Your Excellency

Zigzag (n) A series of zigzagsIn a zigzagIn zigzagsA zigzag courseA zigzag pathA dress with a zigzagpattern / a pattern of

zigzags on itA zigzag roadA zigzag coastline

A flash and a zigzagA zigzag wayZigzag fashion

Zigzag roadZigzag courseZigzag flash of lighting


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Appendix 3Table summarising the results of study

-Semantic Component-GrammaticalInformation

MorphologicalInformation

Item Para Lexi FT CIE IlEx PS CL VAS DF IF BrP AmP Var DICT1

Awning 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 Cambridge 7

Awning 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 3

Awning 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 7

Buy 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 Cambridge 11

Buy 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 Oxford 9

Buy 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 10

Cybernetics 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 Cambridge 6

Cybernetics 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 Oxford 6

Cybernetics 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 6

Dwell (v) 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 Cambridge 7

Dwell (v) 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 Oxford 7Dwell (v) 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 8

Exult (v) 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cambridge 4

Exult (v) 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 Oxford 7

Exult (v) 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 9

Fuse (n) 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Cambridge 9

Fuse (n) 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 Oxford 7

Fuse (n) 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 9

Gutter 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 Cambridge 9

Gutter 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 5

Gutter 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 6

Hypochondriac 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 Cambridge 6

Hypochondriac 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 5

Hypochondriac 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 5Itinerary 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 Cambridge 7

Itinerary 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 Oxford 7

Itinerary 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 7

Justice 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Cambridge 9

Justice 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 6

Justice 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Cobuild 9

Knot (n) 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 Cambridge 9

Knot (n) 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 Oxford 8

Knot (n) 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 9

Luster 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Cambridge 7

Luster 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Oxford 5

Luster 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Cobuild 6

Nurture (v) 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 Cambridge 8

Nurture (v) 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 5

Nurture (v) 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 9

Owe 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 Cambridge 10

Owe 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 6

Owe 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 8

Pussy (n) 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cambridge 6

Pussy (n) 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 5

Pussy (n) 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 6

Quirk 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 Cambridge 9

Quirk 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 6

Quirk 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 8

Ruse 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cambridge 5Ruse 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 5

Ruse 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 7


42/42

Syntax 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 Cambridge 7

Syntax 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 Oxford 6

Syntax 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 7

Typewriter 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 Cambridge 5

Typewriter 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 4

Typewriter 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 5

Utilise 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 Cambridge 10Utilise 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Oxford 7

Utilise 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 7

Voucher 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 Cambridge 7

Voucher 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Oxford 5

Voucher 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 5

Write-up 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 Cambridge 6

Write-up 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 4

Write-up 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 5

Xenophobic 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 Cambridge 5

Xenophobic 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oxford 1

Xenophobic 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 5

Your 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 Cambridge 5

Your 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 Oxford 6Your 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 5

Zigzag 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cambridge 6

Zigzag 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oxford 3

Zigzag 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Cobuild 5

Muzzle (n) 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 Cambridge 5

Muzzle (n) 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 Oxford 5

Muzzle (n) 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Cobuild 6

TOTAL (2) 26 10 6 10 25 26 13 5 10 3 26 15 8 CIDE

TOTAL (2) 25 6 6 6 18 26 8 6 9 4 25 1 3 OLDCE

TOTAL (2) 26 19 11 5 26 26 14 6 7 12 26 0 2 CCELD

TOTAL 3=Semantic information + grammatical information + morphological information + ancillary information

TOTAL (3)

1- CIDE: 1812- OLDCE: 1423- CCELD: 185Par= Paraphrase, Lexi= Lexical relations, FT= Formality and register, CIE= Collocations, Idioms

and Fixed Expressions, PS= Part of Speech, CL= Classification of Lexemes, VAS= VerbArgument Structure, DF= Derivational Forms, IF= Inflectional Forms, BrP= BritishPronunciation, AmP= American Pronunciation, DIC= Dictionary, Var= Variation of usage, T=Total.

Lexical relations = synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms etc Formality and register = formal, informal, slang, colloquial, vulgar, scientific, literary,

medical etc. Classification of Lexemes: attributive or predicative or gradable (adjective), countable or

uncountable (nouns), etc. Verb Argument Structure transitive, intransitive, ditransitive etc.

What Should a Learner's Dictionary Include

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