What is Biomechanics? · VIII BASIC BIOMECHANICS Freely Movable Joints I 19 Articular Cartilage 121...
Transcript of What is Biomechanics? · VIII BASIC BIOMECHANICS Freely Movable Joints I 19 Articular Cartilage 121...
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Pr~face xv
What is Biomechanics?2
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i)ipmechanics: Definitipn and PerspectivePr.oblemsStudied by Bi.omechanists 4Why Study Bi.omechanics? 10
Pr.oblem-S.olvingApproach 10Quantitative versus Qualitative Pr.oblemsS.olvingQualitative Pr.oblems 12F.ormalversus Inf.ormalPr.oblems 13
S.olvingF.ormalQuantitative Pr.oblems 13Units .ofMeasurement 14
Summary 17
~inematic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion
Forms .of M.oti.on 28Linear M.oti.on 28
Angular M.oti.on 29General M.oti.on 29
MechanicalSystems 29Standard Reference Termin.ol.ogy 30
Anat.omicalReference P.ositi.on 30Directi.onalTerms 31Anat.omicalReference Planes 32Anat.omicalReference Axes 32
JOint M.ovement Termin.ol.ogy 35Sagittal Plane M.ovements 35Fr.ontalPlane M.ovements 36Transverse Plane M.ovements 38Other M.ovements 40
Spatial Reference Systems 40Qualitative Analysis .of Human M.ovement 41
Prerequisite Kn.owledgef.ora Qualitative Analysis 41Planninga Qualitative Analysis 43C.onductinga Qualitative Analysis 45
T.o.olsf.or Measuring Kinematic Quantities 48Cinemat.ographyand Vide.ography 48Other M.ovementM.onit.oringSystems 49Other Assessment T.o.ols 49
Summary 51
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3 61~inetic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion
Basic C.oncepts Related t.o Kinetics 62Inertia 62Mass 63F.orce 63
CONTENTS vii
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Center of Gravity 64Weight 64Pressure 66Volume 66
Density 68Torque 68Impulse 69
Mechanical Loads on the Human Body 70Compression, Tension, and Shear 70MechanicalStress 71
Torsion, Bending,and Combined Loads 72The Effectsof Loading 73Repetitive versus Acute Loads 74
Tools for Measuring Kinetic Quantities 75Electromyography 75Dynamography 75
Vector Algebra 76Vector Composition 76Vector Resolution 78
Graphic Solution of Vector Problems 78Trigonometric Solution of Vector Problems 79
Summary 80
The Biomechanics of Human Bone Growthand Development 87
Composition and Structure of Bone Tissue 88Material Constituents 88
Structural Organization 88Types of Bones 90
Bone Growth and Development 92LongitudinalGrowth 93Circumferential Growth 93
Adult Bone Development 93Bone Response to Stress 94
Bone Modeling and Remodeling 94Bone Hypertrophy 95Bone Atrophy 96
Osteoporosis 98Postmenopausal and Age-Associated Osteoporosis 98Female Athlete Triad 99
Preventing and Treating Osteoporosis 100Common Bone Injuries 102
Fractures 102
EpiphysealInjuries 104Summary 104
5 The Biomechanics of Human SkeletalArticulations I I7
joint Architecture 118ImmovableJoints I18SlightlyMovableJoints 118
VIII BASIC BIOMECHANICS
Freely Movable Joints I 19Articular Cartilage 121Articular Fibrocartilage 121Articular Connective Tissue 122
joint Stability 123Shapeof the Articulating Bone Surfaces 123Arrangement of Ligaments and Muscles 124Other Connective Tissues 124
joint Flexibility 125Measuring Joint Range of Motion 125Factors Influencing Joint Flexibility 126Flexibility and Injury 128
Techniques for Increasing joint Flexibility 129Neuromuscular Response to Stretch 129Active and PassiveStretching 13IBallistic and Static Stretching 132
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation 132Common joint Injuries and Pathologies 134
Sprains 134Dislocations 134Bursitis 134Arthritis 134Rheumatoid Arthritis 134Osteoarthritis 135
Summary 135
6 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Muscle
Behavioral Properties of the Musculotendinous UnitExtensibility and Elasticity 146
Irritability and the Ability to Develop Tension 147
Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle 147Muscle Fibers 148Motor Units 151
Fiber Types 152Fiber Architecture 154
Skeletal Muscle Function 157Recruitment of Motor Units 158
Change in Muscle Length with Tension DevelopmentRoles Assumed by Muscles 159Two-Joint and Multijoint Muscles 160
Factors Affecting Muscular Force Generation 162
Force-Velocity Relationship 162Length-Tension Relationship 163
Stretch-Shortening Cycle 163Electromechanical Delay 165
Muscular Strength, Power, and Endurance 165Muscular Strength 165Muscular Power 168Muscular Endurance 169
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Muscle Fatigue 169Effectof MuscleTemperature
Common Muscle Injuries 171Strains 171Contusions 171
Cramps 171Delayed-Onset Muscle SorenessCompartment Syndrome 172
Summary 172
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7 The Biomechanics of the Human UpperExtremity 183Structure of the Shoulder 184
Sternoclavicular joint 184Acromioclavicularjoint 185Coracoclavicular joint 185Glenohumeral joint 185Scapulothoracic joint 187Bursae 188
Movements of the Shoulder Complex 188Muscles of the Scapula 189Muscles of the Glenohumeral joint 190Flexion at the Glenohumeral joint 192Extension at the Glenohumeral joint 192Abduction at the Glenohumeral joint 192Adduction at the Glenohumeral joint 192Medial and lateral Rotation of the Humerus 193
Horizontal Adduction and Abduction at the Glenohumeral jointLoads on the Shoulder 195
Common Injuries of the Shoulder 198Dislocations 198
Rotator Cuff Damage 198Rotational Injuries 200Subscapular Neuropathy 200
Structure of the Elbow 200
Humeroulnar joint 200Humeroradial joint 200Proximal Radioulnar joint 20 I
Movements at the Elbow 202
Muscles Crossing the Elbow 202Flexion and Extension 202
Pronation and Supination 203Loads on the Elbow 205
Common Injuries of the Elbow 207Sprains and Dislocations 207Overuse Injuries 207
Structure of the Wrist 208Movements of the Wrist 209
Flexion 209
CONTENTS IX
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x BASICBIOMECHANICS
Extension and Hyperextension 210Radial and Ulnar Deviation 210
Structure of the Joints of the Hand 211Carpometacarpal and Intermetacarpal Joints 212MetacarpophalangealJoints 212Interphalangeal Joints 213
Movements of the Hand 21 3
Common Injuries of the Wrist and Hand 215Summary 216
8 The Biomechanics of the Human LowerExtremity 229
Structure of the Hip 230Movements at the Hip 231
Muscles of the Hip 231Flexion 233Extension 234Abduction 234Adduction 235Medial and lateral Rotation of the Femur 235Horizontal Abduction and Adduction 236
Loads on the Hip 236Common Injuries of the Hip 238
Fractures 238Contusions 238Strains 238
Structure of the Knee 239
Tibiofemoral Joint 239Menisci 239
Ligaments 240Patellofemoral Joint 241Joint Capsule and Bursae 241
Movements at the Knee 242
Muscles Crossing the Knee 242Flexion and Extension 243Rotation and PassiveAbduction and Adduction 243
Patellofemoral Joint Motion 244Loads on the Knee 244
Forces at the Tibiofemoral Joint 244Forces at the Patellofemoral Joint 245
Common Injuries of the Knee and Lower Leg 247Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries 247Posterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries 248Medial Collateral Ligament Injuries 248ProphylacticKnee Bracing 249Meniscus Injuries 249IliotibialBandFrictionSyndrome 249Breaststroker's Knee 250
Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome 250Shin Splints 251
Structure of the Ankle 251Movements at the Ankle 252Structure of the Foot 254
Subtalar Joint 255Tarsometatarsal and Intermetatarsal Joints 255Metatarsophalangeal and Interphalangeal Joints 255Plantar Arches 255
Movements of the Foot 256Muscles of the Foot 256
Toe Flexion and Extension 256Inversion and Eversion 256
Pronation and Supination 257Loads on the Foot 258
Common Injuries of the Ankle and Foot 259Ankle Injuries 259Overuse Injuries 259
Alignment Anomalies of the Foot 260Injuries Related to High and low Arch Structures 261
Summary 262
9 The Biomechanics of the Human Spine
Structure of the Spine 276Vertebral Column 276
Vertebrae 277Intervertebral Discs 278
Ligaments 282Spinal Curves 283
Movements of the Spine 285Flexion, Extension, and Hyperextension 286lateral Flexion and Rotation 286
Muscles of the Spine 287Anterior Aspect 287Posterior Aspect 290lateral Aspect 293
Loads on the Spine 294
Common Injuries of the Back and Neck 300low Back Pain 300
Soft Tissue Injuries 302Acute Fractures 302Stress Fractures 303Disc Herniations 304
Whiplash Injuries 304
Summary 304
10 Linear Kinematics of Human Movement
Linear Kinematic Quantities 318Distanceand Displacement 319SpeedandVelocity 320
CONTENTS XI
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XII BASIC BIOMECHANICS
Acceleration 325
Average and Instantaneous Quantities 329Kinematics of Projectile Motion 329
Horizontal and Vertical Components 330Influence of Gravity 330Influence of Air Resistance 331
Factors Influencing Projectile Trajectory 332Projection Angle 333Projection Speed 334Relative Projection Height 336Optimum Projection Conditions 337
Analyzing Projectile Motion 338Equations of Constant Acceleration 340
Summary 345
II Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 355
Observing the Angular Kinematics of Human MovementMeasuring Angles 356
Relativeversus Absolute Angles 357Tools for Measuring BodyAngles 358Instant Center of Rotation 360
Angular Kinematic Relationships 360Angular Distance and Displacement 361Angular Speed and Velocity 363Angular Acceleration 366Angular Motion Vectors 369Average versus Instantaneous Angular Quantities 370
Relationships Between Linear and Angular Motion 370Linear and Angular Displacement 370Linear and AngularVelocity 371Linear and AngularAcceleration 373
Summary 376
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12 Linear Kinetics of Human Movement
Newton's Laws 384Law of Inertia 384Law of Acceleration 384Law of Reaction 385Law of Gravitation 388
Mechanical Behavior of Bodies in Contact 389Friction 389Momentum 395
Impulse 397Impact 399
Work, Power, and Energy Relationships 403Work 403Power 404
Energy 404
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Conservation of Mechanical Energy 406
Principle of Work and Energy 407
Summary 410
13 Equilibrium and Human Movement
Equilibrium 420Torque 420Resultant joint Torques 423Levers 427
Anatomical Levers 430
Equations of Static Equilibrium 433Equations of Dynamic Equilibrium 434
Center of Gravity 436Locating the Center of Gravity 437Locating the Human Body Center of Gravity 439
Stability and Balance 441Summary 445
14 Angular Kinetics of Human Movement
Resistance to Angular Acceleration 454Moment of Inertia 454
Determining Moment of Inertia 456Human Body Moment of Inertia 457
Angular Momentum 458Conservation of Angular Momentum 461Transfer of Angular Momentum 462Change in Angular Momentum 465
Angular Analogues of Newton's Laws of MotionNewton's First Law 468Newton's Second Law 469Newton's Third Law 469
Centripetal Force 470Summary 471
15 Human Movement in a Fluid Medium
The Nature of Fluids 480Relative Motion 480
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow 482
Fluid Properties 482
Buoyancy 483Characteristics of the Buoyant Force 483Flotation 484
Flotation of the Human Body 484
Drag 486Skin Friction 488
Form Drag 488Wave Drag 492
CONTENTS XIII
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xiv BASICBIOMECHANICS
Lift Force 493Foil Shape 494Magnus Effect 498
Propulsion in a Fluid Medium 500Propulsive Drag Theory 50 IPropulsive LiftTheory 50 IVortex Generation 50 I
Stroke Technique 502Summary 502
AppendicesA Basic Mathematics and Related Skills 5 I I
B Trigonometric Functions 516
C Common Units of Measurement 519
D Anthropometric Parameters for the Human Body 520
Glossary 523
Index 531