What is Development? Systematic changes and continuities –In the individual –Between conception...
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Transcript of What is Development? Systematic changes and continuities –In the individual –Between conception...
What is Development?
• Systematic changes and continuities–In the individual
–Between conception and death• “Womb to Tomb”
• Three broad domains–Physical, Cognitive, Psychosocial
Other Developmental Definitions
• Growth: Physical changes that occur from birth to maturity
• Aging: Positive and negative changes in the mature organism
• Maturation: The biological unfolding of the individual genetic plan
• Learning: Relatively permanent changes due to environmental experiences
Age Grades, Age Norms, and the Social Clock
• Age Grade: Socially defined age groups
– Statuses, roles, privileges, responsibilities
– Adults can vote, children can’t
• Age Norms: Behavioral expectations by age
– Children attend school
• Social Clock: When things should be done
– Early adulthood – time for 1st marriages
• “Off time” experiences are more difficult
Life-Span Phases in Historical Context
• Only two phases: Childhood & Adulthood
• 1600: Children viewed as miniature adults
• Modern view: innocence, need protection
• Average life expectancy in 1900: 49 yrs.
• 1998
– Females} White:80 yrs, Black:75 yrs
– Males} White:75 yrs, Black 68 yrs
– Increasing population of age 65+
Framing the Nature/Nurture Issue
• Nature: heredity
– Maturational processes guided by genes
– Biologically based predispositions
– Biological unfolding of genes
• Nurture: environment
– Learning: experiences cause changes is thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
• Interactionist view: nature & nurture interact
Figure 1.1
Methods of Studying Life-Span Development
• Historical
– Baby Biographies: Charles Darwin
– Questionnaires: G. Stanley Hall
• Key Assumptions of Modern Life-Span Perspectives
– Lifelong, multidirectional process
– Gain and loss and lifelong plasticity
– Historical/cultural contexts, multiple influences
– Multi-disciplinary studies
HOW IS RESEARCH CONDUCTED
• The Scientific Method
Theory- a set of concepts and propositions intended to describe and explain some aspect of behavior
Hypothesis- specific prediction regarding a particular set of observations
Sample Selection
Random Sample- a sample formed by identifying all members of the larger population and then, by random means, selecting a portion of that population to study.
Conducting Developmental Research
• Self-reports: interview, questionnaires, tests
• Behavioral Observations
– Naturalistic
• Advantage: natural setting
• Disadvantage: conditions not controlled
– Structured (Lab)
• Disadvantage: cannot generalize to natural settings
• Advantage: conditions controlled
Figure 1.2
The Correlational Method
• Determine if 2 or more variables are related
• Correlation: A measure of the relationship
– Can range from +1.0 to –1.0
– Positive: variables move in same direction
– Negative: variables move in opposite dir.
• No relationship if correlation is 0
• Cannot establish a causal relationship
Figure 1.3
The Experimental Method
• Three Critical Features
– 1. Manipulation of independent variable
– 2. Random assignment of individuals to treatment conditions
– 3. Experimental control
• Quasi-Experiment: No random assignment
THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
• Some aspect of the environment is manipulated or altered to see how this affects the behavior of the sample of individuals being investigated.
• Independent Variable: variable in the experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter
• Dependent Variable: variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment
• Random Assignment: researchers assign participants to the experimental and control groups by chance
• Advantage Establishes cause
• Disadvantages Generalize to the real world Ethical considerations
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Cross-sectional design- performances of people of different age groups, or cohorts are compared. Looks at age differences
• Longitudinal design- the performance of one cohort of individuals is assessed repeatedly over time. Looks at age changes
• Sequential design- combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approach in one study
Figure 1.4
Age, Cohort, and Time of Measurement Effects
• Age effects: Changes which occur due to age
• Cohort Effects: Born in one historical context
– Changes due to differences in society
– Disadvantage of cross-sectional design
• Time of measurement effects: Historical
– Take place at time of data collection
– Disadvantage of longitudinal design
Sequential Designs
• A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
• Advantages of both designs
• Gives information about
– Which age-related trends are age effects?
– Which age-related trends are truly cohort effects?
– Which age-related trends are a result of historical events?
Figure 1.6
Protecting the Rights of Participants
• Risk to benefit balance of the research
• Researcher responsibilities
– Informed consent
– Debriefing
– Protection from harm
– Confidentiality
Sources of Change
* Normative Age Graded Influences highly similar across individuals/cultures often biological relevant to early development
* Normative History Grade Influences forces unique to a period in history
* Non-normative Influences unique to the individual
The Ecology of Human Development
• Bronfenbrenner: Bioecological Model
– How nature and nurture interact to produce development
• The biological, psychological, person
• Four environmental systems
–Microsystem: family, school, work
–Mesosystem: interactions among microsystems
–Exosystem: society
–Macrosystem: culture