What is an What is an Argument?Argument?

What is What is Persuasion?Persuasion?

What is argument NOT?What is argument NOT? An argument is not simply a An argument is not simply a

confrontational activity confrontational activity designed to denigrate the designed to denigrate the opposition’s position. opposition’s position.

It is usually not It is usually not --An absolute truth.--An absolute truth.--A revelation or brand new --A revelation or brand new insight.insight.--The last word.--The last word.--Bad-tempered complaining.--Bad-tempered complaining.--An exercise in pure logic.--An exercise in pure logic.--A chance to prove that you’re --A chance to prove that you’re smarter than everyone else.smarter than everyone else.

What is Persuasion?What is Persuasion? One of the major One of the major

types of types of composition/speakicomposition/speaking whose purpose ng whose purpose is to convince is to convince others of the others of the wisdom of a certain wisdom of a certain idea, belief, line of idea, belief, line of action. Persuasion action. Persuasion is calculated to is calculated to arouse people to arouse people to some actionsome action..

What is an argument?What is an argument? One of the four One of the four

chief forms of chief forms of discourse. Its discourse. Its purpose is to purpose is to convince by convince by establishing the establishing the truth or falsity truth or falsity of a proposition.of a proposition.

What is an argument?What is an argument? An argument An argument

involves the involves the process of process of establishing a establishing a claim and then claim and then proving it with proving it with the use of logical the use of logical reasoning, reasoning, examples, and examples, and research.research.

What is a persuasive What is a persuasive essay?essay?

You are asked to prove something.You are asked to prove something. Give reasons why.Give reasons why. Establish a line of reasoning whereby you Establish a line of reasoning whereby you

establish your claims and persuade of their establish your claims and persuade of their validity.validity.

Present arguments against your reasons. Present arguments against your reasons. Show them to be false.Show them to be false.

Take a stand.Take a stand. Ask or call for an action.Ask or call for an action.

PersuadePersuade,, convince, tell why, give reasons for convince, tell why, give reasons for or against, support, attack, defend, qualify….or against, support, attack, defend, qualify…. It would be better for students if we wore It would be better for students if we wore uniforms.uniforms.

Argumentation/Argumentation/PersuasionPersuasion

SAME: Purpose—SAME: Purpose— TO CONVINCETO CONVINCE

DIFFERENT: DIFFERENT: Modus operandiModus operandi — —

Ways/styles of Ways/styles of CONVINCING. CONVINCING.

Broad Types of Broad Types of ArgumentsArguments

Classical /Classical /Formal:Formal:An abstract An abstract

discipline; discipline; deals in deals in absolutes.absolutes.

AristotelianAristotelian CiceroCicero

Contemporary / Contemporary / Informal: Informal:

Does not attempt Does not attempt to prove to prove absolutely; gives absolutely; gives good reasons good reasons and persuasive and persuasive arguments.arguments.

ToulminToulmin RogerianRogerian

Aristotle/CiceroAristotle/CiceroClassicalClassical

Rhetorical Triangle (must BALANCE)Rhetorical Triangle (must BALANCE) Writer (ethos)Writer (ethos) Audience (pathos)Audience (pathos) Message (logos)Message (logos)

Purpose/Aim/GoalPurpose/Aim/Goal Rhetorical context (background, situation, Rhetorical context (background, situation,

occasion)occasion)

How does your response change as the How does your response change as the rhetorical context changes? rhetorical context changes?

Aristotelian/CiceroAristotelian/CiceroClassicalClassical

Outline of Classical ArgumentOutline of Classical Argument IntroductionIntroduction Background of TopicBackground of Topic Proposition/ThesisProposition/Thesis Partitions/Outline of what will followPartitions/Outline of what will follow Body/Main ArgumentBody/Main Argument Counter ArgumentsCounter Arguments and

Responses/Refutation Conclusion/Summary of main argumentConclusion/Summary of main argumentSeeks to defeat opponent, military Seeks to defeat opponent, military

terminologyterminology

Toulmin / Informal LogicToulmin / Informal Logic Claim: Statement of position, a stand (thesis Claim: Statement of position, a stand (thesis

statement)statement) Reasons: Supports claims Reasons: Supports claims Warrant: Unstated assumption. The audience Warrant: Unstated assumption. The audience

must accept the warrant to make an argument must accept the warrant to make an argument persuasive. Appeals to values and beliefs. persuasive. Appeals to values and beliefs.

Grounds: Claims, reasons, warrants—Grounds: Claims, reasons, warrants—EVIDENCEEVIDENCE

Backing: Supports the warrant. May not be Backing: Supports the warrant. May not be accepted IF the warrant is unclear. accepted IF the warrant is unclear.

Conditions of rebuttal: Bring up and address the Conditions of rebuttal: Bring up and address the counter arguments. counter arguments.

Qualifier: Limits a claim or its scope. (few Qualifier: Limits a claim or its scope. (few absolutes in life!)absolutes in life!)

Rogerian Argumentation: A Rogerian Argumentation: A modern alternative to modern alternative to traditional argumenttraditional argument

Goals:Goals:1.1. Seeking common groundSeeking common ground2.2. Give credit to opponent(s)’ Give credit to opponent(s)’

argument(s)argument(s)3.3. Building trustBuilding trust4.4. Reducing threatReducing threat5.5. Avoiding confrontationAvoiding confrontationBuilds bridges rather than burning them.Builds bridges rather than burning them.

Rogerian Argumentation: A Rogerian Argumentation: A modern alternative to modern alternative to traditional argumenttraditional argument

When people perceive they are being When people perceive they are being attacked, they stop listening, become attacked, they stop listening, become defensive and perhaps even hostile.defensive and perhaps even hostile.

If people perceive their arguments are If people perceive their arguments are being heard, taken seriously, and being heard, taken seriously, and understood, they will be more open to understood, they will be more open to listening to an opponent’s position.listening to an opponent’s position.

How do I start? How do I start? BASICS of Building an BASICS of Building an

ArgumentArgument Rhetorical AppealsRhetorical Appeals Rhetorical SituationsRhetorical Situations Rhetorical ModesRhetorical Modes

FallaciesFallacies ReasoningReasoning

DeductiveDeductive InductiveInductive

OutliningOutlining Supporting Supporting WritingWriting

THE ARGUMENT ESSAYTHE ARGUMENT ESSAYPROCESSPROCESS

““WORK” the prompt / assignmentWORK” the prompt / assignment Deconstruct --analyzeDeconstruct --analyze Mark key words/elementsMark key words/elements Choose your position (defend, challenge, Choose your position (defend, challenge,

qualify)qualify) BrainstormBrainstorm Plan Support (facts, statistics, Plan Support (facts, statistics,

details/description, quotations, definitions, details/description, quotations, definitions, examples, recognition of opposition, examples, recognition of opposition, anecdotes, compare/contrast, appeal to anecdotes, compare/contrast, appeal to authority, emotional appeals (diction, tone)authority, emotional appeals (diction, tone)

THE ARGUMENT ESSAYTHE ARGUMENT ESSAYPROCESSPROCESS

Outline to be sure you have all the needed Outline to be sure you have all the needed elementselements

Develop the Introduction: Develop the Introduction: Refer specifically to the prompt/topicRefer specifically to the prompt/topic State your position in a clearly-worded thesis State your position in a clearly-worded thesis

Develop the Body of your Essay:Develop the Body of your Essay: SupportSupport Transitions that connect to the thesisTransitions that connect to the thesis Develop the conclusionDevelop the conclusion

Return to your introduction and conclude the Return to your introduction and conclude the thoughtthought

Proofread and edit!Proofread and edit!

WAYS TO APPROACH:WAYS TO APPROACH:Rhetorical Appeals/TriangleRhetorical Appeals/Triangle

LogosLogos PathosPathos EthosEthos

ReaderWriterText

WAYS TO APPROACH: WAYS TO APPROACH: Rhetorical SituationsRhetorical Situations

Purpose/OccasionPurpose/Occasion AudienceAudience Genre/Medium/DesignGenre/Medium/Design Stance/Attitude/ToneStance/Attitude/Tone

WAYS TO APPROACH: WAYS TO APPROACH: Rhetorical Devices—Rhetorical Devices—

See vocabulary for a more See vocabulary for a more complete listcomplete listDictionDiction

ConnotationConnotationDenotationDenotation

SyntaxSyntaxAnalogyAnalogyAntithesisAntithesis

WAYS TO APPROACH: WAYS TO APPROACH: Classical Argument Argument

Classical arguments derive from Greek and Roman philosophers and include three types of appeals: emotional appeal, or pathos—appeal to the emotions of the audience; logical appeal, or logos—appeal to reason; and ethical appeal, or ethos—the character or expertise of the speaker.

WAYS TO APPROACH: WAYS TO APPROACH: Contemporary ArgumentContemporary Argument

Contemporary arguments may employ strategies and appeals beyond the three that characterize classical argument.

These may include, but are not limited to, argument by definition, induction, inference, and analogy.

WAYS TO APPROACH: WAYS TO APPROACH: Argument BuildingArgument Building

TERMINOLOGY to KNOW: TERMINOLOGY to KNOW: IN GroupsIN Groups

AnalogyAnalogy AntithesisAntithesis Appeal to AuthorityAppeal to Authority Assertion/ClaimAssertion/Claim ChallengeChallenge

RefuteRefute DisputeDispute

FallacyFallacy

GeneralizationGeneralization PositionPosition QualifyQualify RebuttalRebuttal RhetoricRhetoric SupportSupport

Two main types of Two main types of argumentsarguments

Deductive: Deductive: A deductive argument is an argument A deductive argument is an argument

such that the premises provide (or appear such that the premises provide (or appear to provide) complete support for the to provide) complete support for the conclusion.conclusion.

A good deductive argument is known as a A good deductive argument is known as a valid argument and is such that if all its valid argument and is such that if all its premises are true, then its conclusion premises are true, then its conclusion must be true. If all the argument is valid must be true. If all the argument is valid and actually has all true premises, then it and actually has all true premises, then it is known as a sound argument. is known as a sound argument.

WAYS TO APPROACH: WAYS TO APPROACH: Two main types of Two main types of

argumentsarguments Inductive:Inductive: An inductive argument is an argument An inductive argument is an argument

such that the premises provide (or such that the premises provide (or appear to provide) some degree of appear to provide) some degree of support (but less than complete support) support (but less than complete support) for the conclusion. for the conclusion.

A good inductive argument is known as a A good inductive argument is known as a strong (or "cogent") inductive argument. strong (or "cogent") inductive argument. It is such that if the premises are true, It is such that if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely to be true. the conclusion is likely to be true.

Deductive Deductive Reasoning/LogicReasoning/Logic

Deductive ReasoningDeductive ReasoningSYLLOGISMSYLLOGISM

Major Premise: All dogs are brown.Major Premise: All dogs are brown.

Minor Premise: My poodle Toby is a Minor Premise: My poodle Toby is a dog.dog.

Conclusion: Therefore, Toby is brown.Conclusion: Therefore, Toby is brown.

Deductive ReasoningDeductive ReasoningSYLLOGISMSYLLOGISM

Major Premise: Tyrannical rulers deserve no Major Premise: Tyrannical rulers deserve no loyalty.loyalty.

Minor Premise: Saddam Hussein was a Minor Premise: Saddam Hussein was a tyrannical ruler.tyrannical ruler.

Conclusion: Therefore, Hussein deserved no Conclusion: Therefore, Hussein deserved no loyalty.loyalty.

Inductive Inductive Reasoning/LogicReasoning/Logic

Inductive Inductive Reasoning/LogicReasoning/Logic

Reasoning involves making a Reasoning involves making a generalization based on numerous generalization based on numerous facts.facts.

Generalization: a general Generalization: a general statement, idea, or principle. statement, idea, or principle.

THE AP ARGUMENT THE AP ARGUMENT ESSAYESSAY

AP ARGUMENTAP ARGUMENTPrompt: Prompt: Defend Defend Challenge/Refute/DisputeChallenge/Refute/DisputeQualifyQualify

SOURCES: Current events, high school SOURCES: Current events, high school issues, journals, letters, essays, speeches, issues, journals, letters, essays, speeches, autobiographies, advertisements, quotes from autobiographies, advertisements, quotes from literature (prose, poetry, plays), graphs, literature (prose, poetry, plays), graphs, charts, advertisements....charts, advertisements....

THE AP ARGUMENT THE AP ARGUMENT ESSAYESSAY

Three “Types” of Argument QuestionsThree “Types” of Argument QuestionsTypically, we speak of three “types” of argument questions: those of fact, of value, and of Typically, we speak of three “types” of argument questions: those of fact, of value, and of

policy.policy.

Arguments of fact Arguments of fact state that something is or is not the case. Causal arguments say that state that something is or is not the case. Causal arguments say that one event or condition leads to another or is likely to. For example, we might argue that one event or condition leads to another or is likely to. For example, we might argue that AP students do better in college, that computers enhance learning in the classroom, AP students do better in college, that computers enhance learning in the classroom, that the media is responsible for the shortening of the attention span, or that mercury that the media is responsible for the shortening of the attention span, or that mercury in the food chain or cigarette smoke in the air causes cancer.in the food chain or cigarette smoke in the air causes cancer.

Arguments of value Arguments of value state that something is or is not desirable. They involve evaluations state that something is or is not desirable. They involve evaluations of quality or worth according to accepted criteria. For example, one might assert that of quality or worth according to accepted criteria. For example, one might assert that this or that novel or film is of significant merit, that preemptive war is or is not a this or that novel or film is of significant merit, that preemptive war is or is not a justifiable practice, that Bill Clinton was or was not a good president, that health justifiable practice, that Bill Clinton was or was not a good president, that health concerns take precedence over profit.concerns take precedence over profit.

Arguments of policy Arguments of policy state that something should or should not be done. They make state that something should or should not be done. They make recommendations for practice or implementation. For example, that the minimum wage recommendations for practice or implementation. For example, that the minimum wage should be increased, that stem cell research should be funded, that should be increased, that stem cell research should be funded, that Huck Finn Huck Finn should or should or should not be part of the curriculum, that gay marriage should or should not be should not be part of the curriculum, that gay marriage should or should not be legalized, that more students should have access to AP, that the designated hitter legalized, that more students should have access to AP, that the designated hitter should be eliminated from baseball (one of the finest arguments I saw at the 2004 AP should be eliminated from baseball (one of the finest arguments I saw at the 2004 AP English Language Reading, by the way), or that smoking should be banned from public English Language Reading, by the way), or that smoking should be banned from public places. This kind of argument will naturally contain components—often included as places. This kind of argument will naturally contain components—often included as support—of those of fact and value, as my final example in each category illustrates.support—of those of fact and value, as my final example in each category illustrates.

THE AP ARGUMENT THE AP ARGUMENT ESSAYESSAY

1-3 minutes reading and working the 1-3 minutes reading and working the promptprompt

3 minutes deciding on a position3 minutes deciding on a position 10-12 minutes planning the support 10-12 minutes planning the support

of your positionof your position 20 minutes writing the essay20 minutes writing the essay 3 minutes proofreading3 minutes proofreading

ARGUMENT UNIT Look at Practice Topics Build Argument knowledge base Practice AP Argument Essays (3 Essays) Write Précis (3) Read from Files, Text, Internet, and 5

Steps Move toward Synthesis Writing (2

Essays)