What is a synapomorphy?. Terms systematics [taxonomy, phylogenetics] phylogeny/phylogenetic tree...
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Transcript of What is a synapomorphy?. Terms systematics [taxonomy, phylogenetics] phylogeny/phylogenetic tree...
What is a synapomorphy?What is a synapomorphy?
TermsTerms
systematics [taxonomy, phylogenetics]phylogeny/phylogenetic treecladogram tips, branches, nodeshomologyapomorphysynapomorhyautapomorphyplesiomorphysymplesiomorphyhomoplasyconvergencereversal of trait
systematics [taxonomy, phylogenetics]phylogeny/phylogenetic treecladogram tips, branches, nodeshomologyapomorphysynapomorhyautapomorphyplesiomorphysymplesiomorphyhomoplasyconvergencereversal of trait
monophyleticparaphyleticpolyphyletictree polarityoutgroupancestral groupsister groupcharacter congruencetopological congruencemaximum parsimony
monophyleticparaphyleticpolyphyletictree polarityoutgroupancestral groupsister groupcharacter congruencetopological congruencemaximum parsimony
PeoplePeopleWilli HennigWilli Hennig
Principles of Phylogenetics:Tree Thinking
Wings
NoYes
PHYLOGENETIC INFERENCE
Seeks to recover the historical genetic patterns of relationships among organisms
PHYLOGENETIC INFERENCE
Principles: Assumes similar features are homologous until shown otherwise
correspondence(morphological,molecular, behavioral)inherited through common ancestry
HOMOLOGY
F&H Fig 2.1
Structural homologies
PHYLOGENETIC INFERENCE
Assumes similar features are homologous until shown otherwise
Willi Hennig(1950s-1960s)
Principles:
Uses shared derived features, not shared ancestral ones (Hennig formalized this)
synapomorphy
shared derived character
HomoAustralopithecus
Large braincases
autapomorphy
uniquely characterderived
H. sapiensAustralopithecus
High forehead
symplesiomorphycharacterancestral shared
HomoAustralopithecus
bipedal
synapomorphy
shared derived character
autapomorphy
uniquely characterderived
symplesiomorphycharacterancestral shared
PHYLOGENETIC INFERENCE
Uses shared derived features, not shared ancestral ones (Hennig formalized this)
Assumes similar features are homologous until shown otherwise
Treats shared derived features (character states) as markers of historical relatedness
Principles:
PHYLOGENETIC INFERENCE
Uses shared derived features, not shared ancestral ones (Hennig formalized this)
Assumes similar features are homologous until shown otherwise
Treats shared derived features (character states) as markers of historical relatedness
Same basic logic used for comparative morphology or DNA
Principles:
Tree-speak
node
tip
branch
branch
tip tiptip
BUMBLE BEEexternal skeletonwings6 legshair“cold-blooded”
TANAGERinternal skeletonwings2 legsfeathers“warm-blooded”
TREE FROGinternal skeletonno wings4 legsno hair or feathers“cold-blooded”
OPOSSUMInternal skeletonno wings4 legshair“warm-blooded”
A simple example…..
First taking one character at a time….
Skeleton
External Internal
Character
Character State Character State
(0) (1)
First taking one character at a time….
Skeleton
External Internal
(0) (1)(1)(1)
Wings
NoYes
But….
bird wings are homologous to front legs of frogs andopossum.and NOT towings of bee
so…
Wings
NoYes, but convergent
But….Legs
2 4 6
so…
bird wings are homologous to front legs of frogs andopossum.so birds have 4 legs!
Legs
4 6
really….
(actually bumble bees can be endothermic temporarily…)
metabolism
Poikilothermic(“cold-blooded”)
Endothermic(“warm-blooded”)
Body covering
Just skin Feathers Hair
But….
Hair
Is hair of opossum and bee really homologous?
We can test whether these groups share common ancestry using other characters….
Skeleton
External Internal
Legs
4 6
Metabolism
Poikilothermic(“cold-blooded”)
Endothermic(“warm-blooded”)
Body covering
Just skin Feathers Hair
Character state trees
Wings
NoYes, but convergent
How can we combine the information from different characters to infer an overall phylogeny?
Skeleton
External Internal
Wings
NoYes, but convergent
Legs
4 6
Metabolism
Poikilothermic(“cold-blooded”)
Endothermic(“warm-blooded”)
Body covering
Just skin Feathers Hair
How can we combine the information from different characters to infer an overall phylogeny?
If for only a few characters with no conflict, you can do this in your head, but
Quantitative methods are now implemented by computer to do this!
First, make up a [character x taxon] matrix,
converting ancestral states to 0’s and derived to 1’s or 2’s
Bumble bee
Tree frog
Tanager
Opossum
LegsSkeleton Wings Metabolism Covering
0 1 1 0 2
1 0 0 0 0
1 2 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 2
How do we know which state of a character is the ancestral one and which is derived?
--Fossils may help show earlier appearance!
--Outgroup AnalysisStates found within a group and also in related groups (outgroups) are more likely to be ancestral than those found only within the group
Poikilothermy is likely to be ancestral in frog/bird/mammal group
States found within a group and alsoin related groups (outgroups) are morelikely to be ancestral than those foundonly within the group (ingroup)
outgroup
ingroup
poikilothermicendothermic
Bumble bee
Tree frog
Tanager
Opossum
LegsSkeleton Wings Metabolism Covering
0 1 1 0 2
1 0 0 0 0
1 2 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 2
These are then “optimized” onto possible phylogenetic trees, and the tree that requires the fewest total changes of character stateis chosen as the most likely(basic parsimony analysis)
(It is also possible to make decisions among treesbased upon the likelihood of alternative changes, rather than simply the evolutionarily “shortest” tree (we’ll see this with molecular data)
Using only the shared derived states….!
skeleton
1
wings
1
2
legs
1
metabolism
1
2
covering
21
Bumble bee
Tree frog
Tanager
Opossum
0 1 1 0 2
1 0 0 0 0
1 2 0 11
1 0 0 1 2
Skel Wing Leg Metab Cov
How do we resolve differences in relationships implied by different characters (character state conflict)?
Metabolism
Poikilothermic(“cold-blooded”)
Endothermic(“warm-blooded”)
Body covering
Just skin Feathers Hair
skeleton
1
wings
1
2
legs
1
metabolism
1
2
covering
2
This tree requires 8 steps, including an extra step (homoplasy) due to convergence in covering character
1
CoverBumble bee
Tree frog
Tanager
Opossum
0 1 1 0 2
1 0 0 0 0
1 2 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 2
Skel Wing Leg Metab
Using only the shared derived states….!
11
2
1
1
21
2
8 steps
steps steps
How many steps or evolutionary changes result from mapping the different character states onto these two other tree topologies?
Using the principle of maximum parsimony, which tree would be selected as the more likely ?
(See next pg.)