What is psychology
90
What is psychology? Chapter one
-
Upload
miss-demure -
Category
Education
-
view
18 -
download
7
description
general psychology
Transcript of What is psychology
What is psychology?
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
TWO CLASSIFICATION OF BEHAVIOR
OVERT – behavior that can be seen
/ publicly observed.
COVERT – behavior that CANNOT be
publicly observed.
talking, dancing, crying, etc.
Concentrating, love feeling, glandular reaction
Chapter one
FIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR
It follows an orderly pattern.
Knowable.
Knowledge of the Human Behavior
Natural phenomena
Nothing is self-evident.
Chapter one
Philosophical Contributions
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Philosophical Contributions
Aristotle: (384-322 BC) • Wrote “About the
Psyche” covering topics such as personality, sensation, perception, thought, intelligence, needs, motives, feelings, emotions and memory.
• A proponent of empiricism. (experimentation)
• He outlined the laws of associationism.
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
TABULA RASA – BLANK SLATE
19th Century Contributions
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Schools of Thought in Psychology
• Structuralism • Functionalism • Behaviorism • Gestalt Psychology• Psychoanalytic Psychology• Humanistic Psychology• Cognitive Psychology
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Behaviorism
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) • Considered to be the founder of American
Behaviorism.• Believed that psychology should limit itself to
observable, measurable events and behavior.
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)• Believed organisms learn to behave in certain
ways because of reinforcement.
Chapter one
Chapter one
Gestalt Psychology: Making Psychology Whole
• Gestalt translates to “pattern” or “organized whole”.
• Demonstrated that learning is a accomplished by insight, not by mechanical repetition.
• Founders included:• Wertheimer (1880-1943), • Koffka (1886-1941), and • Kohler (1887-1967).
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Psychology
Critical Thinking Task
Is square “A” and “B” the same color?
Explain your answer.
Chapter one
Chapter one
Five Contemporary Theoretical Perspective
in Psychology • Psychodynamic • Behavioral Humanistic• Cognitive• Biological
Chapter one
Psychodynamic Perspective
Chapter one
Chapter one
Chapter one
Sigmund Freud believed that
behaviour and personality
derives from the constant and
unique interaction of
conflicting psychological forces
that operate
at three different levels of
awareness:
the preconscious,
the conscious,
and the unconscious.
Chapter one
Many of us have experienced what
is commonly referred to as a
Freudian slip. These misstatements
are believed to reveal underlying,
unconscious thoughts or feelings.
Consider this example: James has just started a new
relationship with a woman he met
at school. While talking to her one
afternoon, he accidentally calls her
by his ex-girlfriend's name.
Chapter one
If you were
in this
situation,
how would
you
explain
this
mistake?
Chapter one
Many of us might blame the slip on distraction or
describe it as a simple accident.
However, a psychoanalytic theorist might tell you that
this is much more than a random accident.
The psychoanalytic view holds that there are
inner forces outside of your awareness
that are directing your behaviour.
For example, a psychoanalyst might say that
James misspoke due to unresolved feelings for his ex or
perhaps because of misgivings about his new relationship.
Chapter one
According to Freud, the mind can be divided into three
different levels:
Chapter one
The CONCIOUS MIND
includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect of our
mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. A part of this includes our memory, which is
not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily at any time and brought into our awareness.
Freud called this the preconscious.
Chapter one
PRECONCIOUS MIND
is the part of the mind that represents ordinary memory. While we are not consciously
aware of this information at any given time, we can retrieve it and pull it into consciousness
when needed.
Chapter one
UNCONCIOUS MIND
is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that outside of
our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience, even though we are
unaware of these underlying influences.
Chapter one
Freud likened these three levels of mind to an iceberg. The top of the iceberg that you can see above the
water represents the conscious mind. The part of the iceberg that is
submerged below the water but is still visible is the preconscious. The
bulk of the iceberg lies unseen beneath the waterline and
represents the unconscious.
Chapter one
Each person also possesses a certain amount of psychological
energy that forms the three basic structures of personality:
the id, the ego, and the superego. These three
structures have different roles and operate at different levels of the mind. In the next article in this series, learn more about the functions of each of these
structures.
Chapter one
According to Freud, the mind can be divided into three
different levels:
Chapter one
Today’s Psychologists
Evolutionary and Biological Perspectives• Focus on the evolution of behavior and mental processes.
• Much like Darwin, believe that inherited tendencies move us in certain directions.
Cognitive Perspective: Keeping Psychology “In Mind”• Mental processes to understand human nature
• How we perceive, learn, remember problem solve, etc. (the mind)
• Roots in Socrates, “know thyself”
Humanistic-Existential Perspective• Humanistic – stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment • Existentialism – views people as free to choose and as being
responsible for choosing ethical conduct. Carl Rogers – Abraham Maslow
Chapter one
Cognitive Perspective• Venture into the realm of mental processes to understand
human nature.
• Cognitive psychologists study those things we refer to as the mind.
1/24/11
Chapter one
Humanistic-Existential PerspectiveHumanism
• stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment.
Existentialism • views people as free to choose
and be responsible for choosing ethical conduct.
Stress the importance of subjective experience.
• Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers; two prominent psychologists in this area.
Chapter one
Evolutionary and Biological Perspectives
• Focus on the evolution of behavior and mental processes.
• Genes can be transmitted from generation to generation.
• Biological perspective seek the links between the electrical and chemical activity of the brain. • Use of PET and CAT scans.
Chapter one
Perspectives on Learning • Learning through repetition and reinforcement.
• Social-cognitive theorists • formerly termed social learning theorists• suggest that people can modify or even create their environments. • Intentional learning by observing others.
Chapter one
Sociocultural Perspective• Addresses the ways people differ from one another.
• Studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes.
Ethnicity
• Ethnic groups are united by their cultural heritage, race, language, and common history.
• Study cultural heritages and ethnic differences in vulnerability to problems.
Gender
• Refers to the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity. • Involves a complex web of cultural expectations and social roles.
Chapter one
What is Psychology?
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Chapter one
Chapter one
Psychology as a ScienceTheories:• Formulations of apparent relationships
among observed events.
• Theories allow for empirical prediction.
2 4 6 8 __
Chapter one 63
Chapter 1
Question: What are the goals of psychology?
Psychologists have the same goals as scientists.
• Observe• Describe behavior• Explain • Predict• Control
Chapter one
Chapter one 65
Chapter 1
Section 2: What do psychologists do?
• Psychologists accept that something is true ONLY if the evidence shows it is so.
• Some are interested in RESEARCH – investigating and forming theories – and finally testing those theories
• Others apply knowledge through THERAPY to help people.
• And finally there are those who TEACH in classrooms and workshops.
What are the Fields or Branches of Psychology?
Chapter one
Chapter one 67
Chapter 1
AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION• Clinical – the largest group – treat
psychological problems.• Counseling – treat adjustment
problems• School – deal with students who have
problems that interfere with learning• Educational Psychologist – focus on
course planning and instructional methods
Section 2: What Psychologists Do
Chapter one 68
Chapter 1
AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION
• Personality Psychologist – identify characteristics or traits
• Social Psychologist – concerned with people’s behavior in social situations
• Experimental Psychologist – conduct research into basic processes
Section 2: What Psychologists Do
(continued)
Chapter one 69
Chapter 1
Question: What are their areas of specialization?
• Industrial and Organizational Psychologist – focus on people in work and business
• Environmental Psychologist – focus on ways in which people influence and are influenced by physical environment
• Consumer Psychologist – study the behavior of shoppers to explain and predict behavior
Section 2: What Psychologists Do
Chapter one 70
Chapter 1
AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION
(continued)• Forensic Psychologist – are concerned with how psychological problems give rise to criminal behavior.
• Health Psychologist – study the ways in which behavior and mental processes are related to physical health
Section 2: What Psychologists Do
Fields of Psychology
Chapter one
Fields of Psychology
Clinical psychologists: • Help people with psychological disorders adjust to the
demands of life • Largest subgroup of psychologists
Counseling psychologists: • Similar to clinical psychologist but clients
typically have adjustment problems and not serious psychological disorders
• More than half of all doctoral students are in programs of clinical or counseling
Chapter one
Fields of Psychology
School psychologists: • Employed by school systems to assist
students with problems that interferewith learning.
• One focus is that of placement of students in special classes
Educational psychologists: • Like school psychologists. • Attempt to facilitate learning but focus on
course planning, instructional methods. • Focus on motivation, intelligence, testing,
and student and teacher behavior.
Chapter one
Fields of Psychology
Developmental psychologists: • Study the changes, physical, cognitive, social
and personality, that occur throughout the life span.
Personality psychologists: • Focus on identifying and measuring human
traits, determining influences on human thought processes, feelings, and behavior and explaining psychological disorders.
Social psychologists: • Primarily concerned with individual’s thoughts,
feelings, and behavior in social situations.
Chapter one
Fields of PsychologyEnvironmental psychologists:• Study how people and environment influence
each other and• Study ways to encourage recycling, for
example.
Experimental psychologists: • Conduct experiments, and • Specialize in basic processes such as the
nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion.
Industrial psychologists: • Focus on the relationship between people and
work.
Chapter one
Fields of PsychologyOrganizational psychologists: • Focus on the relationship between people
and organizations such as business.
Human factors psychologists:• Provide suggestions and create technical
systems such as dashboards, computer keyboards, etc. to be more user friendly.
Chapter one
Fields of PsychologyConsumer psychologists: • Study the behavior of shoppers in an
effort to predict and influence their behavior.
Health psychologists: • Examine the ways in which behavior
and mental processes are related to health.
Sport psychologists: • Help people improve their sports
performance.
The Scientific Method
Chapter one
The Scientific MethodScientific method is an organized way of using experience and testing ideas in order to expand and refine knowledge.
• Hypothesis: is a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is tested through research.
• Test the hypothesis through controlled methods such as the experiment.
• Replication: repeating a study to see if the findings hold up over time with different subjects.
Chapter one
a. A systematic way of organizing and expanding scientific knowledge.
b. Daily experiences, common beliefs, and scientific observations all contribute to the development of theories.
c. Psychological theories explain observations and lead to hypotheses about behavior and mental processes.
d. Observations can confirm the theory or lead to its refinement or abandonment.
The Scientific Method
Chapter one
Methods of ObservationThe Case Study
• Information collected about individuals and small groups.
• Anecdotes (Typically unscientific accounts of people’s behavior.)
• Compelling portraits but may have factual inaccuracies.
The Survey• Used to study individuals who cannot be observed in
the natural setting or studied scientifically. • Employs questionnaires and interviews or public
records.
Naturalistic Observation• Observe people in their natural habitats.
• Unobtrusive measures are used to avoid interfering with the observed behaviors.
Chapter one
Correlation• Investigates whether one observed behavior or
trait is related to (correlated) with another.
• Mathematically expressed as a correlation coefficient; a number the varies between +1.00 and -1.00.
• Positive correlation: the higher scores on one variable tend to correspond with higher scores on the second variable. Low with low. (e.g. Intelligence test scores and academic performance).
• Negative correlation: Higher scores on one variable tend to correspond with lower scores on the second. (e.g. Amount of stress experienced and functioning of the immune system).How things are Related
Correlational relationships may suggest but do not demonstrate cause and effect.
Consider the examples of academic grades (X) and juvenile delinquency (Y) in part B. Do poor grades lead to delinquency, Does delinquency lead to poor grades, or do other variables such as broken home or peer influences contribute to poor grades and delinquency.
Correlational Relationships, Cause, & Effect
Chapter one
ExperimentsThe preferred method for answering questions about cause and effect. Involves Independent and Dependent Variables.
Independent variable: • manipulated by the experimenters so that the effects of
various levels may be determined.
Dependent variable: • the measured outcome or result.
Experimental and Control Groups• Experimental groups obtain the treatment.• Control groups do not receive the treatment.
Chapter one
Experiments• Placebo or “sugar pill”
• Blind study: control for the expectations of effects by creating conditions where the subjects are unaware of the treatment
• Double blind study: neither the subjects nor the experimenters know who has obtained the treatment
Ethical Issues
Chapter one
Ethical Issues in Research & PracticeBasic standards
• Intended to promote individual dignity, human welfare and scientific integrity.
• Do not undertake research methods that are harmful.
Research with Humans• Ethics review committees review research according to ethical
guidelines.• Informed consent: individuals give consent before they can
participate in research.• Confidentiality is kept.
Chapter one
Controversy in PsychologyIs it ethical for psychologist to deceive research participants about the methods and objectives of their research?
APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct• May deceive only when the benefits of the research outweigh the
potential harm.• The individuals would have been willing to participate if they had
understood the benefits.• Subjects are debriefed
(the purposes and methods of the research are explained afterward.)
Chapter one
Research with Nonhuman Animals• Psychologists generalize to humans the results of research
conducted with animals.
• Animals may be harmed only when there is no alternative; when the researchers believe that the benefits justify the harm.
Chapter one
Questions&
Comments
