What is “Close Reading”?

A closer reading of texts improves literacy learning by

stretching the capacity for critical thinking and reflection.

In the fall of 2009, more than forty states agreed to enact the Common Core State Standards

Initiative. The K-12 standards would define essential knowledge and skills necessary for college

and career readiness. After considerable input from teachers, postsecondary educators, and

interest groups, the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and

the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) released the final draft to the public. In

concert with this release came a score of proposed changes and ‘instructional shifts’. An

emphasis on close reading of complex texts is but one example of an instructional shift implied

by the standards. It should be noted, however, that the words ‘close reading’ are altogether

absent from the current draft of the literacy standards.

So, what IS close reading?

It depends on whom you ask (and when). In its simplest form, a close reading is nothing more

than a careful observation of text. It usually begins with a text selection worthy of repeated

readings and close reflection on language, structure, and meaning. In a stricter sense, close

reading is a formal skill refined by practice in developing precise interpretations of literature

through linguistic, semantic, structural, and cultural lenses. This approach typically begins by

looking at the smaller details before moving to larger issues and more often follows a rigid

format, sequence or set of preplanned steps.

Various approaches to close reading have come and gone over the years. Each approach can be

defined by the fundamental tenets or beliefs of its advocates. In each case, the lens through

which quality literature is analyzed appears to be influenced by intellectualism and the leading

philosophies of the day.

New Critical Formalism

In the early 20th century, a group of American critics, most of whom taught at Southern

Universities following World War I, developed an approach to literature characterized by close

attention to the text itself. This approach acted in direct opposition to both impressionistic and

historical approaches that prevailed during that time. Impressionistic approaches were

characterized by a more subjective description and interpretation of literature that formalists

feared was too 'shallow' and arbitrary. Historicists’ approaches, on the other hand, were

characterized by an emphasis on the historical context or time period in which the text was

written. Formalists argued that such approaches served to distract readers and these

distractions prevented readers from arriving at an accurate interpretation of texts. Formalists’

attempts to systematize the study of literature were centered on a stringent study of the text

itself.

Reader Response to Literature

In the late 1930s, a teacher by the name of Louise Rosenblatt published Literature as

Exploration (1938). Her theories served to reject New Critical Formalism theories that were

quite popular at the time. Rosenblatt opposed the idea that texts were sufficient in-and-of-

themselves. She also rejected the notion that “teachers were to teach the skills of close,

concise, attentive analysis while discouraging expression of and attention to differences in

students' own individual responses” (Inquiry, 1997). Rosenblatt believed close reading of

literature involved a ‘transaction’ of sorts between the reader and the text (Rosenblatt, 1978).

She also believed that readers developed special and often unique meaning through complex

interaction with words and images. Simply put: meaning results from the interaction between

the reader and the text. Any response or approach to literature that does not consider the

reader strays from the true path to meaning.

New Historicism

By the 1990s, New Historicism became quite popular as a form of literary criticism and

approach to close reading. Unlike traditional historical approaches of the early 20th century that

focused primarily on the context or period in which a work was written, New Historicism

evaluated a work by placing an additional emphasis on the life of the author. Where did the

author live? Did the environment or social setting influence his or her work? To what degree

does the writer's emotional or psychological state influence his or her work?

Today

Close reading today comes in many forms. In some settings, it is practiced as a skill, strategy or

rigorous approach to critical analysis that encourages careful observation of texts worthy of

reading and re-reading. Practitioners may choose to conduct a close reading using canonical

literature and contemporary literature, informational texts, art, or even media and such a

reading is usually accompanied by rich discussion and analytical writing. Here are a few great

examples of close reading approaches that can be modified to suit your specific interests and

needs:

Language Arts

Select a short excerpt, passage, or poem that you deem worthy of closer consideration. Read

the text multiple times (at least once aloud if this is possible). Begin with a meticulous look at

the smaller details such as word meanings and diction. Use references, if you must, to ensure

the most accurate descriptions and connotations of word meanings. This is essential before

moving to larger ideas. Consider the syntax, structure, and rhythm of the text as well as

imagery, voice, and rhetorical devices. Now, the reader can more accurately discuss larger

themes presented throughout the work including historical importance and context. It is at this

point that the reader constructs a thesis based upon detailed observations made during the

close reading of the text. This 'argument' is constructed using the finer details gathered during

the close reading. The written analysis serves as an opportunity for the reader to make a strong

case grounded in solid evidence. Author and philosopher Sophia McClennan provides a step-

by-step guide which makes clear the connection between close reading, writing, and

discussion. Additionally, the Council of the Great City Schools offers an excellent guide to

support the development of text-dependent questions for close analytic reading.

Social Studies/History

Unlike the language arts example, a close reading using social studies or history-related content

begins with the big ideas and works its way down to the smaller details and observations. Both

approaches are similar in that each approach requires careful observation of text or media

worthy of close, thoughtful, careful consideration. However, a close reading in this content-area

is less subjective and the emphasis is more on how a speaker or writer makes a case, proves

ideas, or how the work reflects a significant moment in history. The best way to begin a close

reading in this area is to present students with a text that clearly puts forth a powerful idea

such as Patrick Henry's Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death speech. Pull an excerpt of the

transcript of the speech and ask students to consider how Henry conveys his ideas. What does

he mean by 'truth'? For whom? What does Henry mean by 'illusions of hope'? Can you provide

any text-based examples? Readers can and should be allowed to consider this excerpt in the

context of other important events during the period as well as other source documents. This

only adds to the accuracy of observations made by the reader. In this case, the goal is not that

learners take an important part of history and create their own versions of what happened.

Instead, readers are encouraged to use the text as validation for arguments and themes

contained within them. A well-constructed thesis or argument is one that can be supported

only after close examination of the source text in question.

Science

The underlying aim of the practice of close reading in science is the development of skeptical,

reasonable, and thoughtful readers. One approach is the close reading of a scientific report.

Readers are guided through questions that begin with a general overview of the report. What is

the objective of the study? What were the claims? How do the results support the claims or

conclusions made? Then, readers begin analyzing the text and making closer observations. Are

the author’s credentials appropriate? How do you know? Is there any proof? Are there any

biases? If so, to what degree might these biases influence results? Finally, readers are

encouraged to consider the implications of the study. What might this mean for the population

studied? Does it mean anything for us? Another approach to close readings in science is gaining

popularity due to the Common Core State Standards Initiative. The Partnership for the

Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) has developed research simulation

tasks requiring students to synthesize information from a variety of multimedia sources. The

simulation begins with a prompt that defines a problem or a situation. Additionally, students

are required to read 2-3 informational text selections which might include a table, chart, or

graph. The task? Through deduction and close observation, write an argument or analysis which

solves a real-world problem. This task currently appears within the literacy/language arts test

item samples. However, it is gaining in popularity as an approach to conducting close readings

in science.

Specific approaches to close reading continue to evolve and—still—are informed by the leading

philosophies of our time. Despite what may appear to be competing public interests there is at

least one common thread that seems to hold true:

A close reading requires deep thought and attention to the finer details of a work; it should

strengthen our mental capacities, spark interest in further reading, and ultimately teach us

something about others and ourselves.

Sources

Abrams, M.H. "New Criticism." A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7th ed. Fort Worth:

Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1999. 180-182.

Church, G.W. from Inquiry, Volume 1, Number 1, Spring 1997, 71-77

Lynn, Steven. Texts and Contexts: Writing About Literature with Critical Theory. 2nd

ed. NY: Longman, 1998.

Rosenblatt, L. (1938).Literature as Exploration. New York: Appleton-Century;

(1968). New York: Noble and Noble; (1976). New York: Noble and Noble; (1983).

New York: Modern Language Association; (1995). New York: Modern Language

Association.

Rosenblatt, L. (1978).The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of

the literary work. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Press; (1994). Carbondale, IL:

Southern Illinois Press.

Wirt, William. Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry . (Philadelphia)

1836, as reproduced in The World's Great Speeches, Lewis Copeland and Lawrence

W. Lamm, eds., (New York) 1973.

Copyright Dessalines Floyd