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What is Linguistics?
Anthropology studies human beings in the round
Linguistics studies language in all its forms.Description of languages
Theory of Language
Historical connections from Grammar, philology
Has many contemporary connectionsPhilosophy, history, archeology, literature, anthropology, sociology, psychology, neuropsychology, biology, physics, mathematics, computer programming
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Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913 )
Swiss linguist, working on Indo-European philology came to reinvent the system, the way language is theorized.
Course in General Linguistics posthumously compiled from notes and lecture notes of his students.
Modern structuralism - rules of relations among elements
Semiology (semiotics)
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Study Language (langue) not speech (parole)
“The subject matter of linguistics comprises all manifestations of human speech, whether that of savages or civilized nations, or of archaic, classical or decadent periods.”
1) Describe all observable languages
2) Trace their histories (families), reconstruction
3) Determine permanent, universal forces, deduce general laws
4) Delimit and define the discipline
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Langue, parole, langage
langue - languagethe formal system of grammar (code)
parole - speech/talking (writing)the realization of langue in actual talk
langage - language/speechthe overall phenomenon of which langue and parole are subparts
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Langue is the true object of study
Parole (speech, speaking, articulation) is messy, heterogeneous, variable, based in the individual
Langue (language, competence) “is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty.”
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langue is no less concrete than parole
“Whereas speech is heterogeneous, language, as defined is homogeneous. It is a system of signs in which the only essential thing is the union of meanings and sound-images, and in which both parts of the sign are psychological.
linguistic signs are not abstractions but regularities
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Saussurian Duality of Language
1) Oral - aural pairing
2) Union of sound-image and concept
3) individual and social
4) Synchronic and diachronic realitiesAn established system on the one hand
Always a product of the past
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Two people conversing
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Semiotic circuit
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Social crystallization of langue
“Among all the individuals that are linked together by speech, some sort of average will be set up: all will reproduce—not exactly of course, but approximately—the same signs united with the same concepts.”
The social, the essential
Not the individual, accidental, accessory
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Saussurian principles
Language is form, not substance
Units of language can only be defined by their relationships
Structuralism first enunciated by Prague School of Linguists following these principles
(Roman Jakobson, Nikolay Trubetskoy)
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Arbitrariness
• Arbitrariness of the sign is when analyzed across systems
• The linguistic sign is non-arbitrary (necessary) within the system.
• Can’t say just anything and be speaking English.• Natural logic of the system (Whorf)
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Two modes of analysis
Synchronic - description of the state of a language at a particular moment
Diachronic - change through time, comes from comparing sequences of synchronic analyses
Antecedents are not origins
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Competence and Performance
Language is more than rules.Not just vocabulary and grammar.
Saussure’s langue and parole
Language and speakingLanguage is a social system, shared by a speech community
Speaking always happens in a context
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Speech and communication
Speech is one-dimensional, sequence of signs
Communication includes gestures and other signals
Operates in parallel to speech
Reinforcing ideas
Contradicting (mixed signals)
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Linguistics as a model for general semiology
“Language is comparable to a symphony in that what the symphony actually is stands completely apart from how it is performed; the mistakes that musicians make in playing the symphony do not compromise this fact.”
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Emile Benveniste explanation of Structuralism
Saussure never uses the word ‘structure’:
“Language is a system that has its own arrangement.”
The system is an interdependent whole.
If one part is modified, the whole system is affected because it remains coherent.Structuralism first enunciated by Prague School of Linguists following these principles
(Roman Jakobson, Nikolay Trubetskoy)
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Structuralism
Trubetskoy: “One cannot determine the place of a word in a lexical system until one has studied the structure of the said system.”
A science of the whole - system of relations•system is formed of units that mutually affect one another• distinguished from other systems by the internal arrangements of these units• arrangement is structure
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French structuralism
Benveniste:
“The structuralist doctrine teaches the predominance of the system over the elements, and aims to define the structure of the system through the relationships among the elements, in the spoken chain as well as in formal paradigms, and shows the organic character of the changes to which language is subject.”
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•studies the life of signs within society
•shows what constitute signs, what laws govern them
•language is the prototypical semiological system
Science of signs - semiology
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Metaphor of the chess game
c
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Diachronic view: previous state
More chess
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Change in time
This is
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Structures of the system
c
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Changes in the structure
This is