What Factors Influence Prosociality in Young...
Transcript of What Factors Influence Prosociality in Young...
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What Factors Influence Prosociality in Young Children?
Dr. Felix Warneken
Department of Psychology Harvard University
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Cooperation in humans
Prosociality Collaboration
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Prosociality
Cooperation in humans
Helping Sharing
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! Prosociality imposed by social environment? ! Development as internalization of social norms (Bar-Tal, 1982; Cialdini et al., 1982; Henrich et al., 2005)
! Alternative: Predisposition to develop prosocial behaviors? (Hoffman, 2000)
! Limitation: Research focused on adults & school-children (Dovidio et al., 2005; Eisenberg et al., 2006)
What are the origins of prosociality?
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Hypothesis: Human socialization practices build upon a biological predisposition for altruism
Question: What are the origins of human prosociality in phylogeny and ontogeny?
Evidence: Experiments with young children: Psychological capacities for altruism in early ontogeny
Comparative studies with chimpanzees Shared vs. species-unique aspects
Research approach
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1 2 3 4 5 Age 0
Early forms of
prosociality
! Cultural norms ! Social-cognitive development
What are the origins of prosociality?
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Helping behaviors in young children
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Helping requires: (1) cognitive understanding of other's goal
(2) motivation to act on behalf of the other
individual goal
Helping
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Helping in children: Clothespin task
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Helping in children: Cabinet task
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Warneken & Tomasello, 2006, Science Warneken & Tomasello, 2007, Infancy
Helping in young children
• Social-cognitive skills – Early emergence (14-18 months) – Flexibility: Various goals & types of intervention
• Motivation: Costs
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Warneken & Tomasello, 2012, Infancy
Costly helping
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Warneken et al., 2007, PLoS Biology Warneken & Tomasello, 2012, Infancy
Helping in young children
• Social-cognitive skills – Early emergence (14-18 months) – Flexibility: Various goals & types of intervention
• Motivation: Costs – Effort: Surmounting obstacles – Opportunity: Disengaging from attractive activity
Warneken et al., 2007, PLoS Biology Warneken & Tomasello, 2012, Infancy
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Warneken et al., 2007, PLoS Biology Warneken & Tomasello, 2008, Dev Psy
Helping in young children
• Social-cognitive skills – Early emergence (14-18 months) – Flexibility: Various goals & types of intervention
• Motivation: Costs – Effort: Surmounting obstacles – Opportunity: Disengaging from attractive activity
• Motivation: Rewards – Not necessary
Warneken et al., 2007, PLoS Biology Warneken & Tomasello, 2008, Dev Psy
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Intrinsic motivation
*
p < .05 *
Trials with Helping in Subsequent Test Phase
" Extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation
Warneken & Tomasello, 2008, Developmental Psychology
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Warneken et al., 2007, PLoS Biology Warneken & Tomasello, 2008, Dev Psy
Helping in young children
• Social-cognitive skills – Early emergence (14-18 months) – Flexibility: Various goals & types of intervention
• Motivation: Costs – Effort: Surmounting obstacles – Opportunity: Disengaging from attractive activity
• Motivation: Rewards – Not necessary – Rewards can undermine prosocial motivation
Warneken et al., 2007, PLoS Biology Warneken & Tomasello, 2008, Dev Psy
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Reactive and proactive prosociality
Previous studies with young children Response to overt behavioral and facial cues
= Reactive prosociality " Can children help proactively?
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Proactive helping
Conditions (between subject) Experimental Cans drop accidentally Control Cans discarded on purpose
Warneken, 2013, Cognition
Recipient during test:
• No behavioral cues • No request • No solicitation
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Proactive helping
Warneken, 2013, Cognition
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" Proactive helping emerges at around 25 months of age
Proactive helping
Warneken, 2013, Cognition
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Warneken 2013, Cognition Warneken & Tomasello 2013, Infancy
Helping in young children
• Social-cognitive skills – Early emergence (14-18 months) – Flexibility: Various goals & types of intervention
• Motivation: Costs – Effort: Surmounting obstacles – Opportunity: Disengaging from attractive activity
• Motivation: Rewards – Not necessary – Rewards can undermine prosocial motivation
• Spontaneous, proactive helping – Children help without concurrent behavioral cues – Parental presence or encouragement unnecessary
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Conclusion
Ontogeny
! Children’s social-cognitive understanding of others’ goals and their altruistic motivation enable acts of helping
Phylogeny
! Crucial aspects of human altruism in chimpanzees
! Propensity to altruistically help others emerges in early childhood
! Culture can facilitate these basic forms of altruism
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1 2 3 4 5 Age 0
Early forms of
prosociality
! Cultural norms ! Social-cognitive development
Development of prosociality
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The socialization of sharing
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Resource sharing in adults
‘Dictator game’ as standard test of sharing
• Anonymous, one shot • No possibility for reciprocation or retaliation • Adults share on average 30% of resource
Cross-cultural studies with adults
• Variation in Dictator game offers • Western, industrialized countries as outliers
" How do children acquire culture-typical behavior?
Henrich et al. 2005
Kahneman, Knetsch & Thaler, 1986; Engel 2010
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Transmission of cultural norms
Social learning
• Many culturally relevant behaviors are acquired through imitation
• Parents are at the center of introducing children the cultural norms & practices
" No experiments on the effect of parental modeling on resource sharing
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Variability in socialization goals
Individualism Collectivism
Independence Interdependence
Autonomy Interpersonal relatedness
Be unique Belong, fit in
Realize internal attributes Engage in appropriate action
… …
e.g. Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Nisbett, 2003, Oyserman et al. 2002; Triandis, 1989
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Collectivist culture
India • Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh
Blake, Corbit, Callaghan, & Warneken, under review
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Individualist culture
USA • Boston
Blake, Corbit, Callaghan, & Warneken, under review
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Method
Subjects USA N = 163 India N = 154
Age 3 to 8 years olds
Task Dictator game with candy
Design Between subject: Generous model (give 9, keep 1) Stingy model (give 1, keep 9) Control (no model)
Blake, Corbit, Callaghan, & Warneken, under review
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US sample
* * *
" No parental modeling effect in Generous condition " Less sharing in Stingy condition
50%
Control Generous Stingy
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India sample
Control
Generous
Stingy
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India sample
*
*
*
*
Control
Generous
Stingy
" Parental modeling effect in both conditions " Effect emerges over age
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India sample
50%
Control
Generous
Stingy
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Hyper-generous donations
Giving more than half of resource
" US children ignore hyper-generous donations " Children from India show more faithful imitation
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
US India
% c
hild
ren
Control
Generous
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Socialization of sharing behaviors
• Faithful imitation is rare: Children’s own preferences prevail • Children from India more influenced by parental modeling • Effects of socialization emerge over development
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1 2 3 4 5 Age 0
Early forms of
prosociality
! Cultural norms ! Social-cognitive development
Development of prosociality
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Collaborators
Peter Blake Tara Callaghan John Corbit Michael Tomasello
Thank you
Funding
National Science Foundation John Templeton Foundation European Science Foundation Harvard Mind, Brain & Behavior
Warneken lab members
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Thank you
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Preliminary results
Non- carriers
7-repeat carriers
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
No model Non-generous model Generous model
Mea
n nu
mbe
r of s
ticke
rs d
onat
ed (0
to 6
)
" 7 repeat allele carriers more responsive to generous model
Control Generous model
Stingy model
Knafo, Blake & Warneken, in prep
Longitudinal study with N = 567 twin pairs (33% DRD4 7-repeat carriers)
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Socialization of cooperative behaviors
Cross-cultural differences • Children from India more influenced by parental modeling • Effects of socialization emerge over development " Effects of socio-cultural environment
Individual differences • DRD4 polymorphism: 7 repeat allele carriers are more
susceptible to environmental variables • Genetic differences in receptivity to parental modeling " Interaction of genes and environment
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What elicits prosociality?
Actor Recipient
Proactive No behavioral cues
Reactive Behavioral cues indicate recipient's need
Interactive Communicative request directed at donor
Self-protective Harassment
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What elicits prosocial behavior?
Agent Recipient
Proactive No behavioral cues
Reactive Behavioral cues indicate recipient's need
Interactive Communicative request directed at agent
Self-protective Harassment
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Sharing and distributive justice
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Study 2: Merit
Question Do children children share based upon merit?
Participants 3 and 5 year-olds (n = 18 per age)
Procedure Phase 1: Child and puppet play fishing game in parallel. Phase 2: Child distributes 6 stickers.
Conditions Success during fishing game Child/Puppet: 2/4 vs. 4/2 (within subject, counterbalanced)
Kanngiesser & Warneken, 2012, PLoS One
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Study 2: Merit
Kanngiesser & Warneken, 2012, PLoS One
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Study 2: Merit
Kanngiesser & Warneken, 2012, PLoS One
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Warneken & Tomasello, 2006, Science Warneken et al., 2007, PLoS Biology Melis et al., 2008, Proceedings of the Royal Society Yamamoto et al., 2009, PLoS One Yamamoto et al., 2012, PNAS
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Type Goal of intervention
Comforting Negative emotional state # Providing emotional support
Sharing Lack of resource # Giving food or objects to person in need
Informing Lack of knowledge # Providing useful information to ignorant person
Instrumental helping Failed attempt # Acting on behalf of person's unfulfilled goal
Warneken & Tomasello, 2009, Trends in Cognitive Sciences Warneken & Tomasello, 2009, British Journal of Psychology
Varieties of prosocial behavior
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Type Goal of intervention
Comforting Negative emotional state # Providing emotional support
Sharing Lack of resource # Giving food or objects to person in need
Informing Lack of knowledge # Providing useful information to ignorant person
Instrumental helping Failed attempt # Acting on behalf of person's unfulfilled goal
Warneken & Tomasello, 2009, Trends in Cognitive Sciences Warneken & Tomasello, 2009, British Journal of Psychology
Varieties of prosocial behavior
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Trial
Reciprocity: Cooperators & Defectors
Partner:
Cooperate
Defect silent
Defect verbal
" 2.5-year-olds do not discriminate " 3.5-year-olds
- More sharing with cooperators than defectors - Intention matters: Least sharing when defector articulates intention
Warneken & Tomasello, in press
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Parental modeling
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Prosocial behaviors in humans
Helping Sharing