WHAT KIND OF COMMUNICATOR ARE YOU? -...

If your score is between 0-12 points: You’re a communicating guru! Though we all have room to improve,it looks like you’re confi dent in your abilities to listen, speak, and read people from all walks of life. Ask a friend or family member to rate you, and fi nd out if they think you’re all that!

13-40 points: You come to this course with a lot of life experience in communication, but you probably wouldn’t be the fi rst person to volunteer to present in front of class. Now, it’s time to refi ne what you already know, learn the theories behind communication, and refi ne the communication skills you apply in your own life. You’re on your way!

41-50 points: You have some communication strengths, but you just can’t make the fi rst move asking out that special someone because you’re not sure they’re into you. You’re defi nitely ready to fi nd areas to build confi dence and improve your skills.

WHAT KIND OF COMMUNICATOR ARE YOU?Take this quick and easy quiz to find out how you rank as a communicator. On the line provided for each statement, indicate the response that best captures your behavior: 1, almost always; 2, often; 3, sometimes; 4, rarely; 5, never.

Add up your score and see where you stand.

When I speak, I tend to present a positive image of myself. (Chapter 2)

In my behavior toward others, I look for more information to confi rm or negate my irst impressions. (Chapter 2)

Before I act on perceptions drawn from people’s nonverbal cues, I seek verbal verification of their accuracy. (Chapter 2)

I use specific language when I speak, avoiding generalizations that could be misinterpreted. (Chapter 3)

I speak clearly, using words that people readily understand. (Chapter 3)

When I am speaking with people of different cultures or of the opposite sex, I am careful to monitor my word choices. (Chapter 3)

I tend to look at people when I talk with them. (Chapter 4)

Most of my sentences are free from such expressions as “uh,” “well,” “like,” and “you know.” (Chapter 4)

I consider the effect of my dress on others. (Chapter 4)

I try to make sure that my nonverbal messages match my verbal messages. (Chapter 4)

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COMMPART I Foundations of Communication

1 Communication Perspectives2 Perception of Self and Others3 Communicating Verbally4 Communicating through Nonverbal Behavior

PART II Interpersonal Communication5 Communicating Across Cultures6 Communicating in Relationships7 Listening and Responding8 Developing Intimacy in Relationships: Self-Disclosure,

Feedback, and Conflict Resolution9 Interviewing

PART III Group Communication10 Participating in Group Communication11 Member Roles and Leadership in Groups

PART IV Public Speaking12 Developing Your Topic and Doing Your Research 13 Organizing Your Speech14 Adapting Verbally and Visually15 Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery16 Informative Speaking17 Persuasive Speaking

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Brief Contents

i i BRIEF CONTENTS

Preview Guide forCOMM 2008-2009 Edition

© 2009 Wadsworth, a part ofCengage Learning

Preview Guide 13-digit ISBN:978-0-495-57160-5Preview Guide 10-digit ISBN:0-495-57160-1

Printed in the United States ofAmerica1 2 3 4 5 11 10 09 08

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.No part of this work covered by thecopyright herein may be reproduced,transmitted, stored or used in anyform or by any means graphic, elec-tronic, or mechanical, including butnot limited to photocopying, record-ing, scanning, digitizing, taping, Webdistribution, information networks, orinformation storage and retrievalsystems, except as permitted underSection 107 or 108 of the 1976United States Copyright Act, withoutthe prior written permission of thepublisher.

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COMM4 COMMUNICATING THROUGH NONVERBAL

BEHAVIORS 2Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication 3Sources of Nonverbal Communication 4

Use of Body: Kinesics 4Use of Voice: Vocalics 6Use of Space: Proxemics 7

Self-Presentation Cues 9Physical Appearance 9Clothing and Grooming 9Use of Time 10

Cultural and Gender Variations in NonverbalCommunication 10

Kinesics 10Paralanguage 11Proxemics and Territory 12Artifacts and Physical Appearance 12Chronemics 12

Guidelines for Improving Nonverbal Communication 12

Interpreting Nonverbal Messages 12Sending Nonverbal Messages 13

Contents

13 ORGANIZING YOUR SPEECH 16Action Step 3: Organize and Develop SpeechMaterial to Meet the Needs of Your ParticularAudience 17

Developing the Body of the Speech 18Determining Main Points 18Writing a Thesis Statement 19Outlining the Body of the Speech 19

Creating the Introduction 23Goals of the Introduction 24Methods of Attention Gaining 25

Preparing the Conclusion 26Summary of Main Points 27Leaving Vivid Impressions 27

Listing Sources 28Reviewing the Outline 28

CONTENTS i i i

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4C H A P T E R

Learning OutcomesLO1 Identify characteristics of nonverbal communication

LO2 Identify channels through which we communicate nonverbally

LO3 Discuss how our self-presentation affects communication

LO4 Examine how nonverbal communication varies based on culture and gender

LO5 Understand guidelines for improving nonverbal communication

Communicating through Nonverbal Behaviors

Communicating through Nonverbal Behaviors

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We’ve all heard—and said—“actions speak louder than words.” Actions are so impor-tant to our communication that researchers have estimated that in face-to-face com-munication as much as 60 percent of the social meaning is a result of nonverbalbehavior (Burgoon & Bacue, 2003, p. 179). In other words, the meaning we assign toany communication is based on both the content of the verbal message and ourinterpretation of the nonverbalbehavior that accompanies andsurrounds the verbal message.And interpreting these nonverbalactions is not always the easiestthing to do.

We begin this chapter bybriefly identifying the characteris-tics of nonverbal communication.Next, we describe the sources ofnonverbal information that we usewhen we interpret and assign meaning to the behavior of others: body language(kinesics), nonsymbolic vocal sounds (paralanguage), our use of space (proxemics),and self-presentation cues. Then we explore how the meaning of nonverbal commu-nication may vary based on culture, sex, and gender. Finally, we offer suggestions tohelp you improve your accuracy at interpreting nonverbal messages and for increas-ing the likelihood that others are able to accurately interpret your behavior.

In the broadest sense, the term nonverbal communication is commonly used todescribe all human communication events that transcend spoken or written words(Knapp & Hall, 2006). Specifically, nonverbal communication behaviors are thosebodily actions and vocal qualities that typically accompany a verbal message. Thebehaviors are usually interpreted as intentional and have agreed-upon interpreta-tions in a particular culture or speech community (Burgoon & Hoobler, 2002, p. 244).

Characteristics of Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal communication is distinct from verbal communication in that itis continuous and multichanneled. It may be unintentional and ambiguous. Thenonverbal part of the message is the primary conveyer of emotion.

First, nonverbal communication is continuous. Although youcan choose to form and send a verbal message, you do not con-trol whether your nonverbal behavior is interpreted as a commu-nication message. As long as you are in the presence of someoneelse, that person may perceive your behavior as communication.When Austin yawns and stares off into the distance during ameeting at work, his coworkers will notice this behavior andassign meaning to it. One coworker may interpret it as a sign of

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“In face-to-face communication as much as 60 percent of the social meaning is a result of

nonverbal behavior.”©

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I don’t like it when people stand too close to me whenthey’re talking to me.Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

What do youthink?

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CHAPTER 4 Communicating through Nonverbal Behaviors 3

nonverbalcommunicationbehaviorsbodily actions and vocalqualities that typicallyaccompany a verbalmessage

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1972). So, when Janelle says, “I’m really fine,but thanks for asking,” her sister Renee will

understand the real message based on thenonverbal behaviors that accompany it. For

example, if Janelle uses a sarcastic tone, Renee willunderstand that Janelle is angry about something. IfJanelle sighs, averts her eyes, tears up, and almostwhispers her message, Renee will understand thatJanelle is really sad and emotionally upset.

Sources of NonverbalCommunicationThere are a variety of sources or channels forthe nonverbal messages that we interpret fromothers and display ourselves. These include theuse of the body (kinesics), the use of the voice (vocal-ics/paralanguage), the use of space (proxemics), andself-presentation.

Use of Body: KinesicsOf all the research on nonverbal behavior, you areprobably most familiar with kinesics, the technicalname for the interpretation of body motions as com-munications (Wikipedia, 2006). Body motions are themovement of your body or body parts that othersinterpret and assign meaning. These include yourgestures, eye contact, facial expression, posture, andyour use of touch.

Gestures

Gestures are the movements of your hands, arms, andfingers that you use to describe or to emphasize.

People vary, however, inthe amount of gestur-

ing that accompa-nies their spokenmessages; for exam-

ple, some people“talk with theirhands” far morethan others. Some

gestures, called illustra-tors, augment the verbal

message. So when you say“about this high” or “nearlythis round,” we expect tosee a gesture accompany

boredom, another might see it as a signof fatigue, and yet another may view it as a

message of disrespect. Meanwhile, Austin is obliviousto all of the messages that his behavior is sending.

Second, nonverbal communication is multichan-neled. We perceive meaning from a variety of nonver-bal behaviors including posture, gestures, bodymovements, body appearance, non-language vocalmannerisms, and so on. When we interpret nonver-bal behavior, we usually base our perception on acombination of these behaviors. So, Anna observesMimi’s failure to sustain eye contact, her bowedhead, and her repetitive toe stubbing in the dirt, ascues that mean her daughter is lying about not hit-ting her brother.

Third, nonverbal communication can be inten-tional or unintentional. Although we can carefully con-trol the verbal messages we send, because nonverbalbehavior is continuous, we often display behaviorsthat we are not controlling. For example, PresidentGeorge W. Bush’s noted “smirk,” a nonverbal facialmannerism, may be an intentional message convey-ing contempt for another’s opinion, or it may be anunintentional nervous reaction to speaking in pub-lic. Whether the smirk is intentional or uninten-tional, however, when we see it, we interpret andassign it meaning. Because nonverbal behavior isnot easily controlled, it is perceived to be more accu-rate than verbal communication. So when your non-verbal behavior contradicts your verbal message,people are more likely to believe the nonverbal com-munication they perceive.

Fourth, the meaning of a particular nonverbalcommunication can be ambiguous. Any particularbehavior can have many meanings. So regardless ofwhat President Bush intends, the smirk is anambiguous message and may be interpreted differ-

ently by different audiencemembers.

Finally, nonverbal com-munication is the primary con-veyor of our emotions. When welisten to others, we base ourinterpretation of their feel-ings and emotions almosttotally on their nonverbalbehavior. In fact, about 93 per-cent of the emotional mean-ing of messages is conveyednonverbally. (Mehrabian,

kinesicsthe interpretation ofbody motions used incommunication

gesturesmovements of ourhands, arms, and fin-gers that we use todescribe or toemphasize

illustratorsgestures that augmenta verbal message

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4 PART 1 Foundations of Communication

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effective public speakers not only use direct eye con-tact with audience members to monitor how theirspeech is being received, but also to establish rapportand demonstrate their sincerity. Speakers who fail tomaintain eye contact with audience members areperceived as ill at ease and often as insincere or dis-honest (Burgoon, Coker, & Coker, 1986).

Facial Expression

Facial expression is the arrangement of facial musclesto communicate emotional states or reactions to mes-sages. Our facial expressions are especially importantin conveying the six basic human emotions of happi-ness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, and disgust. Itappears that the particular facial expression for eachof these emotions is universal and does not vary byculture. But we can consciously choose to mask thefeeling expressed by our faceor to feign feelings that wedo not have (Ekman, 1999).

Facial expressions are soimportant to communicat-ing the emotional part of amessage that people haveinvented emoticons, a sys-tem of typed symbols toconvey facial expressionsonline. For example, :-) con-veys a smile, while : -( con-veys a frown (Walther &Parks, 2002).

Posture

Posture is the position andmovement of your body.From your posture, othersinterpret how attentive,respectful, and dominant

your verbal description.One type of gesture,called emblems, canstand alone and substi-tute completely forwords. When you raiseyour finger and place itvertically across yourlips, it signifies “Quiet.”Emblems have automaticagreed-upon meaningsin a particular culture,but the specific meaningassigned to a specificgesture can vary greatlyacross cultures. Forexample, the Americanhand sign for “OK” has an obscene sexual meaning insome European countries. Gestures called adaptorsoccur unconsciously as a response to a physical need.For example, you may scratch an itch, adjust yourglasses, or rub your hands together when they arecold. You do not mean to communicate a messagewith these gestures, but others do notice them andattach meaning to them.

Eye ContactEye contact, also referred to as gaze, is how and howmuch we look at others when we are communicat-ing. Although the amount of eye contact differs fromperson to person and from situation to situation,studies show that talkers hold eye contact about 40percent of the time and listeners nearly 70 percentof the time (Knapp & Hall, 2006).

Through our eye contact, we both express ouremotions and we monitor what is occurring in the

interaction. How we look at a personcan convey a range of emotions

such as anger, fear, or affection.Shakespeare acknowledged howpowerfully we express emo-tions through eye contact when

he said, “The eyes are the win-dows of the soul.” With eye con-tact, you can tell when or

whether a person or audience ispaying attention to you, whether

a person or audience isinvolved in what you are say-ing, and the reaction a personor audience is having to yourcomments.

Although the use andmeaning of eye contact varies

from one cultural group toanother, in the United States,

emblemsgestures that can substi-tute for words

adaptorsgestures that respond toa physical need

eye contact (gaze)how and how much welook at people withwhom we arecommunicating

facial expressionthe arrangement offacial muscles to com-municate emotionalstates or reactions tomessages

emoticonstyped symbols that con-vey emotional aspectsof an online message

posturethe position and move-ment of the body

Our facial expressions are especially important in conveying emotions. What is the message on these faces?

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to unsolicited touch from others. Somepeople like to touch others and be

touched; other people do not.Although American culture is rel-atively noncontact oriented, thekinds and amounts of touchingbehavior within our societyvary widely. Touching behaviorthat seems appropriate to oneperson may be perceived asoverly intimate or threatening

by another. Moreover, the per-ceived appropriateness of touch differs with the

context. Touch that is considered appro-priate in private may embarrass aperson when done in public or

with a large group of people.

Use of Voice:Vocalics

The interpretation of a verbalmessage based on the paralinguis-

tic features is called vocalics.Paralanguage is the voiced but not ver-

bal part of a spoken message. Six vocal characteris-tics that comprise paralanguage are pitch, volume,rate, quality, intonation, and vocalized pauses.

Pitch

Pitch is the highness or lowness of vocal tone. Peopleraise and lower vocal pitch and change volume toemphasize ideas, indicate questions, and shownervousness. They may also raise the pitch whenthey are nervous or lower the pitch when they aretrying to be forceful. Lower pitch voices tend to con-vey more believability and credibility.

Volume

Volume is the loudness or softness of tone. Whereassome people have booming voices that carry longdistances, others are normally soft-spoken.Regardless of their normal volume level, however,people do vary their volume depending on the situ-ation and topic of discussion. For example, peopletalk loudly when they wish to be heard in noisy set-tings. They may vary their volume when they areangry, or they may speak more softly when they arebeing romantic or loving.

Rate

Rate is the speed at which a person speaks. Peopletend to talk more rapidly when they are happy,

you are. Body orientation refers to your posture in rela-tion to another person. If you face another personsquarely, this is called direct body orientation. Whentwo people’s postures are at angles to each other, thisis called indirect body orientation. In many situa-tions, direct body orientation signals attentive-ness and respect, while indirect bodyorientation shows nonattentivenessand disrespect. Think of how youwould sit in a job interview.Youare likely to sit up straightand face the interviewerdirectly because you want tocommunicate your interestand respect. Interviewerstend to interpret a slouchedposture and indirect body orien-tation as inattentiveness and dis-respect.Yet, in other situations, such astalking with friends, a slouched postureand indirect body orientation may beappropriate and may not carrymessages about attention orrespect. When you are making aspeech, an upright stance and squared shoul-ders will help your audience perceive you as poisedand self-confident. So when you are giving a speech,be sure to distribute your weight equally on both feetso that you maintain a confident bearing.

Haptics

Haptics is the interpretation of touch. Touchingbehavior is a fundamentalaspect of nonverbal commu-nication. We use our hands,our arms, and other bodyparts to pat, hug, slap, kiss,pinch, stroke, hold, embrace,and tickle others. Throughtouch we communicate avariety of emotions and mes-sages. In Western culture, weshake hands to be sociableand polite, we pat a personon the back for encourage-ment, we hug a person toshow love, and we claspraised hands to demonstratesolidarity.

Because of individualpreference, family back-ground, or culture, people dif-fer in their use of touchingbehavior and their reactions

body orientationposture in relation toanother person

hapticsthe interpretation oftouch

vocalicsthe interpretation of amessage based on theparalinguistic features

paralanguagethe voiced but not ver-bal part of a spokenmessage

pitchthe highness or low-ness of vocal tone

volumethe loudness or soft-ness of tone

ratethe speed at which aperson speaks


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perceive her message as sarcasm. But if her voicepitch rises with each word, we might perceive thevocalics as supplementing the message and under-stand that she is asking a question.

Use of Space: ProxemicsHave you ever been in the midst of a conversationwith someone that you felt was “standoffish” or“pushy”? If you had analyzed your feeling, you mighthave discovered that your impression of the personor what was being said stemmed from how far theperson chose to stand from you. If the personseemed to be farther away than you are accustomedto, you might have interpreted the distance as aloof-ness. If the distance was less than you would haveexpected, you might have felt uncomfortable andperceived the person as being overly familiar or

pushy. Proxemics is the formal term for the inter-pretation someone makes ofyour use of space. People willinterpret how you use the per-sonal space around you, thephysical spaces that you con-trol and occupy, and the arti-facts that you choose todecorate your space.

Personal Space

Personal space is the distanceyou try to maintain when youinteract with other people. Ourneed for and use of personalspace stems from our biologicalterritorial natures, which view

space as a protective mechanism. How much spaceyou need or view as appropriate depends on yourindividual preference, thenature of your relationshipto the other person or peo-ple, and your culture. Whilethe absolute amount ofspace varies from person toperson, message to mes-sage, and from culture toculture, in general theamount of personal spacewe view as appropriatedecreases as the intimacy ofour relationship increases.For example, in the domi-nant U.S. culture, four dis-tinct distances are generallyperceived as appropriate

frightened, nervous, or excited and more slowlywhen they are problem solving out loud or are tryingto emphasize a point.

Quality

Quality is the sound of a person’s voice. Each humanvoice has a distinct tone. Some voices are raspy,some smoky, some have bell-like qualities, whileothers are throaty or nasal.

Intonation

Intonation is the variety, melody, or inflection inone’s voice. Some voices have little intonation andsound monotone. Other voices have a great deal ofmelody and may have a childlike quality to them.People prefer to listen to voices with a moderateamount of intonation.

Vocalized Pauses

Vocalized pauses are extraneoussounds or words that interrupt flu-ent speech. The most commonvocalized pauses that creep into ourspeech include “uh,” “um,” “er,”“well,” “OK,” and those nearly uni-versal interrupters of Americanconversations, “you know” and“like.” At times we may use vocalpauses to hold our turn when wemomentarily search for the rightword or idea. Because they arenot part of the intended mes-sage, occasional vocalized pauses are gen-erally ignored by those who are interpreting themessage. However, when you begin to use them toexcess, others will perceive you as nervous or unsureof what you are saying. As your use increases, peoplewill be less able to understand what you are saying,and they may perceive you as confused and yourideas as not well thought out. For some people, theuse of vocalized pauses presents interferences thatare so pervasive that listeners are unable to concen-trate on the meaning of the message.

We can interpret the paralinguistic part of a mes-sage as complementing, supplementing, or contra-dicting the meaning conveyed by the verbalmessage. So when Joan says, “Well, isn’t that aninteresting story.” How we interpret her meaningwill depend on the paralanguage that accompaniesit. If she alters her normal voice so that the “Well” isvaried both in pitch and tone while the rest of herwords are spoken in a staccato monotone, we mightinterpret the vocalics as contradicting the words and


qualitythe sound of a person’svoice

intonationthe variety, melody, orinflection in one’s voice

vocalized pausesextraneous sounds orwords that interrupt flu-ent speech

proxemicsthe interpretation of aperson’s use of space

personal spacethe distance you try tomaintain when youinteract with otherpeople

How much spaceyou need or v iewas appropr iate

depends on yourindi v idual

preference .


the unwritten rules. For instance,people will tolerate being packedinto a crowded elevator or subwayand even touching others they donot know, provided that the othersfollow the “rules.” The rules mayinclude standing rigidly, looking atthe floor or the indicator above thedoor, but not making eye contactwith others. The rules also includeignoring or pretending that they arenot touching.

Physical Space

Physical space is the part of thephysical environment over whichyou exert control. Our territorialnatures not only lead us to main-tain personal distance, but alsolead us to assert ownership claimsto parts of the physical space thatwe occupy. Sometimes we do notrealize the ways that we claimspace as our own; in otherinstances, we go to great lengths tovisibly “mark” our territory. Forexample, Ramon arrives early forthe first day of class, finds anempty desk, and puts his backpack

next to it on the floor and his coat on the seat. Hethen makes a quick trip to the restroom. If someonecomes along while Ramon is gone, moves his back-pack and coat, and sits down at the desk, that per-son is violating what Ramon has “marked” as histerritory. If you regularly take the same seat in aclass, that habit becomes a type of marker, signaling

and comfortable, depending on the nature of theconversation. These distances are illustrated inFigure 4.1. Intimate distance is defined as up to 18inches and is appropriate for private conversationsbetween close, intimate friends. Personal distance,from 18 inches to 4 feet, is the space in which casualconversation occurs. Social distance, from 4 to 12 feet,is where impersonal business such as a job interviewis conducted. Public distance is anything more than 12feet (Hall, 1969).

Of greatest concern to us is the intimate dis-tance—that which we regard as appropriate for inti-mate conversation with close friends, parents, andyounger children. People usually become uncom-fortable when “outsiders” violate this intimate dis-tance. For instance, in a movie theater that is lessthan one-quarter full, people will tend to leave oneor more seats empty between themselves and oth-ers whom they do not know. If a stranger sits rightnext to you in such a setting, you are likely to feel

uncomfortable or threatenedand may even move away.Intrusions into our intimatespace are acceptable only incertain settings and thenonly when all involved follow

a b c

Zone a, intimate space: spouses, significant others, family members, and others with whom we have an intimate relationshipZone b, personal distance: friendsZone c, social distance: business associates and acquaintancesZone d, public distance: strangers

4feet

11/2feet

12feet

d

physical spacethe physical environ-ment over which youexert control


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E>>What do the artifacts in this room and their arrangement tellyou about the person who works there? How do you think they influ-ence this person’s interactions with other people?

Figure 4.1Distance Levels of Personal Space in the Dominant U.S. Culture



conveys about them. So when Lee,the baby of his family, got his firstjob, the first items he purchased forhis new apartment were a large,flat-screen TV and a stuffed leathercouch and chair. He chose theseprimarily to impress his older andalready successful brother.Whether the artifacts you chooseare conscious attempts to impressor whether they simply reflect yourtaste or income, when others enteryour space, they will notice theartifacts and draw conclusions.

Self-Presentation CuesPeople learn a lot about us based on how welook. This includes our physical appearance, ourclothing and grooming, and our use of time.

Physical AppearancePeople make judgments about others based on howthey look.We can control our physique to some extentthrough exercise, diet, cosmetic surgery, and so on. Butwe also inherit much of our physical appearance,including our body type, and physical features such ashair and eyes. Our body is one of the first things thatothers notice about us and there are culture-basedstereotypes associated with each of the three generalbody shapes. Endomorphs, who are shaped round andheavy, are stereotyped as kind, gentle, and jovial.Mesomorphs, who are muscular and strong, arebelieved to be energetic, outgoing, and confident.Ectomorphs, whose bodies are lean and have littlemuscle development, are stereotyped as brainy, anx-ious, and cautious. While not everyone fits perfectlyinto one of these categories, each person tends towardone body type. Even though these stereotypes are farfrom accurate, there is ample anecdotal evidence tosuggest that many of usform our first impression ofsomeone using body typestereotypes. Yet, the mes-sages we infer from bodytype also vary by culture.

Clothing andGroomingYour clothing and personalgrooming communicate amessage about you. Today,more than ever, people use

to others that a particular seatlocation is yours. Other studentswill often leave that seat emptybecause they have perceived it asyours. Not only can we interpretsomeone’s ownership of space bytheir markers, but we also canunderstand a person’s status in agroup by noting where the personsits and the amount of space overwhich ownership is claimed. In awell-established group, peoplewith differing opinions will oftenchoose to sit on opposite sides ofthe table, while allies will sit inadjacent spots. So if you are observant, you can tellwhere people stand on an issue by noticing wherethey have chosen to sit. There are many othermeanings that can be discerned from how peopleuse physical space.

Artifacts

Artifacts are the objects and possessions we use todecorate the physical space we control. When oth-ers enter our homes, our offices, or our dormrooms, they look around and notice what objectswe have chosen to place in the space and how wehave arranged them. Then they assign meaning towhat they see. For example, when Katie visited herboyfriend Peter at school, the first thing she noticedwas a picture hanging on his bulletin board of himhugging a really cute woman that she did not rec-ognize. The second thing she noticed was that theframed picture she had given him of her before heleft for school was nowhere to be found. From this,she concluded that Peter wasn’t honoring hispromise not to see anyone at school.

The way that we arrange the artifacts in ourspace also can nonverbally communicate to oth-ers. Professors and businesspeople have learnedthat by choosing and arranging the artifacts intheir space, they can influence interactions. Weonce knew a professor who was a real soft touch.So when he had to handle the students who werepetitioning to enter closed classes, he turned hisdesk, which normally faced out the window, sothat it was directly in front of the door. That way,the students couldn’t get into his office, sit down,and break his resolve with their sad stories.Instead, they had to plead their case standing inthe very public hall. In this case, his desk servedas a barrier and protected him from his soft-hearted self.

People choose artifacts not just for the function ofthe object, but also for the message that the object

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artifactsobjects and possessionswe use to decorate thephysical space wecontrol

endomorphround and heavy bodytype

mesomorphmuscular and athleticbody type

ectomorphbody type that is leanand has little muscledevelopment

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For example, George, who is polychronic, shows upfor a noon lunch with Raoul at 12:47 p.m. becauseas he was leaving his office, his coworker stoppedhim to ask for help on a problem.

How Margarite’s sister or Raoul interpreted thetime behavior they experienced depends on theirown time orientation. If Margarite’s sister is alsomonochronic, she probably apologized, perceivingher own behavior to have been at fault. If Raoul ispolychronic, he will not be offended by George’sarrival time because he will have viewed George’sdelay as understandable. We tend to view other’s useof time through the lens of the culture from whichwe come. So if we are monochronic in our orientationto time, we will view the polychronic time behaviorof someone else as being “rude” and vice versa.

Cultural and GenderVariations in NonverbalCommunicationCulture and gender often play a role in how wecommunicate nonverbally. Cultural and gendervariations are seen in the use of kinesics, paralan-guage, proxemics and territory, artifacts and physi-cal appearance, and chronemics.

KinesicsAs we have said, the use of kinesics, or body motionsand the meanings they convey, differs among cul-tures. Several cultural differences in body motionsare well documented.

Eye Contact

A majority of people in the United States and otherWestern cultures expect those with whom they arecommunicating to “look them in the eye.” Samovar,Porter, and McDaniel (2007) explain, however, thatdirect eye contact is not a custom throughout theworld (p. 210). For instance, in Japan, prolonged eyecontact is considered rude, disrespectful, and threat-ening. People from Latin America, Caribbean cul-tures, and Africa tend to avoid eye contact as a signof respect.

In the United States, women tend to have morefrequent eye contact during conversations thanmen do (Cegala & Sillars, 1989). Moreover, womentend to hold eye contact longer than men, regard-less of the sex of the person they are interactingwith (Wood, 2007). It is important to note thatthese differences, which we have describedaccording to biological sex, are also related to

clothing choices, body art, and other personal groom-ing to communicate who they are and what theystand for. Likewise, when we meet someone, we arelikely to form our impression of them from how theyare dressed and groomed. Because we can alter ourclothing and grooming to suit the occasion, others relyheavily on these nonverbal cues to help them under-stand who we are and how to treat us. As a result, youcan change how people perceive you by altering yourclothing and grooming. For example, a successfulsales representative may wear an oversize white T-shirt, baggy shorts, and a backward ball cap whenhanging with his friends; put on khakis and a golf shirtto go to the office; and dress in a formal blue suit tomake a major presentation to a potential client group.In each case, he uses what he is wearing to communi-cate who he is and how others should treat him.

Use of TimeChronemics is the way others interpret your use oftime. Cultures differ in how they view time (Hall,E. T., 1959). Some of us have a monochronic timeorientation, or a “one thing at a time” approach totime. We concentrate our efforts on one task, andonly when it is finished or when the time we haveallotted to it is complete, do we move on toanother task. If we are monochronic, we see timeas “real” and think about “spending time,” “losingtime,” and so on. As a result, we subordinate ourinterpersonal relationships to our schedule (Dahl,2004, p. 11). So when Margarite’s sister, who isexcited to share some good news, comes into theroom and interrupts her “study time,” Margarite,who is monochronic, screams, “Get out! Can’t yousee I’m studying!” Others of us have a polychronictime orientation and tackle multiple tasks at once.We see time as flexible and fluid. So we viewappointment times and schedules as variable andsubordinate to our interpersonal relationships,and we easily alter or adapt our schedule to meetthe needs of our relationships (Dahl, 2004, p. 11).

chronemicsthe interpretation of aperson’s use of time

monochronic timeorientationa time orientation thatemphasizes doing onething at a time

polychronic timeorientationa time orientation thatemphasizes doing mul-tiple things at once

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CHAPTER 4 Communicating through Nonverbal Behaviors 1 1

some cultures, lots of contact and touching is nor-mal behavior, while in other cultures, individualspace is respected and frequent touching is notencouraged. According to Neuliep (2006), some cul-tures such as South and Central American countries,as well as many southern European countries,encourage contact and engage in frequent touching.By contrast, many northern European cultures aremedium to low in contact, and Asian cultures aremainly low-contact cultures. The United States,which is a country of immigrants, is generally per-ceived to be medium in contact, though there arewide differences among individual Americans dueto variations in family heritage.

Women tend to touch others less than men do,but women value touching more than men do.Women view touch as an expressive behavior thatdemonstrates warmth and affiliation, whereas menview touch as instrumental behavior, so that touch-ing females is considered as leading to sexual activ-ity (Pearson, West, & Turner, 1995, p. 142).

ParalanguageThere are a few cultural and gender variations in theuse of paralanguage. It is in the use of volume wherecultural differences are most apparent (Samovar,Porter, & McDaniel, 2007). Arabs speak with a greatdeal of volume to convey strength and sincerity,while soft voices are preferred in Britain, Japan, andThailand.

In the United States, there are stereotypes aboutwhat are considered to be masculine and femininevoices. Masculine voices are expected to be low-pitched and loud, with moderate to low intonation;feminine voices are expected to be higher-pitched,softer in volume, and more expressive. The voicecharacteristic of breathiness is associated withfemininity. Although both sexes have the option toportray a range of masculine and feminine paralan-guage, most people probably conform to the expec-tations for their sex (Wood, 2007).

notions of gender and standpoint in society. Inother words, people (male or female) will givemore eye contact when they are displayingfeminine-type behaviors than when they are dis-playing masculine-type behaviors.

Facial Expression and Gestures

Studies show that there are many similarities innonverbal communication across cultures, espe-cially in facial expressions. For instance, severalfacial expressions seem to be universal, including aslight raising of the eyebrow to communicate recog-nition, wriggling one’s nose, and a disgusted faciallook to show social repulsion (Martin & Nakayama,2000, pp. 183–184).

Across cultures, people also show considerabledifferences in the meaning of gestures. For instance,the forming of a circle with the thumb and forefin-ger signifies the OK sign in the United States, butmeans zero or worthless in France, is a symbol formoney in Japan, and is a vulgar gesture in Germanyand Brazil (Axtell, 1999, pp. 44, 143, 212).

Displays of emotion may also vary. For instance,in some Eastern cultures, people have been social-ized to downplay emotional behavior cues, whereasmembers of other cultures have been socialized toamplify their displays of emotion. Research hasshown some sex and gender effects in facial expres-sions and gestures. Women and men using a femi-nine style of communication tend to smilefrequently. Gender differences in the use of gesturesare so profound that people have attributed mas-culinity or femininity on the basis of gesture stylealone (Pearson, West, & Turner, 1995, p. 126). Forinstance, women are more likely to keep their armsclose to the body, are less likely to lean forward withthe body, play more often with their hair or clothing,and tap their fingers more often than men.

Haptics

According to Samovar, Porter, and McDaniel (2007),touching behavior is closely linked to culture. In

South American United States Japannot okay okay money

France Germany Other Placeszero vulgar gesture better check first

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interpretations of others’ behavior, and that yourown behavior will lead others to perceive your non-verbal messages correctly.

Interpreting NonverbalMessagesWhen interpreting nonverbal messages, here aresome things you might want to remember.

• Do Not AssumeWhen interpreting others’ nonverbal cues, do notautomatically assume that a particular behaviormeans a certain thing. Except for the category ofemblems, there is no automatic meaning of non-verbal behavior. And even the meaning ofemblems varies culturally. There is much room forerror when people make quick interpretations ordraw rapid conclusions about an aspect of nonver-bal behavior. Instead of making automatic inter-pretations of nonverbal cues, we should considercultural, gender, and individual influences on non-verbal behavior.

• Consider InfluencesConsider cultural, gender, and individual influ-ences when interpreting nonverbal cues. We haveshown how nonverbal behavior varies widely basedon culture or expectations of masculinity and femi-ninity. Note also that some people are totally uniquein their display of nonverbal behavior.You may havelearned over time that your friend grinds her teethwhen she is excited. You may never encounteranother person who uses this behavior in this way.

• Pay Attention to Nonverbal CommunicationPay attention to multiple aspects of nonverbalcommunication and their relationship to verbalcommunication. You should not take nonverbalcues out of context. In any one interaction, you arelikely to get simultaneous messages from a per-son’s eyes, face, gestures, posture, voice, and use ofspace and touch. Even in electronic communica-tion, where much of the nonverbal communica-tion is absent, there can be facial expression andtouch communicated through emoticons, paralan-guage through capitalization of words, andchronemics through the timing and length of anelectronic message. By taking into considerationall aspects of communication, you will be moreeffective in interpreting others’ messages.

• Use Perception Checking As we discussed in Chapter 2, the skill of perceptionchecking lets you see if your interpretation ofanother person’s message is accurate or not. Bydescribing the nonverbal behavior you have noticedand tentatively sharing your interpretation of it,

Proxemics and TerritoryAs is the case with most forms of nonverbal com-munication, one’s use of space and territory is asso-ciated with culture (Samovar, Porter, & McDaniel,2007). Recall our discussion of individualistic andcollectivist cultures in Chapter 2. Cultures thatstress individualism generally demand more spacethan do collectivist cultures and will defend spacemore closely (p. 217). Seating and furniture place-ment may also vary by cultural expectations. Forexample, Americans in groups tend to talk to thoseseated opposite them, but Chinese prefer to talk tothose seated next to them. Furniture arrangementin the United States and Germany often emphasizesprivacy. In France or Japan, furniture is arranged forgroup conversation or participation (pp. 218–219).

Artifacts and Physical AppearanceThere are cultural and gender influences regard-ing artifacts and physical appearance. Differentclothing styles signify masculinity and femininitywithin a culture. In the United States, women’sand feminine clothing is more decorative, whilemen’s and masculine clothing is more functional(Wood, 2007).

ChronemicsAs you probably recognize, the dominant U.S. cul-ture has a monochronic time orientation; Swiss andGerman cultures are even more oriented in this way.On the other hand, many Latin American and Arabcultures have polychronic orientation. The large-scale immigration that is occurring across the globeis leading to an influx of Arab workers into northernEurope and Latin American workers into the U.S. Asa result, it is likely that you will encounter peoplewhose use of time is different from your own.

Guidelines for ImprovingNonverbal CommunicationBecause nonverbal messages are inherentlycontinuous, ambiguous, multichanneled, andsometimes unintentional, it can be tricky toaccurately decode them. Add to this the fact thatthe meaning for any nonverbal behavior can varyby situation, culture, and gender, and you begin tounderstand why we so often “misread” the behav-ior of others. The following guidelines can help youimprove the likelihood that you will make accurate

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we are not aware of what nonverbal cues we aredisplaying or when we are anxious, certain nonver-bal behaviors will hinder our communication.Fidgeting, tapping your fingers on a table, pacing,mumbling, using vocal interferences, and usingadaptors can hinder the other person’s interpreta-tion of your message. It is especially important touse nonverbal behaviors that enhance rather thandistract from your message during a formalspeech.

• Make Communication MatchMake your nonverbal communication match yourverbal communication. When nonverbal messagescontradict verbal messages, people are more likelyto believe the nonverbal, so it is important to haveyour verbal and nonverbal communication match.In addition, the various sources of nonverbal com-munication behavior should match each other. Ifyou are feeling sad, your voice should be softerand less expressive, and you should avoid lettingyour face contradict your voice by smiling. Peopleget confused and frustrated when receiving incon-sistent messages.

• AdaptAdapt your nonverbal behavior to the situation.Situations vary in their formality, familiarity amongthe people, and purpose. Just like you would selectdifferent language for different situations, youshould adapt your nonverbal messages to the situ-

ation. Assess what the situation calls for in termsof body motions, paralanguage, proxemics andterritory, artifacts, physical appearance, and useof time. Of course, you already do some situa-

tional adapting with nonverbal communication.You do not dress the same way for a wedding as you

would to walk the dog.You would not treat yourbrother’s space and territory the same

way you would treat your doctor’sspace and territory. But the moreyou can consciously adapt yournonverbal behavior to what seems

appropriate to the situation, themore effective you will be as acommunicator.

you can get confirmation or correction of yourinterpretation. It may be helpful to use perceptionchecking when faced with gender or cultural varia-tions in nonverbal behavior.

Sending Nonverbal MessagesWhen considering what kinds of nonverbal mes-sages you are sending, here are some things youshould be aware of.

• Be ConsciousBe conscious of the nonverbal behavior you are dis-playing. Remember that you are always communi-cating nonverbally. Some nonverbal cues willalways be out of your level of consciousness, butyou should work to bring more of your nonverbalbehavior into your conscious awareness. It is a mat-ter of just paying attention to what you are doingwith your body, voice, space, and self-presentationcues. If you initially have difficulty paying attentionto your nonverbal behavior, ask a friend to point outthe nonverbal cues you are displaying.

• Be PurposefulBe purposeful or strategic in your use of nonverbalcommunication. Sometimes, it is important tocontrol what you are communicating nonverbally.For instance, if you want to be persuasive, youshould use nonverbal cues that demonstrateconfidence and credibility. These mayinclude direct eye contact, a seriousfacial expression, a relaxed posture, aloud and low-pitched voice with novocal interferences, and a professionalstyle of clothing and grooming. Whilethere are no absolute prescriptions forcommunicating nonverbally, there arestrategic choices we can make toconvey the message wedesire.

• Do Not DistractMake sure that yournonverbal cues do notdistract from your mes-sage. Sometimes, when

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S T U D E N T R E V I E WWhat’s this?

e interrupt to introduce another innovative review tool in COMM.

Each Student Edition of COMM includes a set of seventeen perforatedReview Cards at the very end of the book, one for each chapter, plus an addi-tional card with the speech preparation action steps from chapters 12–15.

In the right column of the Review Cards students will find summary points arranged by LearningOutcome and supported by chapter figures that illustrate important concepts.

Each card also contains a chapter review quiz, which students can use to test their comprehension.

The left column contains key terms and definitions as they appear in the chapter.

Cards are divided into three cate-gories. Those for the chapters oninterpersonal communication have ared border; cards for group commu-nication chapters have a gold bor-der; and public speaking chaptershave review cards edged in blue.

WHow your students can use theReview Card:

1. Look over the card to preview the newconcepts that they’ll be introduced to in thechapter.

2. Read the chapter to fully understand thematerial.

3. Go to class (and pay attention).

4. Review the card one more time to make surethey’ve registered the key concepts.

5. Don’t forget, this card is only one of manyCOMM learning tools available to help studentssucceed in your course.

languagea body of symbols (most commonly

words) and the systems for their use in mes-

sages that are common to the people of the

same speech community

speech community

a group of people who speak the same lan-

guage (also called a language community)

wordssymbols used by a speech community to rep-

resent objects, ideas, and feelings

Sapir–Whorf hypothesis

a theory claiming that language influences

perceptiondenotationthe direct, explicit meaning a speech commu-

nity formally gives a word

connotationthe feelings or evaluations we associate with

a wordsyntactic context

the position of a word in a sentence and the

other words around it

low-context cultures

cultures in which messages are direct, specific,

and detailedhigh-context cultures

cultures in which messages are indirect, gen-

eral, and ambiguousfeminine styles of language

use words of empathy and support, emphasize

concrete and personal language, and show

politeness and tentativeness in speaking

masculine styles of langu

use words of status and

emphasize abstra

show asse

Discuss the nature and use of language

Language is a body of symbols and the systems for their use in mes-

sages that are common to the people of the same language community. Language

allows us to perceive the world around us. Through language we designate, label,

and define; we evaluate; discuss things outside our immediate experience; and talk

about language.The relationship between language and meaning is complex because the mean-

ing of words varies with people, people interpret words differently based on both

denotative and connotative meanings, the context in which words are used affects

meaning, and word meanings change over time.

Culture and gender influence how words are used and how we interpret others’

words. In low-context cultures, messages are direct and language is specific. In

high-context cultures, messages are indirect, general, and ambiguous. Societal

expectations of masculinity and femininity influence language.

Identify methods for improving language skills

We can increase language skills by using specific, concrete, and precise

language; by developing verbal vividness and emphasis; and by providing details and

examples, dating information, and indexing generalizations.

Understand what is and is not appropriate i

We can speak more appropriately by cho

understands, using jargon sparingly, using sl

guistic sensitivity.Chapte

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WHAT WE’VE CREATED FOR YOU.

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nonverbal communicationbehaviors

bodily actions and vocal qualities that typicallyaccompany a verbal message

kinesicsthe interpretation of body motions

used in communication

gesturesmovements of our hands, arms, and fingersthat we use to describe or to emphasize

illustratorsgestures that augment a verbal message

emblemsgestures that can substitute for words

adaptorsgestures that respond to a physical need

eye contact (gaze)how and how much we look at people withwhom we are communicating

facial expressionthe arrangement of facial muscles to communi-cate emotional states or reactions to messages

emoticonstyped symbols that convey emotional aspectsof an online message

posturethe position and movement of the body

body orientationposture in relation to another person

hapticsthe interpretation of touch

vocalicsthe interpretation of a message based on theparalinguistic features

paralanguagethe voiced but not verbal part of a spokenmessage

pitchthe highness or lowness of vocal tone

volumethe loudness or softness of tone

ratethe speed at which a person speaks

qualitythe sound of a person’s voice

intonationthe variety, melody, or inflection in one’s voice

vocalized pausesextraneous sounds or words that interrupt flu-ent speech

proxemicsthe interpretation of a person’s use of space

Identify characteristics of nonverbal communication.Nonverbal communication refers to the interpretations that are made of bodily

actions, vocal qualities, use of space, and self-presentation cues.

Identify channels through which we communicate nonverbally.Nonverbal communication is continuous, multichanneled, intentional or uninten-

tional, possibly ambiguous, and the primary means by which we convey our emotions. Thesources of nonverbal messages include use of body motions (kinesics: gestures, eye contact,facial expression, posture, and touch); use of voice (vocalics: pitch, volume, rate, quality,intonation, and vocalized pauses); and use of space (proxemics: personal space, physicalspace, and use of artifacts).

Discuss how our self-presentation affects communication.People gather information about us based on how they interpret our self-

presentation cues. Self-presentation cues include physical appearance (for instance, bodyshape), clothing and grooming, and use of time (or our temporal orientation).

Examine how nonverbal communication varies based on culture andgender. The nonverbal behaviors that we enact and how we interpret the non-

verbal messages of others depends on our culture and gender. Regardless of our culturalbackground or gender, however, we can become more adept at interpreting others’ nonverbalmessages we receive by not jumping to conclusions, by considering cultural and gender dif-ferences, by paying attention to all aspects of nonverbal communication and their relationshipto verbal communication, and by perception checking.

Understand guidelines for improving nonverbal communication.We can improve our encoding of nonverbal communication by being conscious of

the nonverbal behavior we are displaying, by being purposeful or strategic in its use, by mak-ing sure that our nonverbal cues do not distract from our message, by making our nonverbalcommunication match our verbal messages, and by adapting our nonverbal behavior to thesituation.

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CChhaapptteerr iinn RReevviieeww4 COMMUNICATING THROUGH NONVERBAL BEHAVIORS

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a b c

Zone a, intimate space: spouses, significant others, family members, and others with whom we have an intimate relationshipZone b, personal distance: friendsZone c, social distance: business associates and acquaintancesZone d, public distance: strangers

4feet

11/2feet

12feet

d

Figure 4.1Distance Levels of Personal Space in the Dominant U.S. Culture

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personal spacethe distance you try to maintain when youinteract with other people

physical spacethe physical environment over which you exertcontrol

artifactsobjects and possessions we use to decoratethe physical space we control

endomorphround and heavy body type

mesomorphmuscular and athletic body type

ectomorphbody type that is lean and has little muscledevelopment

chronemicsthe interpretation of a person’s use of time

monochronic time orientationa time orientation that emphasizes doing onething at a time

polychronic time orientationa time orientation that emphasizes doing mul-tiple things at once

Chapter 4 Quiz

True/False

1. The interpretation of body motions used in communication is called kinesics.

2. Studies show that talkers hold eye contact about 70 percent of the time and listenersonly 40 percent of the time.

3. Proxemics is the formal term for the interpretation someone makes of your use of space.

4. Studies show that, regardless of culture or gender, nonverbal communication is alwaysthe same.

5. When interpreting nonverbal messages, it’s important to automatically know exactlywhat a particular behavior means so that you’ll know how to react appropriately.

Multiple Choice

6. All of the following are characteristics of nonverbal communication except:a. continuousb. multichanneledc. intentionald. unintentionale. unambiguous

7. Gestures that augment a verbal message are called:a. emphasizersb. illustratorsc. emblemsd. kinesicse. adaptors

8. In Western culture, we shake hands to be sociable and polite, pat a person on the backfor encouragement, hug a person to show love, and clasp raised hands to demonstratesolidarity. The interpretation of this kind of touch is called:a. kinesicsb. proxemicsc. hapticsd. nonverbal communicatione. paralanguage

9. The six vocal characteristics that comprise paralanguage are: a. pitch, volume, rate, quality, intonation, and vocalized pausesb. vocalics, pitch, volume, haptics, kinesics, and illustratorsc. pitch, volume, rate, haptics, intonation, and proxemicsd. haptics, expression, vocalics, pitch, quality, and intonatione. expression, quality, vocalics, volume, intonation, and vocalized pauses

10. There are three general body shapes. The type that is generally muscular and strong,and is believed to be energetic, outgoing, and confident, is called:a. endomorphb. ectomorphc. mesomorphd. mendomorphe. andromorph

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Chapter Quiz Answers:

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Learning Outcomes

LO1 Identify characteristics of nonverbalcommunication

LO2 Identify channels through which wecommunicate nonverbally

LO3 Discuss how our self-presentationaffects communication

LO4 Examine how nonverbal communica-tion varies based on culture andgender

LO5 Understand guidelines for improvingnonverbal communication

Chapter ExhibitsFigure 4.1 Distance Levels of Personal Space

in the Dominant U.S. Culture

Key Termsnonverbal communication behaviors 3kinesics 4gestures 4illustrators 4emblems 5adaptors 5eye contact (gaze) 5facial expression 5emoticons 5posture 5body orientation 6haptics 6vocalics 6paralanguage 6pitch 6volume 6rate 6quality 7intonation 7vocalized pauses 7proxemics 7personal space 7physical space 8artifacts 9endomorph 9

PPrreepp CCaarrdd4Outline

Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication 3Sources of Nonverbal Communication 4

Use of Body: Kinesics 4Gestures 4 Eye Contact 5 Facial Expression 5 Posture 5 Haptics 6

Use of Voice: Vocalics 6Pitch 6 Volume 6 Rate 6 Quality 7 Intonation 7 Vocalized Pauses 7

Use of Space: Proxemics 7Personal Space 7 Physical Space 8 Artifacts 9

Self-Presentation Cues 9Physical Appearance 9 Clothing and Grooming 9 Use of Time 9

Cultural and Gender Variations in Nonverbal Communication 10Kinesics 10

Eye Contact 10 Facial Expression and Gestures 11 Haptics 11Paralanguage 11 Proxemics and Territory 12 Artifacts and PhysicalAppearance 12 Chronemics 12

Guidelines for Improving Nonverbal Communication 12Interpreting Nonverbal Messages 12 Sending Nonverbal Messages 13

Case Assignment: What Would You Do?Use the following case assignment to get your students to considerhow different nonverbal behaviors convey different messages. Youmight use this as a handout, for which students can provide shortanswers, or you might use this to create an opportunity for classdiscussion.

A Question of EthicsAfter the intramural, mixed-doubles tennis matches on Tuesdayevening, most of the players adjourned to the campus grill for a drinkand a chat. Marquez and Lisa sat down with Barry and Elana, the cou-ple they had lost a match to that night largely because of Elana’simproved play. Although Marquez and Lisa were only tennis friends,Barry and Elana had been going out together for much of the season.

After some general conversation about the tournament, Marquezsaid, “Elana, your serve today was the best I’ve seen it this year.”

“Yeah, I was really impressed. And as you saw, I had trouble han-dling it,” Lisa added.

“And you’re getting to the net a lot better too,” Marquez added.“Thanks, guys,” Elana said in a tone of gratitude, “I’ve really been

working on it.”“Well, aren’t we getting the compliments today,” sneered Barry in

a sarcastic tone. Then after a pause, he said, “Oh, Elana, would youget my sweater—I left it on that chair by the other table.”

“Come on, Barry; you’re closer than I am,” Elana replied.Barry got a cold look on his face, moved slightly closer to Elana,

and said emphatically, “Get my sweater for me, Elana—now.”Elana quickly backed away from Barry as she said, “OK, Barry—it’s

cool,” and she then quickly got the sweater for him.

Nonverbal communication behaviors; kinesics; vocalics; proxemics; self-presentation cues; cultural variations; gender variations; interpreting nonverbalmessages; sending nonverbal messages.

In this chapter:

COMMUNICATING THROUGH NONVERBAL BEHAVIORS

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mesomorph 9ectomorph 9chronemics 10monochronic time orientation 10polychronic time orientation 10

PowerPoint HighlightsNonverbal Characteristics 2Sources of Nonverbal Comm. 5Self-Presentation 8Interpreting and Sending

Nonverbals 10–11

“Gee, isn’t she sweet,” Barry said to Marquez and Lisa as he grabbedthe sweater from Elana.

Lisa and Marquez both looked down at the floor. Then Lisa glanced atMarquez and said, “Well, I’m out of here—I’ve got a lot to do thisevening.”

“Let me walk you to your car,” Marquez said as he stood up.“See you next week,” they both said in unison as they hurried out the

door, leaving Barry and Elana alone at the table.

1. Analyze Barry’s nonverbal behavior. What was he attempting toachieve?

2. How do you interpret Lisa’s and Marquez’s nonverbal reactions toBarry?

3. Was Barry’s behavior ethically acceptable? Explain.

Experiential AssignmentsBody MotionsFind a public setting (for example, a restaurant) where you can observe twopeople having a conversation. They should be close enough to you so thatyou can observe their eye contact, facial expression, and gestures, but notclose enough that you can hear what they are saying.

Carefully observe the interaction, with the goal of answering the follow-ing questions: What is their relationship? What seemed to be the nature ofthe conversation (social chitchat, plan making, problem solving, argument,intimate discussion)? How did each person feel about the conversation?Did feelings change over the course of the conversation? Was one personmore dominant? Take note of the specific nonverbal behaviors that led youto each conclusion, and write a paragraph describing this experience andwhat you have learned.

Group ActivitiesThe Messages of ArtifactsPurpose: For students to recognize the intentional and unconsciousmessages that artifacts conveyTime: 15 minutesProcess: Ask students to get into pairs, and ask them to choose as a part-ner the person in class they know least well. Each student will share oneof the following personal artifacts with his or her partner: key chain,wallet, or a purse. Without saying anything, both partners should take afew minutes to silently familiarize themselves with the artifact thatbelongs to their partner. They will then take turns and share with eachother any conclusions they have drawn about the owner of the artifact:Is this person organized? Romantic? Interested in politics? This exercisewill demonstrate the conscious and unconscious messages that our arti-facts convey.

Self-Presentation AuditThe Self-Presentation Audit allows you to analyze the image you pro-ject, using the dimensions you have studied in your textbook. Theseinclude body type, clothing and personal grooming, poise, touch, anduse of time. You can find the audit in your Student Workbook or online.Once you have completed the audit, review how you have describedyourself with respect to each of the self-presentation dimensions. Thenwrite a short essay in which you describe how you present yourself,evaluate how satisfied you are with this image, and list what, if any,adjustments to your self-presentation you would like to make so thatyour self-presentation matches the image you are trying to project.

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I N S T R U C TO RP R E P C A R D SWhat’s this?

o help you get started quickly with COMM, we’ve created a set of Prep Cardsfor you as well.

Your Instructor’s Edition will include one Prep Card per chapter, perforated soyou can slide it into your briefcase or leave it on the podium while you lecture.T

> A list of chapter concepts and key terms

> A list of chapter learning outcomes

> A list of figures from the chapter

> A chapter outline

> A list of key PowerPoint slides

> Case studies, experiential exercises, and groupactivities for both in class discussions and outof class assignments

Learning Outcomes

LO 1Identify characteristics of nonverbal

communicationLO 2

Identify channels through which we

communicate nonverbally

LO 3Discuss how our self-presentation

affects communication

LO 4Examine how nonverbal communica-

tion varies based on culture and

genderLO 5Understand guidelines for improving

nonverbal communication

Chapter Exhibits

Figure 4.1 Distance Levels of Personal Space

in the Dominant U.S. Culture

Key Termsnonverbal communication behaviors 3

kinesics 4gestures 4illustrators 4emblems 5adapto

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4

Outline

Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication 3

Sources of Nonverbal Communication 4

Use of Body: Kinesics 4

Gestures 4 Eye Contact 5 Facial Expression 5 Posture 5 Haptics 6

Use of Voice: Vocalics 6

Pitch 6 Volume 6 Rate 6 Quality 7 Intonation 7 Vocalized Pauses 7

Use of Space: Proxemics 7

Personal Space 7 Physical Space 8 Artifacts 9

Self-Presentation Cues 9

Physical Appearance 9 Clothing and Grooming 9 Use of Time 9

Cultural and Gender Variations in Nonverbal Communication 10

Kinesics 10Eye Contact 10 Facial Expression and Gestures 11 Haptics 11

Paralanguage 11 Proxemics and Territory 12 Artifacts and

Appearance 12 Chronemics 12

Guidelines for Improving Nonverbal C

Interpreting Nonverbal MessageCase As

Nonverbal communication behaviors; kinesics; vocalics; proxemics;

self-presentation cues; cultural variations; gender variations; inter-

preting nonverbal messages; sending nonverbal messages.

In this chapter:

COMMUNICATING THROUGH NONVERBAL BEHAVIORS

Additional examples and exercises help you keep class fresh. These examples are NOT in the studenttextbook. Discussion questions help you spark class participation no matter how large your section.

On Every Prep Card:

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13C H A P T E R

Learning OutcomesLO1 Describe methods for developing the

body of your speech

LO2 Explain how to create an introduction

LO3 Explain how to prepare a conclusion

LO4 Examine guidelines for listing sources

LO5 Develop a method for reviewing the outline

Organizing

SpeechYour

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How often have you heard aspeech that was packed withinteresting information and deliv-ered in a way that held your atten-tion, but when you reflected onwhat was said, you found it diffi-cult to state what the speaker’smain ideas were, or even what theoverall goal of the speech was?Although every speech should have an intro-duction, a body, and a conclusion, not allspeeches that have these components arewell organized. So, we listen to a speech andfind that even though we have beenentertained for the moment, thespeaker’s words have no lastingimpact on us. Well-constructedspeeches have impact. When wehave finished listening to a speech,we must remember not only theopening joke, or a random story, butwe must also remember to thinkabout the main ideas that the speaker pre-sented. In this chapter, we describe the thirdof the five action steps: Organize and developspeech material to meet the needs of your par-ticular audience. As you follow these steps, youwill find that you are able to prepare a speechthat will not only maintain your audience’sinterest, but will help your audience under-stand and remember what you have said.

Action Step 3: Organize andDevelop Speech Material toMeet the Needs of Your ParticularAudienceOrganizing, the process of selecting and structuring ideasyou will present in your speech, is guided by your audienceanalysis. During organizing you (1) develop a thesis state-ment for the speech tailored to the information needs orpersuasive disposition of your audience; (2) select and tailorthe speech’s main ideas and supporting materials so they

“Although every speech should have anintroduction, a body, and a conclusion,

not all speeches that have thesecomponents are well organized.”

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Writing a speech is just like writing a paper.Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

What do youthink?

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CHAPTER 13 Organizing Your Speech 1 7

1st Main Point

2nd Main Point

3rd Main Point

Conclusion

organizingthe process of selectingand arranging the mainideas and supportingmaterial to be presentedin the speech in a man-ner that makes it easyfor the audience tounderstand

Introduction

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1 8 PART 4 Public Speaking

the same speech goal will not be the number ofmain ideas that are presented, but rather, the extentto which each main point is developed.

With some topics and goals, determining the mainpoints is easy. Erin, who plays Division I volleyball forher college, doesn’t need to do much research for herspeech on how to spike a volleyball. And because shewill be speaking to a group of volleyball players, it waseasy for her to group the actions into three steps: theproper approach, a powerful swing, and effectivefollow-through.

But for other topics and goals, determining mainpoints is more difficult. For example Emming wantsto speak on choosing a credit card. His specific goalstatement is: “I want the audience to understand thecriteria for choosing a credit card.” As he did hisresearch, he uncovered numerous interesting factsrelated to the topic, but he has had trouble figuringout how to group these ideas. When you find yourselfin Emming’s shoes, you will need to do further workto determine the main ideas you want to present.

How can you proceed? First, begin by listing theideas that you have found that relate to your specificgoal. Like Emming, you may be able to list as many asnine or more. Second, eliminate ideas that your audi-ence analysis suggests that this audience alreadyunderstands. Third, check to see if some of the ideascan be grouped together under a broader concept.Fourth, eliminate ideas for which you do not havestrong support in the sources you consulted. Fifth,eliminate any ideas that might be too complicatedfor this audience to comprehend in the time youhave to explain them. Finally, from the ideas thatremain, choose three to five that are the most impor-tant for your audience to understand if you are toaccomplish your specific speech goal.

Let’s look at how Emming used these steps toidentify the main points for his speech on criteria forchoosing a credit card. To begin with, Emming hadsome thoughts about possible main ideas for thespeech, but it wasn’t until he completed most of hisresearch, sorted through what he had collected, andthought about it that he was able to choose his mainpoints. First, he listed ideas (in this case nine) thatwere discussed in the research materials he hadfound about choosing a credit card:

what is a credit card

interest rates

credit ratings

convenience

discounts

annual fee

institutional reputation

are adapted to your audi-ence; (3) choose an organi-

zational pattern appropriateto the flow of your ideas; (4) cre-

ate transitional statements to linkmain ideas; (5) create an introduction

and conclusion to open and close your speech; and(6) prepare a formal sentence outline of the speechso you can check the soundness of the structure andlogical flow of your ideas.

Developing the Body ofthe SpeechOnce you have analyzed the audience, devel-oped a speech goal, and assembled a body ofinformation on your topic, you are ready tocraft the body of your speech by (a) determin-ing the main points; (b) writing a thesis state-ment; (c) outlining the body of the speech; (d) selecting and ordering supporting material(examples, statistics, illustrations, quotations,and so on) that elaborates on or supports eachof your main points; and (e) preparing sec-tional transitions.

Determining Main PointsThe main points of a speech are complete sentencestatements of the two to five central ideas that youwant to present in your speech. You will want tolimit the number of main points in your speech soyour audience members can keep track of your ideas

and so you can develop eachidea with an appropriateamount of supporting mate-rial. Usually, the differencebetween a 5-minute speechand a 25-minute speech with

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main pointscomplete sentence rep-resentations of themain ideas used in yourthesis statement

>>Explaining how tospike a volleyball to a groupof volleyball players wouldnot be a difficult main pointto discuss if you played vol-leyball yourself. List severalmain points that would not bedifficult for you to discuss ina speech.

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Outlining the Body of the SpeechOnce you have a thesis statement, you can begin tooutline your speech. A speech outline is a sentencerepresentation of the hierarchical and sequentialrelationships between the ideas presented in thespeech.Your outline may have three hierarchical lev-els of information: main points (noted by the use ofRoman numerals), subpoints that support a mainpoint (noted by the use of capital letters), and some-times sub-subpoints to support subpoints (noted byArabic numbers). Figure 13.1 on the following pageprovides the general form of how the speech outlinesystem looks.

You will want to write your main points and sub-points in complete sentences, to clarify the relation-ships between main points and subpoints. Once youhave worded each main point and determined itsrelevant subpoints, you will choose a pattern oforganization that fits your thesis. The sequentialorder in which you will present your main pointswill depend on the pattern of organization that youchoose.

Wording Main Points

Recall that Emming deter-mined that interest rates,annual fee, and advertisedinducements are the threemajor criteria for finding asuitable credit card and histhesis statement was:Three criteria you should

frequent flyer points

rebates

Second, Emming eliminated the idea “what is acredit card” because he knew that his audiencealready understood this. This left him with eightideas—far too many for his first speech. Third,Emming noticed that several of the ideas seemed tobe related. “Discounts,” “frequent flyer points,” and“rebates” are all types of incentives that card com-panies offer to entice people to choose their card.So Emming grouped these three ideas togetherunder the single heading of “incentives.” Fourth,Emming noticed that he had uncovered consider-able information on interest rates, credit ratings,discounts, annual fees, rebates, and frequent flyerpoints, but had very little information on conven-ience or institutional reputation, so he crossed outthese ideas.

Finally, Emming considered each of the sixremaining ideas in light of the five-minute timerequirement he faced. He decided to cross out“credit ratings” because, although people’s credit rat-ings influence the types of cards and interest ratesfor which they might qualify, Emming believed thathe could not adequately explain this idea in theshort time available. In fact, he believed thatexplaining how a credit rating was made to thisaudience might take longer than five minutes andwasn’t really as basic as some of the other ideas hehad listed.

This process left Emming with three broad-basedpoints that he could develop in his speech: interestrates, annual fee, and incentives. So, if you find thatyou want to talk about a topic that includes numer-ous forms, types, categories, and so on, followEmming’s steps to reduce the number of your mainpoints to between two and five.

Writing a Thesis StatementA thesis statement is a sentence that states thespecific goal and the main points of the speech.Thus, your thesis statement provides a blueprintfrom which you will organize the body of yourspeech.

Now let’s consider how you arrive at this thesisstatement. Recall that Emming determined threemain ideas that he wanted to talk about in hisspeech on choosing a credit card: interest rates,annual fee, and incentives. Based on his specific goaland the main points he had determined, Emmingwas able to write the thesis statement: “Three crite-ria you should use to find the most suitable creditcard are level of real interest rate, annual fee, andadvertised incentives.”

Action Step 3a: Determining Main Points

To determine three to five main ideas or main points thatyou will present in your speech:

1. List all of the ideas you have found that relate to thespecific goal of your speech.

2. If there are more than five:a. Draw a line through each of the ideas that you

believe the audience already understands, or thatyou have no supporting information for, or that justseem too complicated for the time allowed.

b. Look for and combine ideas that can be groupedtogether under a larger heading.

3. From those ideas that remain, choose the two to fivethat you think will make the best main points for youraudience.

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thesis statementa sentence that identi-fies the topic of yourspeech and the mainideas you will present

speech outlinea sentence representa-tion of the hierarchicaland sequential relation-ships between the ideaspresented in a speech



III. Finding a credit card can also depend onweighing the value of the advertisedincentives against the increased annualcost or interest rate, which is the thirdcriterion that you will want to use to besure that it is suitable for where you are in life.

2. Are the main points parallel in structure? Mainpoints are parallel to each other when theirwording follows the same structural pattern,often using the same introductory words.Parallel structure helps the audience recognizemain points by recalling a pattern in the word-ing. Based on this, Emming revised his mainpoints to make them parallel:

I. The first criterion for choosing a credit cardis to select a card with a relatively lowinterest rate.

II. A second criterion for choosing a creditcard is to select a card with no annual feeor a low annual fee.

III. A third criterion for choosing a credit cardis to weigh the value of the advertisedincentives against the increased annualcost or interest rate.

use to find the most suitable credit card are level ofreal interest rate, annual fee, and advertised incen-tives. So Emming might write a first draft of themain points of his speech like this:

I. Examining the interest rate is one criterionthat you can use to find a credit card that issuitable for where you are in life.

II. Another criterion that you can use to makesure you find a credit card that is suitable forwhere you are in life is to examine theannual fee.

III. Finding a credit card can also depend onweighing the advertised incentives, which isthe third criterion that you will want to useto be sure that it is suitable for where youare in life.

Study these statements. Do they seem a bitvague? Sometimes, the first draft of a main point iswell expressed and doesn’t need additional work.More often, however, we find that our first attemptdoesn’t quite capture what we want to say. So weneed to rework the statements to make themclearer. Testing our main points with two questionscan help us as we revise.

1. Does the main point statement specify how it isrelated to the goal? Based on this question,Emming revised his main points like this:

I. A low interest rate is one criterion that youcan use to select a credit card that issuitable for where you are in life.

II. Another criterion thatyou can use to makesure you find a creditcard that is suitable forwhere you are in life isto look for a card withno annual fee or a verylow one.

I. Main point oneA. Subpoint A for main point one

1. Sub-subpoint one for subpoint A of main point one2. Sub-subpoint two for subpoint A of main point one

B. Subpoint B of main point one1. Sub-subpoint one for subpoint B of main point one2. Sub-subpoint two for subpoint B of main point one

II. Main point twoA. Subpoint A for main point two

1. Sub-subpoint one for subpoint A of main point two2. Sub-subpoint two for subpoint A of main point two

B. Subpoint B of main point two1. Sub-subpoint one for subpoint B of main point two2. Sub-subpoint two for subpoint B of main point two3. Sub-subpoint three for subpoint B of main point two

C. Subpoint C of main point two1. Sub-subpoint one for subpoint C of main point two2. Sub-subpoint two for subpoint C of main point two3. Sub-subpoint three for subpoint C of main point two

III. Main point threeA. Subpoint A for main point three

1. Sub-subpoint one for subpoint A of main point three2. Sub-subpoint two for subpoint A of main point three

B. Subpoint B of main point three. . . and so on.

Action Step 3b: Writing a ThesisStatement

Use your specific goal statement and the main pointsyou have identified to develop a well-worded thesisstatement for your speech.

1. Write the specific goal you developed in Chapter 12with Action Step 1e.

2. List the main points you determined in Action Step3a.

3. Now write a complete sentence that combines yourspecific goal with your main point ideas.

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parallelwording in more thanone sentence that fol-lows the same struc-tural pattern, oftenusing the same intro-ductory words

Figure 13.1General Form for a Speech Outline ©

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Thesis Statement:Three proven methodsfor ridding our bodiesof harmful toxins arereducing animal foods,hydrating, and eatingnatural whole foods.

I. One provenmethod for riddingour bodies ofharmful toxins isreducing ourintake of animalproducts.

II. A second provenmethod for ridding our bodies of harmfultoxins is eating more natural whole foods.

III. A third proven method for ridding ourbodies of harmful toxins is keeping wellhydrated.

3. Logical reasons order. Logical reasons order isused when the main points are the rationale orproof that support the thesis. For example:

Thesis Statement: Donating to the United Wayis appropriate because your one donation cov-ers many charities, you can stipulate whichspecific charities you wish to support, and ahigh percentage of your donation goes tocharities.

I. When you donate to the United Way, yourone donation covers many charities.

Selecting an Organizational Pattern forMain Points

A speech can be organized in many different ways.Your objective is to find or create the structure thatwill help the audience make the most sense of thematerial. The speech pattern you select will guidethe order in which you present your main points.Although speeches may follow many types oforganization, there are three fundamental patternsfor beginning speakers to learn: time, or sequential,order; topic order; and logical reasons order.

1. Time, or sequential, order. Time, or sequential,order arranges main points by a chronologicalsequence or by steps in a process. Thus, whenyou are explaining how to do something, how tomake something, how something works, or howsomething happened, you will want to use timeorder. Erin’s speech on how to spike a volleyballis an example of time order (good approach,powerful swing, good follow-through). As thefollowing example illustrates, the sequence ofmain points is as important for audiences toremember as the ideas of the main points.

Thesis Statement: The four steps involved indeveloping a personal network are to analyzeyour current networking potential, to positionyourself in places for opportunity, to advertiseyourself, and to follow up on contacts.

I. First, analyze your current networkingpotential.

II. Second, position yourself in places foropportunity.

III. Third, advertise yourself.IV. Fourth, follow up on contacts.

Although the use of “first,” “second,” and so on,is not a requirement when using a time order,their inclusion serves as markers that helpaudience members understand the importanceof sequence.

2. Topic order. Topic order arranges the mainpoints of the speech by categories or divisionsof a subject. This is a common way of orderingmain points because nearly any subject may besubdivided or categorized in many differentways. The order of the topics may go from gen-eral to specific, least important to most impor-tant, or some other logical sequence.

In the example below, the topics are presentedin the order that the speaker believes is mostsuitable for the audience and speech goal, withthe most important point presented last and thesecond most important point presented first.

time order(sequential order)organizing the mainpoints by a chronologi-cal sequence, or bysteps in a process

topic orderorganizing the mainpoints of the speech bycategories or divisionsof a subject

logical reasonsorderused when the mainpoints provide proofsupporting the thesisstatement

>>If you were giving a speech on the phenomenon of soldiers creat-ing blogs about their combat experiences, what organizational pattern doyou think would best suit your speech?

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• Some cards offer a “grace period” before interest chargeskick in.

• Department store interest rates are often higher than bankrates.

• Variable rate means that the interest rate can change frommonth to month.

• Fixed rate means the interest rate will stay the same.

• Many companies offer “Zero Percent” for up to 12 months.

• Some companies offer “Zero Percent” for a few months.

Once you have listed each of the supportingitems, look for relationships between them that willallow you to group ideas under a broader headingand eliminate ideas that don’t really belong. Thenselect the ideas that best support the main idea anddevelop them into complete sentences. WhenEmming did this, he came up with two statementsthat grouped the information he had found in sup-port of his first main point. These two became hissubpoints. He also had material that supported eachsubpoint. So he expanded his outline to include thismaterial.

Here is Emming’s outline:

I. The first criterion for choosing a credit card is toselect a card with a lower interest rate.A. Interest rates are the percentages that a com-

pany charges you to carry a balance on yourcard past the due date.1. Most credit cards carry an average of

8 percent.

II. When you donate to the United Way, youcan stipulate which charities you wish tosupport.

III. When you donate to the United Way, youknow that a high percentage of yourdonation will go directly to the charitiesyou’ve selected.

Although these three organizational patterns arethe most basic ones, in Chapters 16 and 17 you willbe introduced to several other patterns that areappropriate for informative and persuasive speaking.

Selecting and Outlining SupportingMaterial

Although the main points provide the basic struc-ture or skeleton of your speech, whether your audi-ence understands, believes, or appreciates what youhave to say usually depends on supporting mate-rial—information used to develop main points. Youcan identify supporting material by sorting the notecards you have prepared during your research intopiles that correspond to each of your main points.The goal is to see what information you have thatcan help you develop each point. When Emming didthis, he discovered that for his first point on choos-ing a credit card with a low interest rate, he had thefollowing support:

• Most “Zero Percent” cards carry an average of 8 percentafter a specified period.

• Some cards carry as much as 21 percent after the first year.

Action Step 3d: Selecting andOutlining Supporting Material

Develop and outline your supporting material. Completethe following steps for each of your main points.

1. List the main point.2. Using your note cards, list the key information related

to that main point that you uncovered during yourresearch.

3. Analyze that information by crossing out informationthat seems less relevant or doesn’t fit.

4. Look for information that seems related and can begrouped under a broader heading.

5. Try to group information until you have between twoand five supporting points.

6. Write the supporting subpoints in full sentences.7. Write the supporting sub-subpoints in full sentences.8. Repeat this process for all main points.9. Write an outline using Roman numerals for main

points, capital letters for supporting points, andArabic numbers for material related to supportingpoints.

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Action Step 3c: Organizing andOutlining the Main Points of Your Speech

Phrase and order your main points.

1. Write your thesis statement (Action Step 3b).2. Underline the two to five main points determined for

your thesis statement.3. For each underlined item, write one sentence that

summarizes what you want your audience to knowabout that idea.

4. Review the main points as a group.a. Is the relationship of each main point statement

to the goal statement clearly specified? If not,revise.

b. Are the main points parallel in structure? If not,revise.

5. Choose an organizational pattern for your main pointsand write them in this order. Place an “I.” before themain point you will make first, a “II.” before your sec-ond point, and so on.

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remember something that was said once in aspeech, but our retention is likely to increasemarkedly if we hear something more than once.Good transitions are important in writing, but theyare even more important in speaking. If listenersget lost or think they have missed something, theycannot check back as they can with writing.

In a speech, if we forecast main points, then stateeach main point, and use transitions between eachpoint, audiences are more likely to follow andremember the organization.

On your speech outline, section transitions arewritten in parentheses and at the junctures of thespeech.

Creating the IntroductionNow that the body of the speech has beendeveloped, you can decide how to begin yourspeech. Because the introduction establishes yourrelationship with your audience, you will want todevelop two or three different introductions andthen select the one that seems best for this particu-lar audience. Although your introduction may bevery short, it should gain audience attention andmotivate audience members to listen to all that youhave to say. An introduction is generally about 10percent of the length of the entire speech, so for afive-minute speech (approximately 750 words), anintroduction of 60 to 85 words is appropriate. A com-mon problem for beginning speakers is to plan anintroduction that is too time consuming, whichcauses them to deliver a speech that is too long.

2. Some cards carry as much as 21 percent.3. Many companies quote low rates (0%–3%)

for a specific period.B. Interest rates can be variable or fixed.

1. A variable rate means that the percentcharged can vary from month to month.

2. A fixed rate means that the rate will staythe same.

The outline includes supporting points of aspeech, but it does not include all the development.For instance, Emming might use personal experiences,examples, illustrations, anecdotes, statistics, and quo-tations to elaborate on a main point or subpoint. Butthese are not detailed on the outline. Emming willchoose these developmental materials later as he con-siders how to verbally and visually adapt to his audi-ence. We will consider this in the next chapter.

Preparing Section Transitions

Once you have outlined your main points, subpoints,and potential supporting material, you will want toconsider how you will move smoothly from one mainpoint to another. Transitions are words, phrases, orsentences that show the relationship between orbridge two ideas. Transitions act like tour guidesleading the audience from point to point through thespeech. Section transitions are complete sentencesthat show the relationship between or bridge majorparts of the speech. They may summarize what hasjust been said or preview the next main idea. Forexample, suppose Kenneth has just finished theintroduction of his speech on antiquing tables and isnow ready to launch into his main points. Beforestating his first main point he might say, “Antiquinga table is a process that has four steps. Now let’s con-sider the first one.” When his listeners hear this tran-sition, they are signaled to mentally prepare to listento and remember the first main point. When he fin-ishes his first main point, he will use another sectiontransition to signal that he is finished speaking aboutstep one and is moving on to discuss step two: “Nowthat we see what is involved in cleaning the table, wecan move on to the second step.”

You might be thinking that this sounds repetitiveor patronizing, but section transitions are importantfor two reasons. First, they help the audience followthe organization of ideas in the speech. If everymember of the audience were able to pay completeattention to every word, then perhaps section transi-tions would not be needed. But as people’s attentionrises and falls during a speech, they often find them-selves wondering where they are. Section transitionsgive us a mental jolt and say, “Pay attention.”

Second, section transitions are important inhelping us retain information. We may well

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Useful LandmarksDuring the 1800s, American pioneers travelling to the PacificNorthwest along the Oregon Trail used landmarks such as Chimney

Rock, in what is now thewestern part of Nebraska,to make sure they were onthe right path. In the sameway, section transitions ina speech can help keepthe audience on track andreel them back in if theyget lost.

transitionswords, phrases, or sen-tences that show therelationship between orbridge ideas

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Stating the Thesis

Because audiences want to know what thespeech is going to be about, it’s important to

state your thesis, which will introduce themto the main points of your speech. For hisspeech about romantic love, after Miguelgained the audience’s attention, he intro-

duced his thesis, “In the next five minutes,I’d like to explain to you that romantic love

consists of three elements: passion, intimacy,and commitment.” Stating main points in theintroduction is necessary unless you have somespecial reason for not revealing the details of the

thesis. For instance, after getting the attention ofhis audience Miguel might say, “In the next five min-utes, I’d like to explain the three aspects of romanticlove,” a statement that specifies the number of mainpoints, but leaves stating specifics for transitionstatements immediately preceding main points.Now let’s consider three other goals you might havefor your introduction.

Establishing Your Credibility

If someone hasn’t formally introduced you beforeyou speak, the audience members are going to won-der who you are and why they should pay attentionto what you have to say. So another goal of the intro-duction may be to begin to build your credibility. Forinstance, it would be natural for an audience toquestion Miguel’s qualifications for speaking on thetopic of romantic love. So after his attention-gettingstatement he might say, “I became interested in thistopic last semester, when I took an interdisciplinaryseminar on romantic love, and I am now doing anindependent research project on commitment inrelationships.”

Setting a Tone

The introductory remarks may also reflect theemotional tone that is appropriate for the topic. Ahumorous opening will signal a lighthearted tone; aserious opening signals a more thoughtful orsomber tone. For instance, a speaker who startswith a rib-tickling, ribald story is putting the audi-ence in a lighthearted, devil-may-care mood. If thatspeaker then says, “Now let’s turn to the subject ofabortion (or nuclear war, or ethnic genocide),” theaudience will be confused by the preliminary intro-duction that signaled a far different type of subject.

Creating a Bond of Goodwill

In your first few words, you may also establishhow an audience will feel about you as a person. Ifyou’re enthusiastic, warm, and friendly and give a

Goals of the IntroductionAn introduction should get audience’s attention andintroduce the thesis. In addition, effective introduc-tions also begin to establish speaker credibility, setthe tone for the speech, and create a bond of good-will between the speaker and the audience.

Getting Attention

An audience’s physical presence does not guaranteethat audience members will actually listen to yourspeech. Your first goal, then, is to create an openingthat will win your listeners’ attention by arousingtheir curiosity and motivating them to continue lis-tening. In the next section of this chapter, we discusssix types of attention-getting devices you can use toget the audience’s attention and also to stimulatetheir interest in what you have to say.

Action Step 3e: Preparing SectionTransitions

Prepare section transitions to appear as parentheticalstatements before or after each main point. Using com-plete sentences:

1. Write a transition from your first main point to yoursecond.

2. Write a transition from each of your remaining mainpoints to the one after it.

3. Add these transitional statements to your outline.� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

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to a pizza and drinks? Well, if you did either of thesethings, you could get in big trouble—this bill iscounterfeit!

Today I want to explain the extent of counter-feiting in America and what our government isdoing to curb it.

This short opening that can be stated in less than 30seconds gets attention and leads into the speech.

Personal Reference

A statement that can personalize the topic for audi-ence members will quickly establish how the topic isin the individual’s self-interest. In addition to gettingattention, a personal reference can be especiallyeffective at engaging listeners as active participantsin a speech. A personal reference opening, like thisone on exercise, may be suitable for a speech of anylength:

Say, were you panting when you got to the top ofthose four flights of stairs this morning? I’ll bet therewere a few of you who vowed you’re never going totake a class on the top floor of this building again.But did you ever stop to think that maybe the prob-lem isn’t that this class is on the top floor? It justmight be that you are not getting enough exercise.

Today I want to talk with you about how you canbuild an exercise program that will get you and keepyou in shape, yet will only cost you three hours aweek, and not one red cent!

This 112-word opening, which can be presentedin less than a minute, not only gets attention, butalso personalizes the topic in a way that helps moti-vate listeners to pay attention.

Quotation

A particularly vivid or thought-provoking quotationmakes an excellent introduction to a speech of anylength, especially if you can use your imagination torelate the quotation to your topic. For instance, in hisintroduction, notice how Thomas “Byron” Thames,M.D., Member, Board of Directors, AARP, uses a quo-tation to get the attention of his audience:

W. C. Fields was fond of saying, “There comes a timein a man’s life when he must take the bull by thehorns and face the situation.” Well, ladies and gen-tlemen, the time has come for those of us with astake in our nation’s health care system to “take thebull by the horns and face the situation” regardingtoday’s out-of-control health care costs (Thames,2006, p. 315).

A good quotation notonly gets attention; it alsomotivates the audience to lis-ten carefully to what thespeaker is going to talk about.

sense that what you’re going to talk about is in theaudience’s best interest, it will make them feelmore comfortable about spending time listeningto you.

For longer speeches, you will have more time toaccomplish all five goals in the introduction. But forshorter speeches, like those that you are likely to begiving in class, you will first focus on getting atten-tion and stating the thesis; then you will use verybrief comments to try to build your credibility, estab-lish an appropriate tone, and develop goodwill.

Methods of Attention GainingThe ways to gain your audience’s attention as youbegin a speech are limited only by your imagination.In this section, we describe six common methodsyou can use to get and excite your audience’s inter-est in your topic: startling statements, rhetoricalquestions, personal references, quotations, stories,and suspense.

Startling Statement

A startling statement grabs your listeners’ attentionby shocking them in some way. Because of the shockof what has been said, audience members stop whatthey were doing or thinking about and focus on thespeaker. The following example illustrates theattention-getting effect of a startling statement:

By 2030—less than [25] years from now—the world’senergy needs will be almost 50 percent greater thanthey were last year. That is a startling statistic, espe-cially when you consider that 80 percent of thatgrowth will come from one subset—developingcountries.

Developing countries in Asia alone will seeenergy demand increase by over 150 percent in theperiod from 2000 to 2030. This growing demand forenergy reflects a growing demand worldwide[because] of a higher standard of living. Meeting [thedemand] will require massive investment, access toresources, and a continued focus on technology(Tillerson, 2006, p. 441).

In less than a minute, this 99-word introductiongrabs attention and leads into the speech.

Rhetorical Question

Asking a rhetorical question—a question seeking amental rather than a vocal response—is anotherappropriate opening for a short speech. Notice howa student began her speech on counterfeiting withthese three short, rhetorical questions:

What would you do with this 20-dollar bill if I gaveit to you? Take your friend to a movie? Treat yourself

rhetorical questiona question seeking amental rather than avocal response



excite the audience. When you begin yourspeech in a way that gets the audience tothinking, “What is she leading up to?’’ youhave created suspense. The suspensefulopening is especially valuable when thetopic is one that an audience does notalready have an interest in hearing.

Consider the attention-getting value of thisintroduction:

It costs the United States more than $116 billion peryear. It has cost the loss of more jobs than a reces-sion. It accounts for nearly 100,000 deaths a year.I’m not talking about cocaine abuse—the problem isalcoholism. Today I want to show you how we canavoid this inhumane killer by abstaining from it.

Notice that by putting the problem “alcoholism”at the end, the speaker encourages the audience totry to anticipate the answer. And because the audi-ence may well be thinking “narcotics,” the revelationthat the answer is alcoholism is likely to be muchmore effective.

Preparing the ConclusionShakespeare said, “All’s well that ends well.” Astrong conclusion will summarize the main ideasand will leave the audience with a vivid impressionof what they have learned. Even though the conclu-sion will be a relatively short part of the speech—sel-dom more than 5 percent (35 to 40 words for afive-minute speech)—it is important that your con-clusion be carefully planned.

Stories

A story is an account of something that has hap-pened. Most people enjoy a well-told story. So, if youhave uncovered an interesting story in your researchthat is related to the goal of the speech, considerusing it for your introduction.

Unfortunately, many stories are lengthy and cantake more time to tell than is appropriate for thelength of your speech, so only use a story if you canabbreviate it to fit your speech length. Notice howthe following story captures attention and leads intothe topic of the speech, balancing stakeholderinterests.

A tightrope walker announced that he was going towalk across Niagara Falls. To everyone’s amazement,he made it safely across, and everybody cheered.“Who believes I can ride a bicycle across?” and theyall said “Don’t do it, you’ll fall!” But he got on hisbicycle and made it safely across. “Who believes I canpush a full wheelbarrow across?” Well, by this timethe crowd had seen enough to make real believers ofthem, and they all shouted, “We do! We do!” At thathe said, “Okay . . . Who wants to be the first to get in?”

Well, that’s how many investors feel about com-panies who have adopted the philosophy that bal-ancing the interests of all stakeholders is the trueroute to maximum value. They go from skeptics tobelievers—but are very reluctant to get in thatwheelbarrow.

What I would like to do this afternoon is sharewith you Eastman’s philosophy [about that] practice,and then I’ll give you some results (Deavenport,1995, p. 49).

Suspense

An introduction that is worded so that what isdescribed remains uncertain or mysterious will

Action Step 3f: Writing SpeechIntroductions

Create choices for how you will begin your speech.

1. For the speech body you outlined earlier, write threedifferent introductions using a startling statement,rhetorical question, personal reference, quotation,story, or suspense, that you believe meet the goals ofeffective introductions and that you believe would setan appropriate tone for your speech goal and audi-ence.

2. Of the three you drafted, which do you believe is thebest? Why?

3. Next, plan how you will introduce your thesisstatement.

4. Develop a very short statement that will establishyour credibility.

5. Consider how you might establish goodwill during theintroduction.

6. Write that introduction in outline form.� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

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>>A good quotation—or a good story—helps grab your reader’s attention.



need me you will find me in steel and in the powerof the sun.” Wind whispered: “If you should needme, I will be in the heavens among the clouds.”Honor, the bond of life, said: “If you lose me, don’tlook for me again—you will not find me.”

So it is for corporate responsibility. Once lost,honor cannot be replaced. It is the right thing to do . . . it is right for business . . . it is inseparable in ourinterdependent world. Let’s act now to bringHispanic issues to the forefront of America’s agenda.

Appeal to Action

The appeal to action is a common way to end a per-suasive speech. The appeal describes the behaviorthat you want your listeners to follow after theyhave heard your arguments. Notice how Llewellyn H.Rockwell, Jr. concludes his speech on Iraq and theDemocratic Empire (2006, p. 302) with a strongappeal to action:

In the first, by the Left and the Democrats, we areasked to think of the state as an expansive GoodSamaritan who clothes, feeds, and heals people athome and abroad, but fail to notice that thisSamaritan ends up not helping people but enslavingits clients. In the second, as offered by the Right andthe Republicans, we are asked to think of the stateas an expansive Solomon with all power to right awrong and bring justice and faith to all peoples athome and abroad. They completely fail to notice thatSolomon ends up behaving more like CaesarAugustus and his successors. Are you independentminded? Reject these two false alternatives. Do youlove freedom? Embrace peace. Do you love peace?Embrace private property. Do you love and defendcivilization? Defend and protect us against all usesof Power, the evil against which we must proceedever more boldly.

By their nature, appealsare most relevant for per-suasive speeches, especiallywhen the goal is to motivatean audience to act.

Just as with your speech introduction, you shouldprepare two or three conclusions and then choosethe one you believe will be the most effective withyour audience.

Summary of Main PointsAny effective speech conclusion is likely to include asummary of the main points. In very short speeches,a summary may be the only conclusion that is nec-essary. Thus, a short, appropriate ending for aninformative speech on how to improve your gradesmight be: “So I hope you now understand that threetechniques in helping you improve your grades areto attend classes regularly, to develop a positive atti-tude toward the course, and to study systematically.”Likewise, a short ending for a persuasive speech onwhy you should lift weights might be: “So, rememberthat three major reasons why you should considerlifting weights are to improve your appearance, toimprove your health, and to accomplish both with aminimum of effort.”

Leaving Vivid ImpressionsAlthough summaries achieve the first goal of aneffective conclusion, a speaker may need to developadditional material designed to achieve the secondgoal: leaving the audience with a vivid impression.Vivid impressions can be created in variety of ways.Their purpose is to give the audience one memo-rable image that serves as an emotional summary ofthe speech. The following represent two ways to cre-ate vivid impressions.

Story

For longer informative or persuasive speeches,speakers may also look for stories or other types ofmaterial that can further reinforce the message of the speech. Here we will give you one example ofsuch a story. In his speech on corporate responsibil-ity in the Hispanic business community, Solomon D.Trujillo (2002, p. 406) ends with a story that drama-tizes the importance of acting now:

In closing, there’s an old tale called “The FourElements” from the Hispanic Southwest by myfriend Rudolfo Anaya that captures my message.

In the beginning, there were four elements onthis earth, as well as in man. These basic elementsin man and earth were Water, Fire, Wind and Honor.When the work of the creation was completed, theelements decided to separate, with each one seek-ing its own way. Water spoke first and said: “If youshould ever need me, look for me under the earthand in the oceans.” Fire then said: “If you should

Action Step 3g: Creating SpeechConclusions

Create choices for how you will conclude your speech.

1. For the speech body you outlined earlier, write threedifferent conclusions: summary, story, and appeal toaction (or emotional impact) that review importantpoints you want the audience to remember and leavethe audience with vivid imagery or an emotionalappeal.

2. Which do you believe is the best? Why?3. Write that conclusion in outline form.

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appealdescribes the behavioryou want your listenersto follow after they haveheard your arguments



Reviewing the OutlineNow that you have created all of the parts ofthe outline, it is time to put them together incomplete outline form and edit them to makesure the outline is well organized and wellworded. Use this checklist to complete the finalreview of the outline before you move into adapta-tion and rehearsal.

Have I used a standard set of symbols toindicate structure? Main points are indicatedby Roman numerals, major subdivisions bycapital letters, minor subheadings by Arabicnumerals, and further subdivisions by lowercaseletters.

Have I written main points and majorsubdivisions as complete sentences?Complete sentences help you to see (1) whethereach main point actually develops your speech

Listing SourcesRegardless of the type or length of speech,you’ll want to prepare a list of the sources youare going to use in the speech. Although you maybe required to prepare this list for the speeches yougive in this course and other courses you take, in realsettings, this list will enable you to direct audiencemembers to the specific source of the informationyou have used, and will allow you to quickly find theinformation at a later date. The two standard meth-ods of organizing source lists are (1) alphabeticallyby author’s last name or (2) by content category, withitems listed alphabetically by author within eachcategory. For speeches with a short list, the firstmethod is efficient. But for long speeches with alengthy source list, it is helpful to group sources bycontent categories.

There are many formal bibliographic style for-mats you can use in citing sources (for example,MLA, APA, Chicago, CBE). And the “correct” form dif-fers by professional or academic discipline. Check tosee if your instructor has a preference about whichstyle you use in class.

Regardless of the particular style, however, thespecific information you need to record differsdepending on whether the source is a book, a peri-odical, a newspaper, or an Internet source or web-site.The elements that are essential to all are author,title of article, title of publication, date of publica-tion, and page numbers. Figure 13.2 gives examplesof Modern Language Association (MLA) citations forthe most commonly used sources.

Action Step 3h helps you compile a list of sourcesused in your speech. Figure 13.3 gives an example ofthis activity completed by a student in this course.

Action Step 3h: Compiling a List ofSources

Record the list of sources you used in the speech.

1. Review your note cards, separating those with infor-mation you have used in your speech from those youhave not.

2. List the sources of information used in the speech bycopying the bibliographic information recorded on thenote card.

3. For short lists, organize your list alphabetically by thelast name of the first author. Be sure to follow theform shown in Figure 13.3. If you did not record someof the bibliographic information on your note card, youwill need to revisit the library, database, and so on, tofind it.

� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

LO 4 Figure 13.2Examples of the MLA Citation Form for Speech Sources

BookShell, G. Richard. Bargaining for Advantage: Negotiation Strategiesfor Reasonable People. New York: Penguin Books, 2006.

Edited BookJens Lautrup Norguard. “Intercultural Alternatives: CriticalPerspectives on Intercultural Encounters in Theory and Practice.”Intercultural Ethics. Eds. Maribel Blaseo and Jan Gustafsson. NewYork: Mc-Graw Hill, 2004. 193–214.

MagazinePoniewozik, James. “How to Create a Heavenly Host.” Time 21 June2006: 63.

Academic JournalBarge, J. Kevin. “Reflexibility and Managerial Practice.”Communication Monographs 71:1 (Mar. 2004): 70–96.

NewspaperBergin, Kathy. “A New Orleans Revival Plan.” The Chicago Tribune 31May 2006: A3.

Electronic ArticleFriedman, Thomas L. “Connect the Dots.” New York Times 25 Sept.2003. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/25/opinion/25FRIED.html.

Electronic SiteOsterweil, Neil and Michael Smith. “Does Stress Cause BreastCancer?” WEB M.D.Health 24 Sept. 2003. http://my.webmd.com/contents/article/74/89170.htm?z=3734_00000_1000_ts_01.

ObservationSchoenling Brewery. Spent an hour on the floor observing the use ofvarious machines in the total process and employees’ responsibilitiesat each stage. 22 April 2006.

InterviewsMueller, Bruno. Personal interview with diamond cutter at Fegel’sJewelry. 19 March 2006.

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equipment and should appear somewhere else,if at all.

Are potential subdivision elaborationsindicated? Recall that it is the subdivisionelaborations that help to build the speech.Because you don’t know how long it might takeyou to discuss these elaborations, it is a goodidea to include more than you are likely to use.During rehearsals, you may discuss each adifferent way.

Does the outline include no more than one-third the total number of words anticipatedin the speech? An outline is only a skeleton ofthe speech—not a complete manuscript withletters and numbers attached. The outlineshould be short enough to allow you toexperiment with different methods ofdevelopment during practice periods and toadapt to audience reaction during the speechitself. An easy way to judge whether your outlineis about the right length is to estimate thenumber of words that you are likely to be able tospeak during the actual speech and compare thisto the number of words in the outline (countingonly the words in the outline minus speech goal,thesis statement, headings, and list of sources).Because approximate figures are all you need, tocompute the approximate maximum words foryour outline, start by assuming a speaking rateof 160 words per minute. (Last term, thespeaking rate for the majority of speakers in myclass was 140 to 180 words per minute.) Thus,using the average of 160 words per minute, athree- to five-minute speech would containroughly 480 to 800 words, and the outline shouldbe 160 to 300 words. An 8- to 10-minute speech,roughly 1,280 to 1,600 words, should have anoutline of approximately 426 to 533 words.

goal and (2) whether the wording makes yourintended point. Unless the key ideas are writtenout in full, it will be difficult to follow the nextguidelines.

Do main points and major subdivisionseach contain a single idea? This guidelineensures that the development of each part of the speech will be relevant to the point. Thus,rather than

I. The park is beautiful and easy to get to.

divide the sentence so that both parts areseparate:

I. The park is beautiful.II. The park is easy to get to.

The two-point example sorts out distinct ideas sothat the speaker can line up supporting materialwith confidence that the audience will see andunderstand its relationship to the main points.

Does each major subdivision relate to orsupport its major point? This principle, calledsubordination, insures that you don’t wander offpoint and confuse your audience. For example:

I. Proper equipment isnecessary for successfulplay.A. Good gym shoes are

needed formaneuverability.

B. Padded gloves will help protect yourhands.

C. A lively ball provides sufficient bounce.D. And a good attitude doesn’t hurt.

Notice that the main point deals withequipment. A, B, and C (shoes, gloves, and ball)all relate to the main point. But D, attitude, is not

Figure 13.3Student Response to Action Step 3h

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Compiling a List of Sources

Dixon, Dougal. New York:Simon & Schuster, 1992.

Farver, John. Personal interview with professor ofgeology. 23 June 2006.

Klein, Cornelius. 2nd ed.New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1993.

Montgomery, Carla W.3rd ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1997.

Fundamentals of Geology.

Manual of Mineralogy.

The Practical Geologist.

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FINAL LOOK

Now that we have considered the various parts of an out-line, let us put them together for a final look. The outline inFigure 13.4 illustrates the principles in practice. The com-mentary to the right of the outline relates each part of theoutline to the guidelines we have discussed.

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Figure 13.4Sample Complete Outline

OUTLINE

Specific Goal: I would like the audience to understand the major criteriafor finding a suitable credit card.

Introduction

I. How many of you have been hounded by credit card vendors outsidethe Student Union?

II. Today I want to share with you three criteria you need to considercarefully before you decide on a particular credit card.

Thesis Statement: Three criteria that will enable audience members tofind the credit card that is most suitable for them are level of real interestrate, annual fee, and advertised incentives.

Body

I. The first criterion for choosing a credit card is to select a card with alower interest rate.A. Interest rates are the percentages that a company charges you

to carry a balance on your card past the due date.1. Most credit cards carry an average of 8%.2. Some cards carry an average of as much as 21%.3. Many companies offer 0% interest rates for up to 12 months.4. Other companies offer 0% interest rates for a few months.

B. Interest rates can be variable or fixed.1. Variable rates mean that the rate will change from month to

month.2. Fixed rates mean that the rate will stay the same.

(Now that we have considered interest rates, let’s look at the nextcriterion.)

II. A second criterion for choosing a suitable credit card is to select acard with no or a low annual fee.A. The annual fee is the cost the company charges you for

extending you credit.B. The charges vary widely.

1. Some cards advertise no annual fee.2. Most companies charge fees that average around 25 dollars.

(After you have considered interest and fees, you can weigh the benefitsthat the company promises you.)

III. A third criterion for choosing a credit card is to weigh the incentives.A. Incentives are extras that you get for using a particular card.

1. Some companies promise rebates.2. Some companies promise frequent flyer miles.3. Some companies promise discounts on “a wide variety of

items.”B. Incentives don’t outweigh other criteria.

Conclusion

I. So, getting the credit card that’s right for you may be the answer toyour dreams.

II. But only if you exercise care in examining interest rates, annual fee,and perks.

Sources

Bankrate Monitor. 25 Sept. 2007. http://www.Bankrate.com.

Haddad, Charles. “Congratulations, Grads—You’re Bankrupt: MarketingBlitz Buries Kids in Plastic Debt.” BusinessWeek 21 May 2001: 48.

Hennefriend, Bill. “Credit Card Blues.” Office Pro Oct. 2004: 17–20.

McGuire, William. “Protect Your Credit Card.” Kiplinger’s Dec. 2004: 88.

Rose, Sarah. “Prepping for College Credit,” Money Sept. 1998: 156.

ANALYSIS

Write your specific goal at the top of the page. Refer to the goal to testwhether everything in the outline is relevant.

The heading Introduction sets the section apart as a separate unit. Theintroduction attempts to (1) get attention and (2) lead into the body ofthe speech as well as establish credibility, set a tone, and gain goodwill.

The thesis statement states the elements that are suggested in thespecific goal. In the speech, the thesis serves as a forecast of the mainpoints.

The heading Body sets this section apart as a separate unit. In thisexample, main point I begins a topical pattern of main points. It is statedas a complete sentence.

The two main subdivisions designated by A and B indicate the equalweight of these points. The second-level subdivisions—designated by 1,2, and 3 for the major subpoint A, and 1 and 2 for the major subpointB—give the necessary information for understanding the subpoints.

The number of major and second-level subpoints is at the discretion ofthe speaker. After the first two levels of subordination, words andphrases may be used in place of complete sentences for elaboration.

This transition reminds listeners of the first main point and forecasts thesecond.

Main point II, continuing the topical pattern, is a complete meaningfulstatement paralleling the wording of main point I. Furthermore, noticethat each main point considers only one major idea.

This transition summarizes the first two criteria and forecasts the third.

Main point III, continuing the topical pattern, is a complete meaningfulstatement paralleling the wording of main points I and II.

Throughout the outline, notice that main points and subpoints are factualstatements. The speaker adds examples, experiences, and otherdevelopmental material during practice sessions.

The heading Conclusion sets this section apart as a separate unit. Thecontent of the conclusion is intended to summarize the main ideas andleave the speech on a high note.

A list of sources should always be a part of the speech outline. Thesources should show where the factual material of the speech camefrom. The list of sources is not a total of all sources available—onlythose that were used, directly or indirectly. Each of the sources is shownin proper form.


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