What Do Teachers Know and Want to Know About Special Education?

First presenter: Angelique Aitken, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (aaitken2@unl.edu) Poster Abstract: Purpose The Council for Exceptional Children Professional Standards require that special education teachers have an understanding of the relevant special education laws and policies, which influence educating their students (CEC, 2015). Not only does a special educator provide academic, behavioral, and social skills instruction in accordance with their students' legally enforceable individualized education program (IEP) but federal and state laws (e.g., IDEA; 20 U.S.C. §§1400) have created compliance mechanisms that have intertwined legal topics with educating students. Furthermore, both parents and school administrators have reported that teachers are parents' primary source of special education information (Authors, under review and in preparation). Thus, it is important to understand teachers' knowledge of special education topics and processes.

Method A convenience sample of 142 special education teachers across 16 states completed The Teacher Knowledge and Resources in Special Education (TKRSE) web-based survey. The TKRSE is comprised of 52 items across five domains and seven demographic items. The Accessibility of Resources domain had two items (e.g., Overall, how available are special education resources) rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Seventeen items (e.g., currently, how confident that you understand manifestation determination) were included in the Confidence in Special Education Topics domain and were each rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale. In the Areas of Desired Additional Knowledge domain, teachers were asked to identify the top topics that teachers would like to learn more about (e.g., Please identify the top three [special education law] topics you would like to learn more about). The Sources of Current Knowledge domain was comprised of ten items (e.g., how much did [your undergraduate courses] contribute to your current knowledge and understanding of special education processes/services?) and were rated on a 3-point Likert-type scale. The fifth domain, Preferred Methods of Gaining Information, contained six items that teachers rated on a 3-point Likert-type scale. Data were collected using Qualtrics and analyzed in IBM SPSS Statistics 24.

Findings Most teachers reported that special education resources are usually available (M=3.86, SD=0.847) and fairly easy to understand (M=3.82, SD=0.856). Generally, teachers expressed being more confident with their knowledge of IEP-related topics than special education law-related topics. The three topics teachers indicate being most confident are annual IEP meetings (M=4.42, SD=0.893), developing IEP goals (M=4.24, SD=0.930), and appropriate accommodations (M=4.05, SD=1.074). They reported the lowest levels of confidence around resolving disagreements between parents and school (e.g., due process hearing; M=2.56, SD=1.240), manifestation determination (M=2.81, SD=1.419), and child find (M=2.94, SD=1.338). Teachers conveyed that graduate courses (M=2.59, SD=0.594) and mentorship (M=2.55, SD=0.688) are where they receive information that contributes to their current knowledge and understanding of special education processes and services. This aligns with their reported preferred methods to gain information: conversation with other special education teachers (M=2.81, SD=0.480) and attending an in-person training (M=2.69, SD=0.535). Understanding that these avenues are where special education teachers gain knowledge is important for researchers and district personnel to share information that can improve teachers' understanding and confidence of special education topics and processes.

References: Authors (under review). Preparing parents to engage in the special education process: A descriptive examination of knowledge and access to resources. Authors (in preparation). Special education administrator perspectives on parent knowledge and access of special education resources. Council for Exceptional Children. (2015). What Every Special Educator Must Know: Professional Ethics and Standards. Arlington, VA: CEC. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. §1400 et seq. (2004).

Mindfulness-focused Professional Development and Practice: Early Career Special Education Teachers Survival Training

First presenter: Sara Alshmmry, California State University, Los Angeles (salshmm@calstatela.edu) Second presenter: Anna Osipova, California State University, Los Angeles (aosipov3@calstatela.edu)

Additional authors: Michael Oropollo, California State University, Los Angeles

Poster Abstract: The proposed poster presentation discusses the results of a mixed methods study that used Mindfulness Professional Training as a means of reducing stress levels in beginning P-12 grade special education teachers working with students with mild to moderate disabilities in inclusive literacy-focused program. The poster showcases professional development model and examines qualitative and quantitative shifts in participants' perception of teaching-related stress, as well as their perception of the overall impact of mindfulness training on their professional performance and their students' learning and behavior. The study aimed: a) to increase preservice special education teachers' knowledge of mindfulness and its beneficial effects on teachers' well-being and PreK-12 students with disabilities' academic and socio-emotional performance; b) to present and model a number of specific mindfulness training strategies tailored to teachers' needs and the needs of specific population of students with mild to moderate disabilities c) to explore the effects of mindfulness training on the participants' perception of their teaching-related stress levels and their students' academic performance and behavior. The participants included 34 special education credential candidates enrolled in an early directed teaching practicum in a large urban CA university. All teacher participants in the study had students with mild to moderate disabilities in their inclusive classrooms. The study participants took part in a semester-long ongoing professional development that focused on extending their knowledge of mindfulness and strategies for its implementation for teachers and students with mild to moderate disabilities. The training consisted of an opening seminar that contained a presentation of mindfulness research and the effects of mindfulness practices on teachers' and students' well-being. During the initial seminar the participants took part in 3 short mindfulness practices designed for teachers. The introductory seminar was followed by two booster seminars on specific mindfulness practices that could be used when working with students with disabilities to reduce their anxiety levels, improve focus, and facilitate self-regulation. Throughout the semester, participants voluntarily participated in regular mindfulness practices before each daily teaching session. Participants' knowledge of mindfulness benefits and approaches were measured by pre- and post- survey. Their perceptions of stress levels were measured before and after each mindfulness session using a tool adapted for the study. Participants' reflections and class observations were examined to triangulate participants' self-reports and to explore qualitative shifts in participants' perception of their teaching-related stress levels and their students' academic performance and behavior. Preliminary findings indicate that a) beginning special education teachers report high levels of stress and express their need for strategies to minimize job-related stress; b) three consecutive seminars on mindfulness and its effects on teachers and students' well-being effectively increase participants' understanding of mindfulness and their knowledge of mindfulness strategies c) the showcased model of professional development built into the special education preparation program serves as an effective vehicle for lowering beginning teachers' perception of stress level and improves their perception of their students' academic performance and socio-emotional well-being.

Content at your fingertips: Preparing educators to implement intensive intervention

First presenter: Sarah Arden, American Institutes for Research (sarden@air.org) Poster Abstract: We know that educators can positively impact student achievement (Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, Rockoff, & Wyckoff, 2008; Hanushek & Rivkin, 2010; Kane, Rockoff, & Staiger, 2006; Master, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2014), and that their impact is greater than other school influences (e.g., instructional group size, per-pupil expenditure). At the same time, complex skills, such as delivering intensive intervention, must be repeated and refined during preparation in order for educators to implement them with the fidelity required to meet the needs of struggling learners (Kretlow & Bartholomew, 2010). This type of instructional expertise does not occur by merely observing teaching practice or from reading about educational theories. It is developed by refining how to deliver intensive intervention and how to be responsive to performance feedback.

Intensive intervention entails an iterative, research-based process that relies on the systematic and frequent collection and analysis of student-level data, modification of intervention components when those data indicate inadequate response, and use of teachers' clinical experience and judgment to individualize intervention in reading, mathematics, and behavior (National Center on Intensive Intervention (NCII), 2013). This process encourages educators to consider the complex needs of students with intensive needs including co-occurring academic and behavioral needs that are often inextricably linked (Berry Kuchle, Zumeta Edmonds, Danielson, Peterson & Riley-Tillman, 2015).

The purpose of this poster is to present course content across academics and behavior that can be used in teacher preparation to ensure that educators are equipped with the competencies and skills required in practice to design and deliver intensive intervention. Perspectives from practitioners, research, and results from preparation activities will be shared with attendees. Additionally, attendees will leave with a better understanding of the process used to implement intensive intervention and will be exposed to a variety of tools and resources that they can incorporate into their preparation programs.

References: Berkeley, S., Bender, W. N., Peaster, G. L., & Saunders, L. (2009). Implementation of response to intervention: A snapshot of progress. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(1), 85-95. doi:10.1177/0022219408326214 Boyd, D., Grossman, P., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., Wyckoff, J., & Urban, I. (2009). Teacher preparation and student achievement. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 31(4), 416-440. doi:10.3102/0162373709353129 Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L., & Compton, D. (2012). Smart RTI: A next-generation approach to multi- level prevention. Exceptional Children, 78(3), 263-279. Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., & Vaughn, S. (2014). What is intensive instruction and why is it important? Teaching Exceptional Children, 46(4), 13-18. doi: 10.1177/0040059914522966 Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., & Malone, A. S. (2017). The taxonomy of intervention intensity. Teaching Exceptional Children,50(1), 35-43. doi:10.1177/0040059917703962 Kretlow, A. G., & Bartholomew, C. C. (2010). Using coaching to improve the fidelity of evidencebased practices: A review of studies. Teacher Education and Special Education, 33, 279-299. doi:10.1177/0888406410371643 Kuchle, L., Lemons, C., Riley-Tillman, T. C., & Danielson, L. (2015, April). From know-how to action: Assessing and improving school-level implementation of data-based individualization. Session presented at the Council for Exceptional Children 2015 Annual Convention, San Diego, CA. Means, B., Chen, E., DeBarger, A., & Padilla, C. (2011). Teachers' ability to use data to informal instruction: Challenges and supports. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED516494.pdf National Center on Intensive Intervention (2013). Data-based individualization: A framework for intensive intervention. Retrieved from https://intensiveintervention.org/sites/default/files/DBI_Framework.pdf Riley-Tillman, T. C., Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. (2013). Response to intervention applications (Volume 2: Assessment, design and decision making). New York, NY: The Guilford Press. U.S. Department of Education. (2015). National Assessment of Educational Progress. Mathematics and Reading Assessments. Retrieved from http://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2015/#?grade=4 Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., Garza, N., & Levine, P. (2005). After high school: A first look at the postschool experiences of youth with disabilities. A report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved from: www.nlts2.org/reports/2005_04/nlts2_report_2005_04_complete.pdf

Effects of Instruction Linking Word Reading and Meaning for Students with Dyslexia

First presenter: Christy Austin, The University of Texas at Austin (christyaustin@utexas.edu)

Poster Abstract: The Lexical Quality Hypothesis (Perfetti, 2007) posits that word reading accuracy and fluency depends upon both the form and the meaning of words. I utilized the Lexical Quality Hypothesis to design and conduct a within-subject experimental design study to investigate the relative effects of instruction explicitly linking word reading and word meaning compared to word reading instruction provided in isolation on the word identification accuracy, word identification fluency, and vocabulary knowledge of fourth and fifth grade students with dyslexia. Word sets were created that included words that I anticipated students would have a difficult time reading accurately and defining. Each word set focused on one grapheme phoneme correspondence (i.e. tion - fiction, ration, portion) Two word lists were created for each word set. The word lists were matched on number of syllables, numbers of phonemes, frequency of exposure of the words in the English language in print, and number of unique definitions. Thirty participants are currently receiving both word reading instruction alone and instruction explicitly linking word reading and word meaning with six word sets that included words students could not read accurately at pretest. The order of instructional sessions was counterbalanced both within and across participants. Intervention will be complete July 19, 2019. Following, a repeated measure ANOVA will be conducted to assess if mean differences exist on word identification accuracy, word identification fluency, and vocabulary knowledge by the type of intervention (Word Reading Only; Word Reading + Word Meaning) with the data from each time point (immediately following intervention sessions; posttest). The F-test of significance will be used to assess the relative effect of Word Reading + Word Meaning instruction compared to Word Reading instruction provided in isolation. A partial eta squared will be used as an effect size to show the magnitude of the effect. Implications for research and practice will be discussed based on the findings.

References: Perfetti, C. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(4), 357-383.

Who is watching us? YouTube data analysis of research dissemination

First presenter: Samantha E. Bos, University of Texas at Austin (samantha.bos@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Erica N. Mason, University of Missouri (ericamason@mail.missouri.edu)

Poster Abstract: Purpose: There is growing consensus in the field of special education that there is a considerable gap between the research being produced at universities and the practice of teachers in classrooms (Cook & Odom, 2013). Surveyed special education teachers did not value research studies and felt that the professional development they attend does not meet their needs or the needs of their students (Boardman et al., 2005). As a sense of skepticism of academic knowledge has continued to grow in the past decades, so too has the rise of individualized tutorials and crowd-sourced knowledge via websites such as YouTube, Pinterest, and Teachers Pay Teachers. Because teaches are going to sources beyond scholarly journals for strategies and content, it is essential that we understand the content consumption behavior of teachers. The primary goal of Project STAIR (Supporting Teaching of Algebra: Individual Readiness) is to address the needs of middle school math teachers whose students struggle. Teachers who participate in this project are introduced to the data-based individualization process (National Center on Intensive Intervention, 2013) and are individually coached in ways to intensify their instruction to support students with mathematics difficulty or disabilities. A cornerstone of the project is the STAIR Tailored videos that provide models and overviews of instructional strategies shown to be effective with students with mathematics difficulty (i.e., explicit instruction [Gerstet et al., 2009] and multiple representations [Maccini, Mulcahy, & Wilson, 2007]) as well as content-driven videos that bolster teachers' pre-algebraic and algebraic knowledge. The STAIR Tailored videos are available for free on YouTube and a variety of viewers (including teachers from the project) access these videos. The purpose of this poster is to analyze the data collected by the website to identify patterns in the data, specifically related to the demographics of viewers, contextual variables (e.g., time of day, social media outlet), video content, and video length.

Method: Data collection is currently in the early phase and greater viewership throughout the school year will drive the focus of the data analysis. Manipulation of the length of the videos, the presenters of the videos, pushed notifications from other social media outlets (e.g. Twitter, Instagram), and the topics of the videos are parsed in the data analytics available to any YouTube creator and can potentially provide a meaningful avenue of tailoring videos to reach greater audiences in a meaningful manner. After watching regularly scheduled videos, STAIR participants are asked to complete a brief Qualtrics survey, which is available to all members of the viewing public. Survey questions include opportunities for viewers to provide feedback on the quality and usefulness of the topics of each video. Due to the abundance of data collected by YouTube, initial analysis will be exploratory and driven by the trends that arise throughout the year. Areas of potential interest include the viewership of STAIR participants compared to nonparticipants, demographic information about viewers, and qualities of videos that reach wide audiences or retain viewers for a longer duration.

Participants: Participating teachers in 2020 study: a total of 5 treatment teachers from the MU sites, approximately 5-6 treatment teachers from UT sites, and approximately 5-6 treatment teachers from the SMU sites. Current Number of Videos (as of 9/4/19): 103 Current Subscribers (as of 9/4/19): 52 Total Number of Views (as of 9/4/19): 2,182

Findings: While analyses are underway, preliminary findings suggest that approximately 26% of video traffic comes from smu.edu where the official project blog is housed, while approximately 18% of traffic comes from Twitter. The average view duration is 2 minutes, 2 seconds. Videos focused on word-problem solving skills appear to be the most popular videos, but the most popular search term that leads to Project STAIR videos is "lattice division". In addition, videos promoted on Twitter do not have a larger viewership than comparable videos, but the use of videos in professional development appears to lead to spikes in viewership of those videos. Potential future findings would include effective ways of increasing viewership of videos as well as increasing viewer engagement in the videos (i.e., length of video watched).

References: Boardman, A. G., Argüelles, M. E., Vaughn, S., Hughes, M. T., Klingner, J. (2005). Special education teachers' views of research-based practices. The Journal of Special Education, 39(3), 168-180. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669050390030401 Cook, B. G., & Odom, S. L. (2013). Evidence-based practices and implementation science in special education. Exceptional Children, 79, 135-144. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291307900201 Gersten, R., Chard, D. J., Jayanthi, M, Baker, S. K, Morphy, P., & Flojo, J. (2009). Mathematics instruction for students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis of instructional components. Review of Educational Research, 79, 1202-1242. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654309334431 Maccini, P., Mulcahy, C. A., & Wilson, M. G. (2007). A follow-up of mathematics interventions for secondary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 22, 58-74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2007.00231.x National Center on Intensive Intervention. (2013). Data-based individualization: A framework for intensive intervention. Washington, DC: Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education.

Comparability of Interpretational Cutoffs across Assessments of Phonological Awareness

First presenter: Ryan P. Bowles, Michigan State University (bowlesr@msu.edu) Poster Abstract: Many interventions target phonological awareness (PA) in preschool and early elementary school as it is one of the most important predictors of later reading achievement (NELP, 2008). Key to the success of these interventions is identifying children who are meeting benchmarks or are at risk for poor reading achievement using an assessment of PA with valid interpretational cutoffs. For example, the CTOPP-2 (Wagner, Torgesen, Rashotte, & Pearson, 2013) and the TOPEL PA subtest (Lonigan, Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 2007) both offer age-adjusted cutoffs to categorize children into 7 groups (Very Poor, Poor, etc.). The Acadience Reading (Good et al., 2019) offers beginning-, middle-, and end-of-grade cutoffs categorizing children into 4 groups (Well-Below-, Below-, At-, and Above- Benchmark). A key issue is whether cutoffs between similar categories are comparable across assessments. If not, a child's identification as meeting benchmarks or needing additional supports may depend on the choice of assessments. 962 children ages 3-7 were administered at least 4 subtests assessing PA from various batteries of early language and literacy. Assessments included the Sound Matching (SM), Blending Words (BW), and Elision (EL) subtests of the CTOPP-2, the PA subtest of the TOPEL, the First Sound Fluency (FSF) and Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF) subtests of the Acadience Reading, the PA subtest of the PELI (Kaminski, Abbott, Bravo Aguayo, & Good, 2018), and the Blending, Segmentation, and Rhyming subtests of the ATLAS-PA (Skibbe, Bowles, Goodwin, Troia, & Konishi, 2019). In all cases, children took only subtests that were targeted to their age (e.g., Acadience Reading is for kindergarten and older only). We used two forms of test equating (Kolen & Brennan, 2014): an IRT method with common-item linking, and an equipercentile method with equivalent groups. Both methods map a cutoff on one subtest to an estimated score on an alternative subtest, thus allowing for direct comparison of cutoffs between assessments. Current results indicated that the comparability of the interpretational cutoffs depends on the assessment and the particular cutoff. For example, the cutoff between Average and Above Average performance for ages 5;0 to 5;5 on the CTOPP-2 subtests was similar to the same cutoff for the TOPEL and to the At-Benchmark cutoff on PSF for the middle of kindergarten. On the other hand, the cutoffs for Poor performance on the CTOPP-2 subtests were substantially lower than the cutoff for the TOPEL, equivalent to a difference of .7 to 1.1 SD in PA levels, and the conceptually similar cutoffs for at-risk performance on the Acadience PSF and FSF were associated with even higher levels of PA, by about 1.5 SD. Thus, a child aged 5;5 in the middle of kindergarten would be far more likely to be identified as needing additional supports if assessed with Acadience Reading than with the CTOPP-2. These results suggest that the interpretational cutoffs provided by assessments of PA are not necessarily comparable. This could lead to issues with fairness and concerns about over- or under-identification of children of concern for later reading difficulties.

References: Good, R. H., Kaminski, R. A., Dewey, E. N., Wallin, J., Powell-Smith, K. A., & Latimer, R. (2019). Acadience Reading K-6 Technical Manual. Eugene, OR: Dynamic Measurement Group. Kaminski, R. A., Abbott, M., Bravo Aguayo, K., & Good, R. H. (2012). Preschool Early Literacy Indicators. Eugene, OR: Dynamic Measurement Group. Kolen, M. J., & Brennan, R. L. (2014). Test equating, scaling, and linking: Methods and practices (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Springer. Lonigan, C. J., Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. (2007). Test of Preschool Early Literacy (TOPEL). Austin, TX: ProEd. National Early Literacy Panel (NELP) (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy. Skibbe, L. E., Bowles, R. P., Goodwin, S., Troia, G. A., & Konichi, H. (2019). The Access to Literacy Assessment System for Phonological Awareness (PA): An adaptive measure of PA appropriate for children with speech and/or language impairment. Manuscript under review. Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., & Pearson, N. A. (2013). Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, 2nd Edition (CTOPP-2). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Exploring English Learners' Early Numeracy Growth Trajectories Compared to Their Peers

First presenter: Tasia Brafford, University of Oregon (tasiab@uoregon.edu) Second presenter: Marah Sutherland, University of Oregon (marahs@uoregon.edu)

Additional authors: Ben Clarke, University of Oregon; Joseph Stevens, University of Oregon

Poster Abstract: Mathematics difficulties (MDs) often persist across elementary grades for struggling students who fail to make progress in their kindergarten year (Morgan, Farkas, & Wu, 2009). Early detection of MD, along with ongoing progress monitoring, are critical for allocation and adjustment of necessary supports for students at risk in mathematics (Judge & Watson, 2011). These practices may be especially critical for students from traditionally underserved populations, such as English Learners (ELs). This is reflected in recent NAEP data, which revealed that only 14 percent of ELs in Grade 4 scored at or above the proficient benchmark, compared to 43 percent of non-EL students (NAEP, 2017). While many curriculum-based measures (CBMs) are successful screening and progress monitoring tools for non-EL students, the research investigating the use of these measures for ELs is still in its infancy (Sandberg & Reschly, 2011). With differences in English language development and other factors such as family characteristics or level of acculturation, mathematics growth in elementary school is different for EL students compared to non-EL students (Johnson-Webb, 2004; Reardon & Galindo, 2009). Varying language demands in mathematics tasks also contribute to differences in performance between ELs and native English speakers (Abedi & Lord, 2001; Alt, Arizmendi, & Beal, 2014). Given the importance of early identification and progress monitoring in kindergarten, further research is needed to determine how mathematics growth trajectories differ for ELs compared to non-ELs across students' kindergarten year and across different mathematical tasks. The purpose of the current study was to examine the mathematics growth trajectories for ELs compared to non-ELs on four established curriculum-based measures of early numeracy: numeral identification, oral counting, missing number, and quantity discrimination (Clarke & Shinn, 2004). The sample was drawn from a parent study (n = 2,598) that investigated the efficacy of a Tier 1 kindergarten mathematics program conducted across sites in the Pacific Northwest and Southern regions of the United States (Clarke et al., 2011). The sample in the current study included control students who did not receive the Tier 1 mathematics program, identified as either an EL (n = 301) or a native English speaker (n = 896). Students were administered the four measures at five time points across their kindergarten year. Two-level hierarchical linear models were used for each measure, with time of assessment included as a level 1 predictor and EL status (EL versus non-EL) included as a level 2 predictor. Across all measures, EL status was a significant predictor of initial mathematics score, with EL students scoring at approximately half that of their non-EL peers at time 1 (p < .001). Growth across the five time points was curvilinear and not significantly different for EL students compared to non-ELs (p > .05), with the exception of the number identification subtest where EL students increased in growth by an additional 2.39 points at each time point, t(41) = 7.92, SE = 0.30, p < .001. Discussion will center on implications for screening and progress monitoring using standardized early numeracy measures for EL versus non-EL students.

References: Abedi, J., & Lord, C. (2001). The language factor in mathematics tests. Applied Measurement in Education, 14(3), 219-234. Alt, M., Arizmendi, G. D., & Beal, C. R. (2014). The relationship between mathematics and language: Academic implications for children with specific language impairment and English language learners. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 45, 220-233. Clarke, B., & Shinn, M. R. (2004). A preliminary investigation into the identification and development of early mathematics curriculum-based measurement. School Psychology Review, 33, 234-248. Clarke, B., Smolkowski, K., Baker, S. K., Fien, H., Doabler, C. T., & Chard, D. (2011). The impact of a comprehensive tier 1 core kindergarten program on the achievement of students at risk in mathematics. The Elementary School Journal, 111, 561-584. doi: 10.1086/659033 Johnson-Webb, K. D. (2004). The role of migration, family characteristics and English-language ability in Latino academic achievement. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines, 24, 21-31. Judge, S., & Watson, S. M. (2011). Longitudinal outcomes for mathematics achievement for students with learning disabilities. The Journal of Educational Research, 104(3), 147-157. Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., & Wu, Q. (2009). Five-year growth trajectories of kindergarten children with learning difficulties in mathematics. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(4), 306-321. National Assessment of Educational Progress. (2017). The nation's report card. Mathematics 2017: National Assessment of Educational Progress at grades 4 and 8. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2017_highlights/ Reardon, S. F., & Galindo, C. (2009). The Hispanic-White achievement gap in math and reading in the elementary grades. American Educational Research Journal, 46(3), 853-891. Sandberg, K. L., & Reschly, A. L. (2011). English learners: Challenges in assessment and the promise of curriculum-based measurement. Remedial and Special Education, 32(2), 144-154.

Learning From Informational Videos: The Relation Between Text Cohesion and Comprehension Skill

First presenter: Britta Cook Bresina, University of Minnesota (bresi016@umn.edu) Poster Abstract: To learn from text, a reader must make inferences. Successful learning in 21st century classrooms necessitates learning from multiple forms of text. Inferencing is foundational to comprehension and is a general skill--necessary for comprehension in reading and non-reading contexts (Kendeou et al., 2008). To support inferencing and improve comprehension outcomes, text cohesion can be manipulated (O'Reilly & McNamara, 2007). Text cohesion is the degree to which concepts, ideas, and their relations are made explicit within a text. Text cohesion affects a reader's text coherence--the degree to which the reader can form a mental representation of the text. McNamara and Kintsch (1996) identified an interaction between reader background knowledge and text cohesion where readers with low knowledge learn more from high cohesion texts, whereas readers with high knowledge learn more from low cohesion texts. However, some studies suggest high cohesion texts lead to greater learning regardless of reader knowledge (Britton & Gülgöz, 1991). Further, this interaction appears to depend on the comprehension skill of the reader (e.g., Voss & Silfies, 1996). Research question: To what extent does text cohesion of nonfiction videos impact the ability of kindergarteners with high vs low language comprehension to correctly make inferences about a video? Method Data for the current study are drawn from a larger study evaluating the promise of an intervention meant to improve inferencing in kindergarteners. Participants

Sixty-nine kindergarteners, typically developing, at risk for, and identified with disabilities, from a suburban city in the Midwest. Measures Language comprehension. Understanding Spoken Paragraphs subtest of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF-5; Wiig, Semel, & Secord, 2003) measures listening comprehension and inferencing. Participants listen to brief passages and answer questions afterward. Inferencing. The Early Language Comprehension Individualized Intervention (ELCII; McMaster et al., 2018) is an interactive, cloud-based intervention for kindergarteners to improve inferencing skills. ELCII has 24 modules, 12 fiction and 12 nonfiction. For each module, students watch a four minute video and answer five multiple-choice inferential questions either during or after the video. For this study, only the nonfiction video modules were used to ensure genre is not a confounding variable. ELCII nonfiction videos cover many topics (e.g., animals, biographies, countries). Due to the range of topics, we assume background knowledge of the video content to be controlled for. Procedure and Analysis A 2 by 2 mixed factorial design with between-subjects factor of high and low language comprehension skill and within-subjects factor of high and low text cohesion. The dependent variable is the percent of correctly answered inferential questions per video module. Timing of question was controlled for. Coh-Metrix was used to determine the cohesion of each video transcript. Texts were then tertile split, deleting the middle tertile, to create the high cohesion texts and low cohesion texts groups. To determine high and low comprehension skill groups, participants' CELF-5 scores were used, split according to the normative mean.

Over eight weeks, participants were administered the 12 ELCII nonfiction video modules. Given that these data are pulled from a larger study, the order of the modules could not be manipulated. Results The interaction between comprehension group and text cohesion was nonsignificant (p = .09). The effect size between comprehension groups within cohesion level is d = 0.71 for low cohesion texts and d = 0.49 for high cohesion texts. Thus, kindergarteners, regardless of language comprehension skill, comprehended videos with high cohesion transcripts better than low suggesting that text cohesion is an important factor to consider when developing intervention materials.

References: Britton, B. K., & Gülgöz, S. (1991). Using Kintsch's computational model to improve instructional text: Effects of repairing inference calls on recall and cognitive structures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 329-345. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.3.329 Kendeou, P., Bohn-Gettler, C., White, M. J., & van den Broek, P. (2008). Children's inference generation across different media. Journal of Research in Reading, 31(3), 259-272. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2008.00370.x McMaster, K. L., Kendeou, P., Bresina, B., Slater, S., Wagner, K., White, M. J., Butterfuss, R., Kim, J., & Umana, C. (2018). Interactive web-based inference instruction for children in the primary grades. Manuscript submitted for review. McNamara, D. S., & Kintsch, W. (1996). Learning from texts: Effects of prior knowledge and text coherence. Discourse Processes, 22(3), 247-288. doi:10.1080/01638539609544975 O'Reilly, T., & McNamara, D. S. (2007). Reversing the reverse cohesion effect: Good texts can be better for strategic, high-knowledge readers. Discourse Processes, 43(2), 121-152. doi:10.1080/01638530709336895 Voss, J. F., & Silfies, L. N. (1996). Learning from history text: The interaction of knowledge and comprehension skill with text structure. Cognition and Instruction, 14(1), 45-68. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1401_2 Wiig, E. H., Semel, E. M., & Secord, W. (2003). CELF 5: Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals.

Examining teacher questions and child responses during shared book reading

First presenter: Mindy Bridges, University of Kansas Medical Center (mbridges2@kumc.edu) Second presenter: Jill Pentimonti, American Institutes for Research (jpentimonti@air.org)

Additional authors: Virginia Tompkins, The Ohio State University; Tricia Zucker, University of Texas Health Science Center

Poster Abstract: One way for young children to gain key school readiness skills (e.g., language development) is pre-k participation (Burchinal et al., 2008; Dickinson, 2011; Keys et al., 2013; Mashburn et al., 2008). For young children, responsive adult-child interactions are key to student language development (Landry, Smith, & Swank, 2006; Landry, Zucker, Williams, Mer, Guttentag, et al., 2017). Unfortunately, accumulating evidence suggests that adult-child interactions (e.g., teacher questioning, encouraging child responsiveness) currently occurring in pre-k classrooms are less than ideal (Cabell et al., 2013; Justice, Mashburn, Hamre, & Pianta, 2008; LoCasale-Crouch et al., 2007; Pelatti, Piasta, Justice, & O'Connell, 2014). The present study seeks to examine teacher questions and contingent child responses during shared book reading (SBR) in pre-k classrooms. The research aims were: (1) To describe teacher-child talk during SBR along two dimensions for teachers - question type and level of cognitive demand; (2) To examine sequential relations between teachers' type of questions and children's responses in terms of level of accuracy and level of cognitive demand; and (3) To examine sequential relations between the level of cognitive demand of teachers' questions and children's responses in terms of accuracy and level of cognitive demand.

Methods: Participants in this study were 78 teachers enrolled in two larger studies of classroom SBR practices. The teachers taught in preschool classrooms in two states. Teachers' whole-class readings of Rumble in the Jungle (Andreae, 1996) was used for analyses. Teachers' videotaped shared-reading sessions were recorded. Teachers' and children's extratextual talk was transcribed and coded from these videos using an observational coding scheme, the Systematic Assessment of Book Reading (SABR 2.1; Zucker, Pentimonti, Justice, Tambyraja, & Bowles, 2017). SABR coders completed a comprehensive training process to become reliable in their use of the SABR coding scheme. For the purposes of this study, a subset of relevant teacher and child codes were utilized.

Data Analyses: Analyses utilized descriptive statistics as well as sequential analyses. Sequential analyses examine the relations between teacher questions (type and level of cognitive demand) and contingent child responses (accuracy and level of cognitive demand).

Results: Overall, analyses show teachers' questions during SBR were roughly evenly divided among wh- and yes/no question types, with very few instances of how- or why- questions noted. In terms of child accuracy, teacher how-, why-, and wh- questions were likely to elicit both accurate and inaccurate child responses whereas yes/no questions were unlikely to elicit inaccurate child responses. Results also show a match between teacher questions and child responses in terms of level of cognitive demand, in that teacher literal questions were likely to result in child literal responses and teacher inferential questions were likely to result in child inferential responses.

Conclusions: Study findings suggest that how- and why- questions are not frequently asked in prekindergarten classrooms, and that posing cognitively demanding questions support children's use of more inferential-type talk. These conclusions support programs or professional development that increase teachers' awareness of the benefit of using different types of questions during SBR.

References: Andreae, G. (1996). Rumble in the Jungle. Tiger Tales Publishing. Burchinal, M., Howes, C., Pianta, R., Bryant, D., Early, D., Clifford, R., & Barbarin, O. (2008). Predicting child outcomes at the end of kindergarten from the quality of pre-kindergarten teacher-child interactions and instruction. Applied Developmental Science, 12(3), 140-153. doi:10.1080/10888690802199418 Cabell, S. Q., DeCoster, J., LoCasale-Crouch, J., Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2013). Variation in the effectiveness of instructional interactions across preschool classroom settings and learning activities. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28, 820-830. Dickinson, D. K. (2011). Teachers' language practices and academic outcomes of preschool children. Science, 333(6045), 964-967. Keys, T.D., Farkas, H., Burchinal, M.R., Duncan, G.J., Vandell, D.L., Li, W., .....Howes, C. (2013). Preschool center quality and school readiness: Quality effects and variation by demographic and child characteristics. Child Development, 84, 1171-1190. doi:10.1111/cdev.12048 Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., & Swank, P. R. (2006). Responsive parenting: Establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills. Developmental Psychology, 42(4), 627-642. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.4.627 Justice, L. M., Mashburn, A. J., Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2008). Quality of language and literacy instruction in preschool classrooms serving at-risk pupils. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23, 51-68. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.09.004 LoCasale-Crouch, J., Konold, T., Pianta, R., Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Bryant, D., & Barbarin, O. (2007). Observed classroom quality profiles in state-funded pre- kindergarten programs and associations with teacher, program, and classroom characteristics. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22(1), 3-17. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.05.001 Pelatti, C. Y., Piasta, S. B., Justice, L. M., & O'Connell, A. A. (2014). Language- and literacy- learning opportunities in early childhood classrooms: Children's typical experiences and within-classroom variability. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 445-456. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.05.004\ Zucker, T. A., Pentimonti, J.M., Justice, L.M., Tambyraja, S., & Bowles, R. (2017). Systematic Assessment of Book Reading 2.1: Coding manual. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University.

Domains of the home literacy environment and preschoolers' inhibitory control

First presenter: Anka Chan, University of Alberta (anka@ualberta.ca) Second presenter: Trelani Milburn, University of Alberta (trelani@ualberta.ca)

Poster Abstract: Purpose: Parents are key agents in preschool children's oral language and early literacy development through interaction in the home (van Steensel, 2006). Given the importance of these foundational abilities, particularly for children who may be at-risk for reading-related learning disabilities, understanding the nature of the parent-child interaction at home and how it is related to children's cognitive abilities (e.g., executive functions) is critical. Specifically, children's inhibitory control, or the ability to withhold an impulsive response in favor of a novel one, emerges during the preschool years and contributes to children's early school achievement (Lonigan, Allan, Goodrich, Farrington, & Phillips, 2017; McClelland et al., 2007). To assess preschool children's home language and literacy experiences, studies typically employ parent-report surveys that focus on two broad streams of experiences, children's implicit (e.g., shared book reading) and explicit (e.g., parents literacy teaching) experiences with written language (Sénéchal & LeFebvre, 2014). These two streams are differentially related to children's language and literacy outcomes and, as such, appear to represent different domains of parent initiatives (Sénéchal, 2006). In a recent study, this conceptualization was extended to include an additional factor related to the quantity and quality of parent behaviors for parent-child conversation in general, unrelated to written language (Milburn & Lonigan, in preparation). What is unclear is how these domains of parent behaviors, whether related to print or not, are associated with children's inhibitory control. This study examined whether parent-report of their own behaviors during parent-child interaction constituted different dimensions of children's experiences with oral and written language in the home and how these constructs of parent behaviors were associated with children's inhibitory control. Method: Parents of 197 preschool children (Mean age = 55.3 months, male = 107, female = 97, SD = 5.72 months; range = 40 to 70 months) completed a home language and literacy questionnaire (23 items). Children completed three measures of inhibitory control (i.e., Head Toes Knees Shoulders (Ponitz et al., 2008), Grass-Snow (Carlson & Moses, 2001), and Elephant Monkey (a modified version of Bear-Dragon; Carlson & Moses, 2001). Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted. Results: Model comparisons of data for parent behaviors related to written language confirmed that a two-factor model of Implicit and Explicit Print Interactions at home fit the data better than did a one-factor model, in-line with the Home Literacy Model (Sénéchal, 2006). Model fit for a Parent-child Conversation factor provided good fit to the data for preschool children and model fit comparisons yielded that a three-factor model of Implicit Print Interactions, Explicit Print Interactions, and Conversation provided better fit to the data than did the two-factor model replicating the results of the previous study. Finally, only the Explicit Print Interactions factor was significantly associated with the Inhibitory Control factor. Conclusion: These findings indicate that parent report data of parent-child interaction related to language and literacy in the home represent discrete domains of child experiences, but only one domain related to parent explicit literacy teaching was associated with preschool children's inhibitory control. Implications for research will be discussed.

References: Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children's theory of mind. Child Development, 72, 1032-1053. Lonigan, C. J., Allan, D. M., Goodrich, J. M., Farrington, A. L., & Phillips, B. M. (2017). Inhibitory control of Spanish-speaking language-minority preschool children: Measurement and association with language, literacy, and math skills. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50, 373-385. McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C.L., Jewkes, A.M., Morrison, F.J.. (2007). Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers' literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology, 43, 947-959. Milburn, T. F. & Lonigan, C. J. (2018). Factoring parent-child conversation into the Home Literacy Model. Poster presentation at Twenty-fifth Annual Society for the Scientific Studies of Reading Meeting, Brighton, UK. Ponitz, C., McClelland, M. M., Jewkes, A. M., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., & Morrison, F. J. (2008). Touch your toes! Developing a direct measure of behavioral regulation in early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23, 141-158. Sénéchal, M. (2006). Testing the home literacy model: Parent involvement in kindergarten is differentially related to grade 4 reading comprehension, fluency, spelling, and reading for pleasure. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 59-87. Sénéchal, M., & LeFevre, J. A. (2014). Continuity and change in the home literacy environment as predictors of growth in vocabulary and reading. Child Development, 85, 1552-1568. Van Steensel, R. (2006). Relations between socio-cultural factors, the home literacy environment and children's literacy development in the first years of primary education. Journal of Research in Reading, 29, 367-382.

An Evaluation of Direct Instruction on Middle School Emerging Bilingual Students

First presenter: Erin Chaparro, Educational and Community Supports, University of Oregon (echaparr@uoregon.edu) Second presenter: Keith Smolkowski, Oregon Research Institute (keiths@ori.org)

Poster Abstract: In this poster we will describe initial findings from a longitudinal study to examine the impact of Direct Instruction Spoken English (DISE) on the English oral language skills of middle school newcomers who are also emerging bilinguals. The DISE curriculum seeks to improve oral language through a focus on explicit instruction in vocabulary, syntax, pronunciation, and morphology with an emphasis on repeated practice, corrective feedback, and review. It is similar to other English oral language curricula in that it is designed to be a pull-out program. It is unique from other English oral language curricula because it is designed to teach spoken English to groups of students who may not speak the same language, rather than homogeneously grouping students by their native language. Direct Instruction in DISE is exemplified by the sequential introduction of new material and the clear directions to teachers on how to present activities. DISE instruction is highly interactive. Examples are presented to students with clear teacher demonstrations and ample opportunities for students to practice. Teachers are trained to actively monitor students' understanding and provide immediate corrective feedback to prevent students from learning misinformation or misapplying new skills. Teachers maintain a pace that keeps students motivated and engaged yet allows sufficient time and opportunities for students to practice and actively engage in the lessons. The primary research question of this four year evaluation examined the differential response of DISE instruction in comparison to the business as usual English language development instruction condition. Participants include ESL teachers (n=33) from 29 middle schools in Texas, Oregon, and Washington. The participating schools serve students in grades 6 through 8 from linguistically diverse backgrounds. All schools range in size from 567 total students to 1,383 total students (NCES, 2018). Over 700 emerging bilingual students in 6th and 7th grades are included in the targeted study classrooms. We study the impact of DISE using a design in which schools are randomly assigned to use DISE or their existing English language acquisition program during English Language Development instruction. Teachers assigned to use the DISE curriculum were provided with professional development and ongoing coaching. Initial 2-day DISE training took place in person with a coach provided by the curriculum authors, and included an orientation to the curricular approach as well as experiential practice delivering DISE lessons. After the in-person training, the coach conducted an on-site coaching visit and three follow-up remote coaching sessions via live videoconference; for each session, the coach observed the teacher delivering DISE and offered detailed individualized feedback. We will present findings from the final differential response analysis. Preliminary findings from the first three years of the study indicate that the students with beginning levels of English level proficiency receiving the DISE instruction outperformed similarly skilled students receiving BAU instruction. Facilitators and barriers to implementation of an RCT across multiple states will also be discussed.

References: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, EDFacts file 141, Data Group 678, extracted July 21, 2018, from the EDFacts Data Warehouse (internal U.S. Department of Education source)

Preschool children's use of literate language across three elicited language samples

First presenter: Trelani Milburn Chapman, University of Alberta (trelani@ualberta.ca) Second presenter: Lesly Wade-Woolley, University of Alberta (wadewool@mailbox.sc.edu)

Poster Abstract: Across the preschool years, children's literate language skills are developing at measureable rates indicating both the emergence of complex and specific language but also increasingly decontextualized language (Curenton & Justice, 2004). Features of literate language are evident in decontextualized discourse because meaning is conveyed through specific linguistic devices, such as, tier 2 vocabulary words (e.g., "furious" conveys greater intensity than "angry") and complex grammar, such as elaborated noun phrases (e.g., "the tired old man" provides a more specific mental representation than "the man") (Anderson, 2011). The emergence of literate language and children's growing competence with understanding and using decontextualized is important for school success (e.g., Rowe, 2013). The current study explored characteristics of preschool children's use of literate language features during three types of narrative storytelling: (1) story retell wherein children heard a story told to them while looking at the pictures in a wordless book and then they were asked to retell the story, (2) story generation wherein children looked at all of the pictures of a wordless book and then they were asked to tell the story while looking at the pictures but a story is not modeled for them, and (3) story starter wherein children were asked to tell a story based on looking at a single picture without a model or pictures to reflect the story grammar. These three types of stories were selected because they provide different amounts of the story for the child. Method: 137 preschool children (Mean age = 56.5 months) met individually with the examiner to tell the stories and complete measures of language and executive function. The stories were transcribed and coded for features of literate language. Inter-rater reliability for all codes was good. Results: There were statistically significant differences in the length of the stories. Using MANOVA and rate per minute for each feature of literate language (to control for length of the stories), there were no significant differences in the rate of use for any of the features across age; however, significant differences in story context were found for mental state verbs and conjunctions. The results of this study have implications for clinicians and researchers in the use of these different narrative contexts for eliciting language samples.

References: References Anderson, A. (2011). Linguistic specificity through literate language use in preschool-age children with specific language impairment and typical language. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 27, 109-123. Curenton, S. M., & Justice, L. M. (2004). African American and Caucasian preschoolers' use of decontextualized language. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 35, 240-253. Rowe, M. L. (2013). Decontextualized language input and preschoolers' vocabulary development. In Seminars in speech and language (Vol. 34, No. 04, pp. 260-266). Thieme Medical Publishers.

Effects of Self-monitoring Strategy for Spelling and Writing with Tier3 Intervention

First presenter: Eunjung Cho, Seoul National University (jeniceho@snu.ac.kr) Second presenter: Dongil Kim, Seoul National University (dikimedu@snu.ac.kr)

Poster Abstract: Effects of Self-monitoring Strategy for Spelling and Writing with Tier3 Intervention It is needless to mention the importance of writing skills to continue with school academic demands, especially the initial stage of correct spelling. In fact, spelling correctly affects to whole writing process. Also, it plays important role for success in students' whole school life span. However, many students in elementary school suffer from deficiency in writing. As spelling is the basic stage of the writing process, teaching how to correctly spell and maintaining its consistency is one effective intervention strategy to enhance writing skills at an earlier stage. Even though there's a clear recognition of students' struggling in writing, the majority of teachers and resources are not often available for any type of 1:1 or other differentiated instructions to provide students with individually adequate writing skills. Many research findings support the notion that it is effective to give various strategies to students with poor writing achievement. Also, implementing self-monitoring within the teaching sessions could be effective instruction because it tends to make students play a leading role and check their own spelling process, activating meta-cognition skills. In this research, RTI Tier 3 intervention was conducted by utilizing self-monitoring strategy to elementary school students with low writing achievement. For this purpose, the research questions are posed as follows: Research Question 1: Does the Tier 3 intervention in writing using self-monitoring strategy affect under achieving students' spelling skills? Research Question 2: Does the Tier 3 intervention in writing using self-monitoring strategy affect under achieving students' writing expression skills? In conducting this study, three elementary school children in third grade with extremely low writing skills participated. Students were selected based on the teacher's recommendation, IQ score, and current writing achievement levels. The study used multiple baseline design across participants, and intervention was composed of two sessions of explaining and explicitly teaching self-monitoring strategies and ten sessions of actual intervention including teaching of phonological changes occurring in the Korean language. Intervention was carried out intensively for 6 weeks, a total of 12 sessions. The results of this study are as follows. First, Tier 3 intervention based on self-monitoring program and phonologically changing rules was adapted. It showed that intervention sessions taught by phonological change can expand to spelling of other words that the participants previously did not know. Second, Tier 3 intervention based on self-monitoring program enhanced writing expression skills in fluency. The results were assessed through Basic Academic Skills Assessment: Writing scores and showed that the improvement of spelling skills further affects writing expression skills as the next sequence in the writing process. However, it needs further research to accurately assess the correlation between spelling and writing expression. Third, Tier 3 intervention based on self-monitoring program did not have effective improvement in qualitative writing scores as changing the quality of writing may require more intervention time. This research analyzed not only the spelling skills but also writing fluency skills as part of writing expression with students' self-monitoring strategy.

References: 1. Barry, M., & Messer, J. A. (2003). Practical application of self-management for students diagnosed with attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Positive Behavior, Intervention, 5(4), 238-248. 2. Bourassa, D. C., & Treiman, R. (2000). The development of spelling skill. Topics in language disorders. 3. Cortiella, C. (2006). A parent's guide to response-to-intervention. National Center for Learning Disabilities. 4. Kim, D. & Jung, K. (2008). Exploring an Integrated Model for Identification of Learning Disabilities: Beyond the Discrepancy and responsiveness-to-Intervention. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders. 24(1), 133-161. 5. Kim, D., Kim, M. & Bae, S. (2003). Development and Validation of Assessment of Written Expression for Children with Academic Difficulties. Asian Journal of Education. 4(3), 43-68. 6. Kim, W. & Yun, J. (2014). A Literature Review of Response-to-Intervention (RTI) in South Korea: Analyses of Intervention Components and Definitions of Non-Response. The Korean Society of Special Education. 48(4), 275-298.

Growth mindset and reading comprehension: Exploring reciprocal relations

First presenter: Eunsoo Cho, Michigan State University (escho@msu.edu) Second presenter: Unhee Ju, Riverside Insights (unhee.ju@riversideinsights.com)

Additional authors: Garam Lee, Michigan State University; Eun Ha Kim, Michigan State University

Poster Abstract: Mindsets refer to students' implicit beliefs about the nature of intelligence, whether it is malleable or fixed (Dweck, 1999; Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Such beliefs have been shown to be a key contributor of academic success (Burnette et al., 2013; Sisk, Burgoyne, Sun, Butler, & McNamara, 2018). For example, students with a growth mindset believe intelligence can be developed through effort; thus, they tend to set learning goals, interpret academic challenges as opportunities to grow, and persist in the face of difficulties. Despite growing body of evidence suggesting students' growth mindset as important motivational, protective mechanisms against setbacks, only a few studies have investigated the role of growth mindset in reading development (e.g., Cho, Toste, Lee, & Ju, 2018; Petscher, Al Otaiba, Wanzek, Rivas, & Jones, 2017). The purpose of this study was to examine the reciprocal relation of growth mindset and reading comprehension. One might hypothesize that when students hold a growth mindset, they put more efforts and persistent; thus, show greater reading comprehension growth (Cho, Kim, Ju, in review). On the other hand, it is possible that students existing reading comprehension skill will reinforce their growth mindset.

In the beginning and end of sixth grade (N = 291), students' growth mindset and reading comprehension were assessed. Reading comprehension was assessed with the Test of Silent Reading Fluency and Comprehension (TOSREC; Wagner, Torgesen, Rashotte, & Pearson, 2012) as well as AimsWeb Maze measure to create a latent variable of reading comprehension. Gates Mac-Ginitie Reading Test- 4th (GMRT; MacGinitie, MacGinitie, Maria, & Dreyer, 2002) was administered at the end of the school year. The developmental relations between reading comprehension and growth mindset was tested in a structural model with autoregressive and cross-lagged paths. Reading comprehension showed very strong stability over time (B = 1.07, SE = .06, p < .05), and growth mindset displayed the moderate degree of stability (B = 0.47, SE = .09, p < .05). More importantly, the reciprocal associations were observed. Not only did growth general mindset at the beginning of the school year significantly predict year-end reading comprehension (B = 0.14, SE = .07, p < .05), but also beginning reading comprehension had a unique significant effect on growth general mindset at the end of school year (B = .12, SE = .06, p < .05). Overall, this model fit the data well, χ2 (55) = 91.41, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, RMSEA = .05, BIC = 7317.82. This finding suggests students might benefit when interventions to enhance reading comprehension and growth mindset are combined as they are likely to have synergistic effects owing to their reciprocal relationships.

References: Burnette, J.L., O'Boyle, E. H., VanEpps, E. M., Pollack, J. M., & Finkel, E. J. (2013). Mind-sets matter: a meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 655-701. Cho, E., Toste, J. R., Lee, M., & Ju, U. (2018). Motivational predictors of struggling readers' reading comprehension: The effects of mindset, achievement goals, and engagement. Reading and Writing. Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-Theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality, and Development. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Random House. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273. Sisk, V. F., Burgoyne, A. P., Sun, J., Butler, J. L., & Macnamara, B. N. (2018). To what extent and under which circumstances are growth mind-sets important to academic achievement? Two meta-analyses. Psychological Science, 29, 549-571. Petscher, Y., Al Otaiba, S., Wanzek, J., Rivas, B., & Jones, F. (2017). The relation between global and specific mindset with reading outcomes for elementary school students. Scientific Studies of Reading, 21, 376-391.

Peer Networks of Children with and without Specific Language Impairment in Kindergarten

First presenter: Jason Chow, Virginia Commonwealth University (jcchow@vcu.edu) Second presenter: Kristen Granger, Virginia Commonwealth University (kgranger@vcu.edu)

Poster Abstract: The purpose of this study is to better understand how early language skills influence the development of prosocial and maladaptive social relationships in children with and without specific language impairment (SLI) in order to develop efficacious, evidence-based interventions aimed at preventing or reducing risk of later social maladjustment, delinquency, and psychosocial disorders. This project examines the social networks of children with and without risk for SLI, and to identify important protective factors in order to maximize the utility of intervention efforts. The aims of the present proposal are present findings from our study and facilitate discussion on how to best leverage social network analysis (SNA) to address gaps in our knowledge in research involving social systems, peer affiliation, friendships, and the complexities of classroom ecology. We situate the present study and discussion in an ecological-transactional framework (Bronfrenbrenner, 1994; Sameroff, 2009) to aid our understanding of how language, behavior, and social development are related to and interact with each other in complex, dynamic systems (Chow, Ekholm, & Coleman, 2018). Using an interaction-centered model of language and behavioral development (Chow, Cunningham, & Wallace, 2019), we posit that deficits in language skills, such as speaking and listening, may influence children's behavior over time specific to the dyadic nature of teacher-child and peer relationships.

Research aims were to: 1. Determine the role of language skills in peer friendships and isolation in Kindergarten 2. Examine the influence of gender, race/ethnicity, and social skills on the relations between language and peer networks 3. Examine the role of classroom atmosphere and adversity plays in the formation of peer network formation 4. Compare results of two reporters of network data to determine convergence of teacher report and student interviews.

Our sample includes data from 442 children (mean age = 67.1 months, SD = 4.4) within 20 kindergarten classrooms, and include comprehensive language assessment and friendship data from over 98% of children in each classroom. To determine SLI status, we assessed children's language skills using a norm-referenced direct assessment and used peer nominations of friendships and teacher reports to generate network objects for exponential random graph models (ERGM; Lusher, Koskinen, & Robins, 2012). First, ERGMs estimated whether the probability of forming social networks differed based on whether or not a child had developmental language disorder. Second, we used hierarchical generalized linear models (HGLM) to estimate whether the likelihood of being marginalized was associated with SLI. We conducted all analyses using R (e.g., statnet; Hancock et al., 2016). As predicted, children with SLI had significantly smaller peer social networks and were more likely to be socially marginalized after controlling for a series of child-level and teacher-level covariates. Preliminary moderator analyses suggest that actor gender, classroom atmosphere, and classroom-level adversity predicted both the level of social integration and marginalization.

References: Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. Readings on the Development of Children, 2, 37-43 Chow J. C., Cunningham, J., & Stehle Wallace, E. (accepted). Interaction-centered model for language and behavioral development. In T. Farmer, B. Farmer, K. Sutherland, & M. Conroy (Eds), Handbook of Research on Emotional & Behavioral Disabilities: Interdisciplinary Developmental Perspectives on Children and Youth. New York, NY: Routledge. Chow, J. C., Ekholm, E., & Coleman, H. (2018). Does oral language underpin the development of later behavior problems? A longitudinal meta-analysis. School psychology quarterly, 33(3), 337. Handcock, M. S., Hunter, D. R., Butts, C. T., Goodreau, S. M., Krivitsky, P. N., Bender-deMoll, S., & Morris, M. (2016). statnet: Software tools for the statistical analysis of network data. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=statnet Lusher, D., Koskinen, J., & Robins, G. (Eds.). (2013). Exponential random graph models for social networks: Theory, methods, and applications. Cambridge University Press. Sameroff, A. (Ed.). (2009). The transactional model of development: How children and contexts shape each other (pp. 3-21). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/11877- 001

Observing Literacy Engagement: Interrater Reliability Conditional on Literacy Behavior

First presenter: Carlin Conner, Southern Methodist University (carlinc@smu.edu) Second presenter: Paul Yovanoff, Southern Methodist University (pyovanoff@smu.edu)

Additional authors: Jill Allor, Southern Methodist University

Poster Abstract: Obtaining reliable measures of ID student literacy behavior is challenging as literacy behaviors are sometimes subtle. The SOLE is a carefully designed observation tool designed to measure literacy behavior of students with ID. Behaviors are coded as either observed (1) or not observed (0) by a trained observer during literacy instruction at each 30-second time interval during the observed instruction. The 25 literacy behaviors captured with the SOLE are grouped into seven behavior domains, (a) language development, (b) abstract thinking, (c) elaboration, (d) print, (e) engagement, (f) fluency and prosody, and (g) off task/refusal behaviors. Three raters independently coded 8 to 10 minutes of video data of three students with ID during literacy instruction participating in a curriculum designed for students with disabilities (Allor et al., 2018). Before independently coding, raters practiced coding segments of literacy instruction together, reaching 100% agreement. Overall, across all behaviors observed percent agreement of the three raters was 84%, which is arguably very high. Observed agreement, however, is an inadequate estimate. Multiple rater reliability statistics were considered (e.g., Kappa, Krippendorf alpha, the Gwet AC). The Gwet AC was the most appropriate test statistic to use in the presence of this high observed agreement (Gwet, 2008), though it is limited to comparing only two raters at a time. Provided below, results from each pair of raters (1 & 2, 1 & 3, and 2 & 3) indicate high reliability between each pair of raters, with little variability. The results comparing raters over the entire measure, including Gwet AC estimate, standard errors, and upper and lower confidence bounds, has been analyzed and will be shared via presentation.

This presentation will focus on variability in interrater reliability among behavior categories, posing the research question: For students with ID, is interrater reliability conditional on literacy behavior? Based on examination of both the Gwet AC statistic and the overlapping (or non-overlapping) confidence bounds, it appears that rater reliability for literacy behavior categories engagement and fluency/prosody were lower than for the other behavior categories. Again, data will be shared that compares each pair of raters across individual behavior categories, including Gwet AC estimate, standard error, and upper and lower confidence bound, has been analyzed and will be shared with the presentation. We interpret these findings to indicate that obtaining reliable ID student literacy behavior observations depends on specific behaviors, and that increased rater training may be needed specifically for some literacy behaviors. Discussion will focus on reasons for the differences in reliability among constructs and methods to improve reliability on these, as well as other, behaviors in the future for this population, as observation tools may be a used for a more accurate representation of student engagement/abstract thinking/elaborations for students with low IQs than would a written assessment.

References: Allor, J. H., Gifford, D. B., Jones, F. G., Otaiba, S. A., Yovanoff, P., Ortiz, M. B., & Cheatham, J. P. (2018). The effects of a text-centered literacy curriculum for students with intellectual disability. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 123, 474-494. Gwet, K. L. (2008). Computing inter-rater reliability and its variance in the presence of high agreement. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 61, 29-48.

Using the High-Leverage Practices to Systematically Review Teacher Preparation Program

First presenter: Lysandra Cook, University of Virginia (lysandra@virginia.edu) Poster Abstract: Federal policy (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA], 2004; NCLB, 2002; U.S. Department of Education, 2010) requires the use of classroom programs and practices that have proved effective in improving student achievement based on scientifically based research. Prominent teacher educators in general education (Ball & Forzani, 2011) have called their colleagues to action by arguing the need for teacher education to more deliberately focus on instructional practice and develop teacher education programs that directly address this goal. In response, the Council for Exceptional Children and the CEEDAR Center identified a set of high-leverage classroom practices (HLPs) that all special education teachers must learn (2016). The science of effective practice is informed by a rich, deep body of scholarship around building expertise. The knowledge and skill needed by beginning teachers is not developed from reading books or studying about teaching alone (Phelps, 2009; Ball & Forzani, 2009). Teacher education programs are designed to provide both effective instruction to support knowledge growth but also practice-based opportunities to support skill growth. Practice-based opportunities that are coherent, sequenced, and scaffolded can help teacher candidates automatize their knowledge and skill for teaching prior to entering complex classroom settings. EPPs must examine the practice-based opportunities for candidates are provided to support mastery of the high leverage practices identified for their field. Ericsson (2014) defined practice-based opportunities as those that afford candidates opportunities to integrate both content and pedagogy acquired through coursework into instruction. This presentation provides an overview of a systematic program evaluation of a merged (Blanton & Pugach, 2007) elementary and special education program. Faculty examined 13 method and 6 field syllabi to determine how the embedded assignments, field components, and signature assignments provided practice based opportunities (Benedict et al., 2016) for the twenty-two HLPs (CEC & CEEDAR, 2016). The syllabi review revealed a course reading or lecture, an assignment, and a practice-based opportunity for 21 of the 22 HLPs with no field-based opportunity for HLP 3: Collaborate with families to support student learning and secure needed services. Using a 5-point Likert scale student teachers rated the importance of the practice for special educators, their ability to engage in the practice effectively, and their opportunities to engage in the practice during their program for each of the HLPs. Respondents provided open ended comments to identify specific program requirements or opportunities they found most useful in learning each HLP. Across all HLPs student teachers rated the importance of the practice for special educators the highest with a range of 4.8-5, their personal efficacy for each practice had a range of 3.7- 4.9, and opportunity to engage in the practice ranged from 3.3-5. Ratings for opportunities to engage were higher than personal efficacy for all HLPs except one. Student teachers rated HLP 3: Collaborate with families to support student learning and secure needed services as the lowest both in efficacy and in their opportunity to engage in the practice thus indicating that the intended curriculum and experienced curriculum are well aligned.

References: Ball, D., & Forzani, F. M. (2009). The work of teaching and the challenge for teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(5), 497-511. Ball, D. L., & Forzani, F. M. (2011, Summer). Building a common core for learning to teach, and connecting professional learning to practice. American Educator, 35(2), 17-21, 38-39. Benedict, A., Holdheide, L., Brownell, M., & Foley, A. M. (2016). Learning to Teach: Practice-Based Preparation in Teacher Education. Special Issues Brief. Center on Great Teachers and Leaders. Blanton, L. P., & Pugach, M. C. (2007). Collaborative Programs in General and Special Teacher Education: An Action Guide for Higher Education and State Policymakers. Center for Improving Teacher Quality. Washington DC: Council of Chief State School Officers. http://programs.ccsso.org/content/pdfs/CPGSTE%20Action%20Guide%20PDF%20Final.pdf Ericsson, K. Anders. "Deliberate practice and the acquisition and maintenance of expert performance in medicine and related domains." Academic medicine 79.10 (2004): S70-S81. McLeskey, J., Barringer, M-D., Billingsley, B., Brownell, M., Jackson, D., Kennedy, M., Lewis, T., Maheady, L., Rodriguez, J., Scheeler, M. C., Winn, J., & Ziegler, D. (2017, January). High-leverage practices in special education. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children & CEEDAR Center.

Examining the Reproducibility of Electronic Literature Searches

First presenter: Bryan G. Cook, University of Virginia (bc3qu@virginia.edu) Second presenter: Ashley Hosbach, University of Virginia (aeh5mg@virginia.edu)

Additional authors: Christopher Lemons, Vanderbilt University; Jason Travers, University of Kansas; Daniel Maggin, University of Illinois, Chicago; Lysandra Cook, University of Virginia

Poster Abstract: Systematic research reviews and meta-analyses are commonly used to synthesize research findings, and serve as an influential basis for policy and practice (Cooper, Hedges, & Valentine, 2019). The integrity of the systematic review process rests on its reproducibility (Liberati et al., 2009). For example, independent researchers should be able to reproduce electronic literature searches based on procedures reported in research reports. However, variability at different levels of the search process may impair the reproducibility of electronic literature searches. In this poster, we (a) discuss ways in which electronic searches can vary across institutions, (b) describe a preliminary study to examine differences in electronic search options and reproducibility of search findings across universities, and (c) make recommendations for reporting of electronic searches based on study findings.

Many researchers conflate data bases and vendors (also called platforms, hosts, and aggregators). Universities contract with vendors to access electronic databases. In education, commonly used databases include ERIC and PsycINFO, and common vendors include EBSCOhost and ProQuest. Differences between vendors can alter how searches of the same data bases are conducted. For example, at the University of Virginia, one can search for keywords using an "anywhere except full text" option when using ProQuest, which is not available when searching the same database through EBSCOhost. Further complicating matters, university librarians have the option to customize search parameters, or user-experience options, for each vendor. For example, user-experience options include available search options (e.g., anywhere but full text), whether Boolean phases (e.g., and, or, not) must be capitalized, options for specifying date parameters, and options for only displaying results for which the library has full texts available. Finally, university librarians can bundle searches (i.e., automatically search related databases) as a default option.

Because universities vary by (a) vendors they contract with to search popular databases, and (b) user-experience options vary across institutions and vendors, two searches of the same database using the same search terms may produce different results at different universities. This issue has been empirically examined in the medical literature (Burns, Shapiro, Nix, & Huber, 2019), but not in the social science or education.

We will conduct (and report the findings of in this poster) a preliminary study examining differences in search options (i.e., vendors, user-experience options) for two frequently used electronic databases in special education: ERIC and PsycINFO. Specifically, we will compare vendors and user-experience options across approximately 10 university libraries for searching ERIC and PsycINFO. To investigate reproducibility of searches, we will randomly select approximately five meta-analyses published in special education journals in the past year and attempt to reproduce the searches across approximately 10 different universities. We will describe whether and how much variability in search results exists, and explore sources of variation. We conclude with recommendations (beyond the PRISMA guidelines) to maximize the transparency and reproducibility of electronic literature searches based on the results of the study.

References: Burns, C. S., Shapiro II, R. M., Nix, T., & Huber, J. T. (2019). Search results outliers among MEDLINE platforms. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 107, 364-373. https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2019.622 Cooper, H., Hedges, L. V., & Valentine, J. C. (Eds.). (2019). The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis. Russell Sage Foundation. Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P. A., ... Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. PLOS Medicine, 6(7), e1000100. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000100

Differences in Forming Knowledge-to-text Inferences Among EL and non-EL middle school students.

First presenter: Johny Daniel, University of Texas at Austin (johny.daniel@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Amy Barth, Buena Vista University (barth@bvu.edu)

Poster Abstract: The process of integrating textual information within and between text and one's own background knowledge is called inference making or knowledge-to-text inferencing. At least two types of knowledge-to-text inferences are important for comprehension: coherence inferences and elaborative inferences. Coherence inferences are central to textual cohesion by helping the reader understand the propositional text-base (i.e., meaning of words and clauses stated in the text). Coherence inferences add implied but important information to the ideas explicitly stated in the text. They also establish links between the text and the reader's background knowledge so that the reader can infer "why an event happened". In contrast, elaborative inferences embellish text content, amplify its context, and enrich the text representation so that the reader can infer "what an event is like".

This study examined the knowledge accessiblity and availability in forming knowledge-to-text inferences among middle grade English-speaking students and English learners (EL). A total of 145 students in grade 5 and 6 (61% EL grade 5; 57% EL grade 6), who achieved a score of 92 or greater on the Gates MacGinitie Reading Test were randomized to either a study pictures condition (S) or study and discuss pictures (SD). In the S condition, after students are taught the facts on the imaginary planet Gan, students will be provided an opportunity to review the taught facts. Alternately, in the SD condition, after students are taught the knowledge base, students will be provided an opportunity to review plus discuss the facts and how they are interconnected. The purpose of this manipulation was to determine if a short recall activity facilitated knowledge availability or accessibility among middle grade students. The materials and procedures were modified from those used by Barnes et al. (1996) and Cain et al. (2001).

The experiment comprised four stages. In the first stage, students were taught a knowledge base consisting of 12 facts about an imaginary planet called Gan. In the second stage, after the knowledge base had been taught to perfect recall, students were given 30 seconds to study pictures that depicted the Gan facts or study and discuss pictures that depicted the Gan facts. In the third stage, students listened to a six-episode story about the planet Gan. Immediately after listening to each episode, students were asked four questions assessing literal and inferential information from that episode. In the fourth stage, immediately after listening to all six episodes, retention of the knowledge base was retested. The knowledge base was also re-tested one week later and one month later.

Data were analyzed using linear mixed effect modeling. Results showed that groups did not differ significantly across both the fact recall and the literal/inferential recall measures. Additionally, EL students and their non-EL peers did not differ significantly on the fact recall measure across different time points. However, non-EL students outperformed their EL peers significantly on the literal/inferential recall task. The magnitude of difference between EL and non-EL students on the literal/inferential recall task was greater in the S group compared to the SD group.

References: Barnes, M. A., Dennis, M., & Haefele-Kalvaitis, J. (1996). The Effects of Knowledge Availability and Knowledge Accessibility on Coherence and Elaborative Inferencing in Children from Six to Fifteen Years of Age. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 61(3), 216-241. doi:10.1006/jecp.1996.0015 Cain, K., Oakhill, J. V., Barnes, M. A., & Bryant, P. E. (2001). Comprehension skill, inference-making ability, and their relation to knowledge. Memory & Cognition, 29(6), 850-859. doi:10.3758/bf03196414

Synthesis of Sustainability of Remedial Reading Intervention Effects for Struggling Adolescent Readers

First presenter: Johny Daniel, University of Texas at Austin (johny.daniel@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Dr. Philip Capin, University of Texas at Austin (pcapin@utexas.edu)

Additional authors: Paul Steinle, University of Texas at Austin (paulksteinle@utexas.edu)

Poster Abstract: A majority of reading-related intervention studies aiming to remediate middle and high school struggling readers' reading outcomes focus on students' scores immediately at the end of an intervention to make statistical inferences of intervention effects. Few studies collect follow-up data to measure the long-term sustainability of treatment effects. Several early reading intervention studies that collect follow-up data on phonological awareness related interventions have shown that impact of these interventions show benefits on treatment students' academic outcomes 1 to 10 years after interventions have concluded (e.g., Blachman et al., 2014). One recent meta-analysis corroborates the claim on the effectiveness of early elementary reading interventions on students' reading related outcomes at follow-up time points (Suggate, 2016). While a lot is known about early elementary reading interventions and their extended benefits, not much is known about the long-term benefits of effective middle and high school reading practices for struggling adolescent readers. Thus, the focus of this synthesis is to understand, what are the effects of reading interventions provided in small group settings on reading outcomes for struggling readers in grades 6-12 at immediate posttest and follow-up time points? A systematic search of published and unpublished literature between 1996 and 2017 was conducted using electronic databases (Education source, ERIC, PsycINFO, and ProQuest Dissertation and Theses Global). Studies had to meet the following criteria: (a) interventions involving participants identified with LD, dyslexia, or struggling readers in grades 6-12; (b) study was a randomized control trial or quasi-experimental design; (c) intervention study targeted English language reading related skill such as decoding, fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, or multicomponent reading intervention; (d) studies that reported posttest and maintenance data for at least one dependent measure that assessed reading-related outcome; (e) reading related interventions conducted in a school setting (i.e. no summer school or home-based literacy program); (f) reading related interventions that were conducted in school settings but outside the general education classroom; (g) studies published between 1996 and 2017; (h) studies published in a peer reviewed journal or unpublished dissertation; (i) studies available in English. Seven studies met all inclusion criteria and were included in this synthesis; three were peer reviewed journal articles and four unpublished doctoral dissertations. On average, the follow-up data collection took place 4.5 weeks after posttesting (range = 2 to 7 weeks). In general, positive intervention effects observed at posttest were sustained at follow-up time points. When comparing the confidence intervals of the 14 effect sizes that were significant at posttest, it was observed that 13 overlapped with the follow-up effect size confidence intervals, denoting sustainability and stability of intervention effects. While there is no general consensus in the field on the appropriate time to collect follow-up data, it is important to point out that the average time when follow-up data were collected was approximately four-weeks after posttest. Hence, it could be argued that additional research with greater time between immediate posttest and follow-up data collection are needed to build on the current review's findings that adolescent struggling readers maintain their reading-related performance over time.

References: Blachman, B. A., Schatschneider, C., Fletcher, J. M., Murray, M. S., Munger, K. A., & Vaughn, M. G. (2014). Intensive reading remediation in grade 2 or 3: Are there effects a decade later?. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 46. Suggate, S. P. (2016). A meta-analysis of the long-term effects of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and reading comprehension interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 49(1), 77-96.

Self-Determination Integrated within Interventions for Elementary Students with Learning Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis

First presenter: Lisa Didion, The University of Iowa (lisa-didionjohnston@uiowa.edu) Second presenter: Jessica R. Toste, The University of Texas at Austin (jrtoste@austin.utexas.edu)

Poster Abstract: Academic achievement and success in school are reliant on the ability to read proficiently (NRP, 2000). Of fourth grade students with disabilities, including learning disabilities (LD), only 12% are at or above proficiency level in reading (NAEP, 2017). Targeting self-determination as a means to effectively engage students in school programing may result in increased outcomes for students with LD (Zheng et al., 2014). Self-determination is made up of several related components (Wehmeyer et al., 1997) and is a valuable lifelong skill (Shogren et al., 2015; Wehmeyer et al., 2012). Beginning in elementary school, teachers should provide opportunities for students to learn self-determination skills (Palmer et al., 2012; Stang et al., 2009). However, most self-determination research has been conducted with older students and no studies to date have systematically reported on the effects of interventions that incorporate one or more self-determination components targeting elementary-aged students. As such, the purpose of this presentation is to discuss findings from a meta-analysis that examined the impact of interventions that incorporated self-determination components on the reading outcomes for students with and at risk for LD in kindergarten through 5th grade. We address three research questions: (1) What are the effects of including self-determination components within reading interventions for elementary students with and at risk for LD? (2) What characteristics of study design are potential moderators of effects (i.e., experimental design, reading outcomes measured)? (3) What characteristics of intervention packages are potential moderators of effects (i.e. self-determination components, dosage, presence of reading skill instruction)?

A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed research published from the earliest possible publication date identified (May 1924) and May 2019 resulted in 30 studies that met prescribed inclusion criterion. Both randomized controlled trials (RCT) and single-case design (SCD) studies were included in the results. The effect size index used for included RCTs will be Hedges' g (Hedges, 1981). For SCDs, between-case standardized mean difference effect sizes (Pustejovsky, 2016) will be calculated. This effect size estimate makes it possible to synthesize findings from both RCTs and SCD in one meta-analysis (Valentine et al., 2016). Therefore, all effect sizes from both study design types will be included in the model with study design as a potential moderating effect. Further, all eligible, independent effect sizes will be included from each study, resulting in some studies contributing multiple effect sizes when several reading outcomes were reported. To account for the statistical dependencies of these correlated effects, random effects robust standard estimation will be used (Hedges et al., 2010).

Preliminary findings indicate that application of self-determination at the elementary-level for students with LD has been limited, in that the only component exclusively targeted within interventions has been self-regulation. While goal setting was also observed, it was always paired with self-regulation components as part of the intervention package. Discussion will be focused around: (a) included self-determination components, (b) research methods, and (c) future directions for incorporating self-determination within reading instruction including the need to teach other self-determination components in elementary school for students with and at risk for LD.

References: Hedges, L. V., Tipton, E., & Johnson, M. C. (2010). Robust variance estimation in meta-regression with dependent effect size estimates. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(1), 39-65. National Assessment of Educational Progress (2017). The Nation's Report Card: 2017 mathematics and reading assessments. Available from http://www.nationsreportcard National Reading Panel (NRP) (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (National Institute of Health Pub. No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Palmer, S. B., Summers, J. A., Brotherson, M. J., Erwin, E. J., Maude, S. P., Stroup-Rentier, V., ... & Chu, S. Y. (2012). Foundations for self-determination in early childhood: An inclusive model for children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 33(1), 38-47. Pustejovsky, James E. (2016). scdhlm: A web-based calculator for between-case standardized mean differences (Version 0.3.1) [Web application]. Retrieved from: https://jepusto.shinyapps.io/scdhlm Shogren, K. A., Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Forber-Pratt, A. J., Little, T. J., & Lopez, S. (2015). Causal agency theory: Reconceptualizing a functional model of self-determination. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 251-263. Stang, K. K., Carter, E. W., Lane, K. L., & Pierson, M. R. (2009). Perspectives of general and special educators on fostering self-determination in elementary and middle schools. The Journal of Special Education. 43, 94-106. doi: 10.1177/0022466907313452 Valentine, JC et al. Between-case standardized mean difference effect sizes for single-case designs: A primer and tutorial using the scdhlm web application. Oslo, Norway: The Campbell Collaboration. Retrieved from: www.campbellcollaboration.org/ Wehmeyer, M. L., Field, S., & Thoma, C. (2012). Self-determination and adolescent transition education in Handbook of adolescent transition education for youth with disabilities, (pp.171-190), New York, NY: Routledge. Wehmeyer, M. L., Sands, D. J., Doll, B., & Palmer, S. (1997). The development of self-determination and implications for educational interventions with students with disabilities. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 44(4), 305-332. Zheng, C., Erickson, A. G., Kingston, N. M., & Noonan, P. M. (2014). The relationship among self-determination, self-concept, and academic achievement for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(5), 462-474.

A Synthesis of the Effects of Summer Reading Interventions on Secondary Students

First presenter: Jordan Dille, The University of Texas at Austin (jordandille@utexas.edu) Poster Abstract: Students in secondary grades who are considered at-risk demonstrate similar gains during the school year as their peers (Douglas, 2007), however research has shown they lose an average of three to four months of academic knowledge and skills during the summer months (Cooper, Nye, Charlton, Lindsay, & Greathouse, 1996)). Research suggests academic summer loss leads to an annual differentiation in retained information of up to 7 months over the course of an academic year between at-risk and on-level readers (Brekke, 1992). A common method to minimize the effects of summer loss is the use of interventions during the months that school is not in session. Despite the prevalence of summer interventions for students who may be particularly susceptible to summer loss, there have been no efforts to synthesize the efficacy of summer reading interventions that focus on only interventions with treatment and control condition to allow for effect size calculations, nor have any studies focused specifically on students in secondary grades. This systematic literature synthesis investigated the effects of summer instruction on reading performance for students with reading difficulties in Grades 6 - 12. Research questions were: What interventions and sample characteristics were associated with improved outcomes? What are the overall effects across studies? What study designs or characteristics were used and did some designs yield greater gains? Who participated in the studies and were some students more likely to make gains? and What reading practices were implemented during instruction and were some more efficacious than others? Results showed that students in the treatment conditions routinely outperformed students in control, with small to medium variations in performance observed along grade level, participant characteristics and intervention characteristics. Findings suggest that increased time of implementation does not always correlate to larger effect sizes. Results also indicate that school districts can optimize chance of gains in reading outcomes by aligning intervention designs to certain student characteristics.

References: Cooper, H., Nye, B., Charlton, K., Lindsay, J., & Greathouse, S. (1996). The effects of summer vacation on achievement test scores: A Narrative and Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 66(3), 227. Brekke, N. R. (1992). Instructional time and student learning: A study of school calendar and instructional time. Virginia State Department of Education, Richmond. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 356 555 Douglas, K. (2007). Long Term Effects of Summer Setback on Reading Achievement. Reading Today, 25(3), 39.

A Synthesis of Recent Reading Intervention Research for Upper Elementary Struggling Readers

First presenter: Rachel E. Donegan, Vanderbilt University (rachel.e.donegan@vanderbilt.edu) Poster Abstract: Upper elementary struggling readers are unique from those found in the primary grades. These struggling readers demonstrate a broader range of profiles than those seen in the primary grades where word reading difficulties account for the majority of reading problems (Nation & Snowling, 1997; Shankweiler et al., 1999). A closer look at the profiles of these struggling readers shows a broad range of interventions may be needed. Older struggling readers may demonstrate difficulties in word reading, comprehension, or across both domains (Leach, Scarborough, & Rescorla, 2003; Lipka, Lesaux, Siegel, 2006).

Some upper elementary struggling readers may demonstrate persistent reading difficulties or present severe reading difficulties with reading skills that are far below those of their peers. When examining intervention approaches for students with severe and persistent reading difficulties, it may be important to consider features of intervention intensity such as implementation intensity (e.g. total duration and group size) and individualization.

Purpose The purpose of this review is to update and extend an earlier synthesis by Wanzek, Wexler, Vaughn, and Ciullo (2010) for upper elementary students with reading difficulties or disabilities. We conducted updated searches to identify reading intervention research conducted with late elementary students since 2007. In addition, we extended Wanzek et al.'s work by conducting a statistical analysis of effects of intervention on reading outcomes and examining how intervention areas and intensity may have moderated effects. We sought to answer the following research questions: 1) What are the effects of reading interventions for 4th and 5th grade struggling readers? 2) How are effects moderated by intervention areas and intensity?

Method We conducted a comprehensive electronic and hand searches to identify relevant studies. Search terms combining key words for reading, struggling readers, and reading intervention were used. Articles were screened according to the following inclusion criteria: provide a reading intervention in a school setting to struggling readers in the fourth or fifth grades, include at least one reading outcome and the information needed to calculate effect sizes, use an experimental or quasi-experimental design, and be published in English in a peer-reviewed journal. Studies were coded for information on participants, study design and quality, intervention, intensity, and outcomes. A weighted regression using a random effects model and dummy-coded predictors was used to analyze effects. Results were analyzed separately for foundational and comprehension outcomes.

Findings Twenty-five studies containing 4157 total participants were included in the review. We found small effects of intervention for foundational (g = 0.20) and comprehension outcomes (g = 0.09). However, these effects became very small and nonsignificant when considering standardized measures only. We found foundational reading intervention predicted larger effects for foundational reading outcomes than multicomponent or comprehension interventions. Longer or individualized interventions were not associated with larger effects. However, interventions implemented in very small groups predicted larger comprehension outcomes. Overall, more research examining counterfactual conditions and how the severity of reading difficulties may have impacted effects of more intensive interventions is needed.

References: Leach, J. M., Scarborough, H., & Rescorla, L. (2003). Late-emerging reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 211-224. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.211 Lipka, O., Lesaux, N., & Siegel, L. (2006). Retrospective analyses of the reading development of Grade 4 students with reading disabilities: Risk status and profiles over 5 years. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(4), 364-378. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194060390040901 Nation, K., & Snowling, M. (1997). Assessing reading difficulties: The validity and utility of current measures of reading skill. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 359- 370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.20448279.1997.tb01250x Shankweiler, D., Lundquist, E., Katz, L., Stuebing, K., Fletcher, J., Brady, S., ... Shaywitz, B. (1999). Comprehension and decoding: Patterns of association in children with reading difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3(1), 69-94. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0301_4 Wanzek, J., Wexler, J., Vaughn, S., & Ciullo, S. (2010). Reading interventions for struggling readers in the upper elementary grades: A synthesis of 20 years of research. Reading and Writing. 23. 889-912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9179-5.

Investigating RtI Implementation Integrity in Elementary Reading Instruction

First presenter: Alicia Farris, Central Connecticut State University (awetherbee@gmail.com) Second presenter: Sally Drew, Central Connecticut State University (drewsav@ccsu.edu)

Poster Abstract: This poster will display results from a survey study investigating Response to Intervention (RtI) reading implementation integrity in Connecticut elementary schools. Implementation integrity remains a barrier within the context of an RtI framework. Despite existing evidence that supports the importance of implementation adherence in reading instruction (Benner et al., 2011; National Reading Panel, 2000) and RtI (Alonzo et al., 2008; Austin et al., 2017), the extant knowledge relevant to implementation of RtI within the school context is limited (Noltemeyer et al., 2014). Thus, the work of this study is timely as it aims to identify RtI reading implementation quality within and across tiers of the RtI framework. The conceptual framework for this study integrates models that are required for full RtI implementation: Health Prevention Model, RtI Model, Standard Treatment Approach, and Problem Solving Model. This framework (available upon request) extends the existing triangle model (NCRTI, 2010) and is depicted as a funnel that integrates assessment and intervention within a multi-level prevention system to illustrate the processes and inputs that ultimately lead to increased student outcomes. It articulates the comprehensive and interconnected nature of key RtI components: research-based instruction and intervention, assessment, data-based decision making (DBDM), professional development, and treatment integrity. The level of support, members of the problem solving team, and individualization of an intervention increase in intensity as students move between the tiers. Assessment guides DBDM within and across tiers where the problem is defined and a plan is developed, implemented, and evaluated. Treatment integrity is addressed in the evaluation stage to mitigate misinterpretation of results and misguided decisions.

The research project addresses the following questions: RQ1: What is the overall quality of self-reported RtI reading implementation integrity in CT? RQ2: Does the quality of RtI reading implementation integrity differ across intervention tiers in CT? RQ3: Does the quality of RtI reading implementation integrity differ between school classification in CT?

Participants will include Connecticut elementary schools administrators. The RTI Implementation Scale for Reading [RTIS-R] (Noltemeyer et al., 2014) will be sent to 640 public schools that include some or all of grades K-5 in October 2019. The RTIS-R is a self-report measure of RtI that uses a five-step rating scale that includes behavioral anchors and has been validated and demonstrated to be reliable in previous studies (Noltemeyer et al., 2014; Sharp et al., 2016). There are 30 items total (ten per tier), to assess major components of RtI (i.e., research-based instruction and intervention, assessment, DBDM, professional development, and treatment integrity). RQ1: CT elementary administrators will be provided the RTIS-R to measure implementation quality at their school level for each of the three tiers. Descriptive statistics will be used to analyze the results of this study. Item-level means and standard deviations will be calculated and also across tier. RQ2 and 3: Repeated measures ANOVA will be used to determine if any significant differences in implementation integrity occur across condition (Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 3) for each of the three levels or school classifications (i.e., urban, suburban, and rural).

References: Alonzo, J., Tindal, G., & Robinson, Q. (2008). Using schoolwide response to intervention to close the achievement gap in reading. ERS Spectrum, 26, 1-9. Austin, C.R., Vaughn, S., & McClelland, A.M. (2017). Intensive reading interventions for inadequate responders in grades k-3: A synthesis. Learning Disability Quarterly, 40(9), 191-210. Benner, G. J., Nelson, J. R., Stage, S. A., & Ralston, N. C. (2011). The influence of fidelity of implementation on the reading outcomes of middle school students experiencing reading difficulties. Remedial and Special Education, 32, 79-88. National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: Evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National Reading Panel, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. National Center on Response to Intervention. (2010). Essential components of RtI: A closer look at response to intervention. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Response to Intervention. Retrieved from http://www.rti4success.org/index.php Noltemeyer, A.L., Boone, W.J., & Sansosti, F.J. (2014). Assessing school-level RTI implementation for reading: Development and piloting of the RTIS-R. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 40(1), 40-52. doi: 10.1177/1534508414530462 Sharp, K., Sanders, K., Noltemeyer, A., Hoffman, J., & Boone, W.J. (2016). The relationship between RTI implementation and reading achievement: A school-level analysis. Preventing School Failure, 60(2), 152-160. doi: 10.1080/1045988X.2015.1063038

Using Student Data to Improve Response to a Multisyllabic Word Reading Intervention

First presenter: Marissa Filderman, The University of Texas at Austin (marissa.filderman@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Jessica Toste, The University of Texas at Austin (jrtoste@austin.utexas.edu)

Poster Abstract: Beginning at the fourth grade level, students are exposed to a substantial amount of multisyllabic words (Kearns, 2015) that often carry the meaning of text (Archer, Gleason, & Vachon, 2003). The increasing complexity of texts at this grade level presents a potential challenge for word reading and comprehension for struggling readers (Leach et al., 2003). In order to support students reading and understanding of more complex text, some students require explicit multisyllabic word reading intervention. However, up to 50% of students with disabilities do not respond adequately to research-based reading interventions and, as such, require more intensive intervention (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2015). One recommended way to intensify intervention, particularly for students with the most severe difficulties, is intervention intensification using student data-a process referred to as data-based individualization (DBI; Deno & Mirkin, 1977; National Center on Intensive Intervention, 2013). To date, there is a dearth of research on reading interventions that utilize DBI to intensify such interventions, particularly for upper elementary struggling readers. This randomized controlled trial explores the efficacy of several levels of customization and individualization of a multisyllabic word reading intervention delivered to 4th and 5th grade students, to determine the extent to which data use improves the efficacy of the intervention. Ninety students will be recruited through a two-step screening process: first, teachers will be asked to nominate students that demonstrate persistent difficulties with word reading. Nominated students will then be administered a screening assessment, and will qualify for the study if they score at or below the 25th percentile on at least one of the two subtests of the Test of Word Reading Efficiency-Second Edition (TOWRE-2; Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 2012). Qualifying students will then be randomized into one of three conditions; specifically, a business-as-usual group will be compared to two treatment conditions. Both treatment conditions will receive the same researched-based multisyllabic word reading intervention (Toste et al., 2017; 2019), delivered for 40-minutes, 4 days each week for 10 weeks, but with varying levels of data use to customize and individualize the content delivered. Students in the first treatment will receive initial customization of protocol (IC-only condition), whereby the dosage of each intervention component will be modified based on students' decoding abilities. Students in the second treatment will receive initial customization with the addition of data-based individualization (IC+DBI condition), whereby progress monitoring data will be evaluated at the mid-point of the study to further individualize instruction for students who are minimally responsive. As such, four research questions are posed: (1) What are the effects of initial customization (IC-only) of a multisyllabic word reading intervention protocol compared to a control group on reading outcomes for 4th and 5th grade students with reading difficulties?; (2) What are the effects of initial customization of a multisyllabic word reading intervention plus DBI (IC+DBI) compared to a control group?; (3) What are the intervention effects for the IC+DBI condition compared to the IC-only condition on reading outcomes?; and (4) Are the effects of either treatment moderated by student characteristics, particularly initial levels of word reading performance or English learner (EL) status? Based on prior research that found an average effect of g = .27 when comparing reading interventions with and without DBI (Filderman et al., 2018), we hypothesize that students who receive DBI with the validated multisyllabic word reading intervention will have higher reading outcomes compared to groups that receive customization of protocol and business-as-usual.

References: Archer, A. L., Gleason, M. M., & Vachon, V. L. (2003). Decoding and fluency: Foundation skills for struggling older readers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 26, 89-101. Deno, S., & Mirkin, P. (1977). Data-based program modification: A manual. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. Filderman, M. J., Toste, J. R., Didion, L. A., Peng, P., & Clemens, N. H. (2018). Data-based decision making in reading interventions: A synthesis and meta-analysis of the effects for struggling readers. The Journal of Special Education, 52(3), 174-187. Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. (2015). Rethinking service delivery for students with significant learning problems: Developing and implementing intensive instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 36, 105-111. Kearns, D. M. (2015). How elementary-age children read polysyllabic polymorphemic words. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107, 364-390. Leach, J. M., Scarborough, H. S., & Rescorla, L. (2003). Late-emerging reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 211-224. National Center on Intensive Intervention. (2013). Data-based individualization: A framework for intensive intervention. Washington, DC: Office of Special Education, U.S. Department of Education. Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R., & Rashotte, C. (2012). Test of Word Reading Efficiency: (TOWRE-2). Pearson Clinical Assessment. Toste, J. R., Capin, P., Vaughn, S., Roberts, G. J., & Kearns, D. M. (2017). Multisyllabic word-reading instruction with and without motivational beliefs training for struggling readers in the upper elementary grades: A pilot investigation. The Elementary School Journal, 117, 593-615. Toste, J. R., Capin, P., Williams, K. J., Cho, E., & Vaughn, S. (2019). Replication of an experimental study investigating the efficacy of a multisyllabic word reading intervention with and without motivational beliefs training for struggling readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 52, 45-58.

Taking Notes or Online Shopping: Comparison of OTRs on Graduate Student Engagement

First presenter: Sally Fluhler, Vanderbilt University (sally.fluhler@vanderbilt.edu)

Poster Abstract: Opportunities to Respond (OTR) within instruction can increase academic performance, on-task behaviors, and engagement (Haydon, MacSuga-Gage, Simonsen, & Hawkins, 2012; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001). Most of the current research on providing OTRs within instruction involve elementary school-aged students, thus this current study focused on college-age students. It is common in college level courses to have longer periods of lecture-style instruction that is dense with course content. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the use of opportunities to respond and quizzes in one undergraduate and one graduate level college course on student engagement, to determine a change in student engagement in a socially significant way. Using an alternating treatments (ATD) single-case design, we compare low levels and high levels of opportunities to respond on student engagement during class lectures. Additionally, we embed a withdrawal condition to measure student engagement during class lectures with the knowledge of the presence or absence of a post-lecture quiz of course content. Student engagement data is collected on 10-30 consented college-aged students in special education classes during class lectures. Data is collected through both live systematic direct observation and through video observations to be used for interobserver agreement and reliability. Student engagement data is collected on individual students through a rotating momentary time sampling procedure and will be analyzed on both the individual student level as well as at the class level. The results of this study could add to the current OTR literature and provide college instructors with another strategy to use during their course lectures. Instructors can increase engagement during class lectures with complex and dense course content through the use of high levels of OTRs, or post-lecture quizzes or a combination of both.

References: Haydon, T., MacSuga-Gage, A. S., Simonsen, B., & Hawkins, R. (2012). Opportunities to respond: A key component of effective instruction. Beyond Behavior, 22, 23-31. Sutherland, K. S., & Wehby, J. H. (2001). Exploring the relationship between increased opportunities to respond to academic requests and the academic and behavioral outcomes of students with EBD: A review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, 113-121.

Does Disability Status Matter? Supporting the Transition to Ninth Grade

First presenter: Lindsay Foreman-Murray, Western Washington University (lindsay.r.james@gmail.com) Poster Abstract: The transition from middle to high school represents a pivot point in student trajectories, when school engagement and GPA often decline while indicators of emotional distress and behavioral referrals tend to rise. Many schools endeavor to support this transition, though the effects of these programs are understudied, and little is known about the difference in the efficacy of these programs for students with disabilities as compared to typically learning students. I investigated associations between types of support for transition to high school and students' ninth-grade school engagement and academic performance using data from the High School Longitudinal Study 2009, comparing outcomes for students with LD and typically learning students. The study sample comprised approximately 808 students with learning disabilities (LD) and ~20,000 students without disabilities enrolled in ninth grade, using covariates common to engagement and transition research. At the time of writing, results from this study are pending.

Kindergarten Math Achievement and its Association with the Language Profiles of Children from Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds

First presenter: Matthew Foster, University of South Florida (mefoster@usf.edu)

Additional authors: Jason Anthony, Jeffrey Williams, Maria Carlo, Iva Chen

Poster Abstract: Oral language proficiency is one pathway to math development (e.g., Cross et al., 2009; Duncan et al., 2007). However, the vocabulary proficiencies that characterize DLL are heterogeneous. DLL with relatively high proficiency in English and Spanish may show an advantage over their DLL peers with low proficiency in one or both languages as well as when compared to monolingual English speakers on tests of math achievement. Few studies have empirically evaluated the extent to which subgroups of DLL, based on their levels of oral language proficiency in English and Spanish, differ in math achievement. In a recent study, Kim et al. (2018) identified three distinct subgroups of four-year-old DLL (emergent bilingual, bilingual, and heritage speakers) using latent class analysis. Among the subgroups, bilingual students evidenced the highest level of math achievement at three time points across the school year. Compared to monolinguals, bilingual students had similar albeit slightly lower levels of math achievement at each time point.

In the present study, we sought to extend Kim et al. (2018) by building on our prior work that identified subgroups of DLL, which were based on profiles of latent growth trajectories for Spanish and English oral language in kindergarten (Foster & Anthony, 2018; Foster, Anthony, Williams, Carlo, & Chen, 2019). To more fully understand subgroups of DLL, we predicted kindergarten math outcomes in Spanish and English from the profiles of latent growth trajectories. To provide a context from which to interpret these profiles, the second objective was to examine the levels of English math achievement evidenced by subgroups of monolingual English speakers. We then considered the levels of English math achievement of evidenced by subgroups of monolinguals relative to subgroups of DLL.

To achieve the aims of this study, we used growth mixture modeling in Mplus (Version 8.0). Because inclusion of an outcome can influence the formation of latent profiles (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2014), we used the modified BCH procedure to estimate growth mixture models based on all four waves of vocabulary data and the math outcomes. Participants included 551 Spanish-English DLL and 562 monolinguals enrolled in the same Title 1 schools. The DLL completed measures of Spanish and English vocabulary and the monolinguals completed a measure of English vocabulary at four equidistant time points during kindergarten. The results supported the four-profile solution and the two-profile solution for DLL and monolinguals, respectively. Among notable results, Balanced Average Proficiency DLL evidenced similarly high levels of Spanish math achievement to that of Spanish Dominant DLL; and English math achievement similar to that of English Dominant DLL. In addition, DLL in the Balanced Average Proficiency profile evidenced math achievement equivalent to both profiles of monolinguals. Thus, the simultaneous development of Spanish and English did not put DLL at a disadvantage in terms of their math achievement at the end of kindergraten. We also discuss the significance of the findings as they relate to school personnel that serve DLL.

References: Asparouhov, T. & Muthén, B. (2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Using the BCH method in Mplus to estimate a distal outcome model and an arbitrary secondary model. Mplus Web Notes: No. 21. www.statmodel.com Cross, C. T., Woods, T. A., & Schweingruber, H. (Eds.). (2009). Mathematics learning in early childhood: Paths toward excellence and equity. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/12519 Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., et al. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1428-1446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428 Foster, M. E., & Anthony, J. L. (2019, February). English and Spanish profiles of oral language growth trajectories of dual language learners and monolingual English speakers. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Pacific Coast Research Conference, San Diego, CA. Foster, M. E., Anthony, J. L., Williams, J. M., & Carlo, M. (2019). The relationship between language trajectories and kindergarten math achievement among Spanish-English speaking dual language learners: A latent profile analysis. Submitted for publication. Kim, D.-H., Lambert, R., & Burts, D. C. (2013). Evidence of the validity of Teaching Strategies GOLD assessment tool for English language learners and children with disabilities. Early Education and Development, 24(4), 574-595.

Policy attitudes about college- and career-readiness standards for students with disabilities.

First presenter: Lynn Fuchs, Vanderbilt University (lynn.fuchs@vanderbilt.edu) Second presenter: Fuchs Douglas, Vanderbilt University (doug.fuchs@vanderbilt.edu)

Additional authors: Adam Edgerton, University of Pennsylvania

Poster Abstract: Purpose and Research Questions The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) requires that all students with disabilities (SWD) receive a free, appropriate public education designed to meet their unique needs to prepare them for post-school education and employment (American Psychological Association, 2017). In the past two decades, momentum has grown for a supplementary idea: that schools be held accountable for SWD achieving grade-level standards. Thus standards-based reform for SWD is often caught between ideals of standardization and principles of differentiation. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which district administrators, principals, general educators, and special educators differ in their policy perceptions of the college- and career-readiness standards (CCRS) for SWD versus other learners. We asked, To what extent do teachers of SWD deliver similar or different instructional content compared to general education teachers? What types of supports do SWD and teachers receive and how do these differ by teacher type? How do policy perceptions differ between teachers of SWD and general education teachers? How do district administrators, principals, and teachers differ in their policy perceptions of CCRS as they relate to SWD? Research Method and Number/Grade Participants In three states (Texas, Ohio, Kentucky), we surveyed a stratified sample of teachers, principals, and district administrators on the implementation of their state's standards and directed them to respond for SWD who participate in the regular accountability system.

We identified districts using a stratified random sampling technique designed to ensure the sample was representative of districts in each state: 42 Texas districts, 42 Ohio districts, 89 Kentucky districts (results were weighted by state). In each district, we sampled up to two elementary schools and two high schools, ensuring representative samples of public, private, and charter schools based on state demographics. In each elementary school, we sampled two fifth-grade math teachers, two fourth-grade English language arts (ELA) teachers, and one teacher of SWD. In each high school, we sampled two English Language Arts (ELA) teachers and one teacher of SWD, algebra I, algebra II, and geometry.

In Ohio and Texas, 155 and 121 eligible districts were contacted. Among eligible released districts 49 and 53 agreed to participate; conditional response rates (CRR) were 85.7% and 79.2%. In Kentucky, all districts were surveyed. In sampled schools, CRRs of responding teachers were 64%, 55%, and 39%. CRR for principals were 60%, 70.6%, and 51%. Findings and Conclusions Findings raise questions about the degree to which school personnel believe in CCRS for SWD and are meaningfully implementing them. In the two states with better response rates, there are clear differences in instructional content and expectations for SWD. This paper challenges the notion that standards-for-all is an accepted norm in the post-Common Core era. It also challenges the field to provide guidance to states, districts, and schools about how to successfully marry the two policy frameworks that guide special education practice.

An Evaluation of the Technical Adequacy of DIBELS 8 for Progress Monitoring

First presenter: Brian Gearin, University of Oregon, Center on Teaching and Learning (bgearin@uoregon.edu) Poster Abstract: This poster describes technical adequacy evidence for DIBELS 8th Edition (University of Oregon, 2018) as a progress monitoring instrument. Using data from the 2018-2019 validation study, it describes the validity and reliability of the slopes and intercepts for measures of Phonemic Segmentation Fluency (PSF), Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF), Word Reading Fluency (WRF), and Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) in grades K-3.

To evaluate the reliability and validity, students in Grade K-8 were progress-monitored up to 23 times over the course of the academic year with a minimum of 20 weeks elapsed. Test administrations typically took place every 2 weeks in kindergarten and first grade and every 3 weeks in all other grades. To be included in the analysis, students needed to have complete fall benchmark data and a minimum of three observed scores over the academic year. Samples sizes, which varied by grade, measure, and type of validity evidence, ranged from 50 to 442. We used a model-based approach to evaluate reliability and validity. Specifically, we created hierarchical linear models of student performance on each progress monitoring measure. Growth models were analyzed in R (R Core Team, 2018) using the lme4 package (Bates, Mächler, Bolker, & Walker, 2015) with the maximum likelihood estimator. We calculated the reliability of the intercepts and slopes using the formula in Raudenbush and Bryk (2002). To evaluate validity, we correlated slopes with scores from the Iowa Achievement test (Enger & Yager, 1998). Findings Intercept reliability estimates, which represent the reliability of the fall benchmark assessment, were generally at or above .80, indicating high reliability. The only exceptions occurred in Kindergarten, where reliability fell at .76 for PSF and .09 for NWF-WRC. The latter is unacceptably low, but importantly NWF-WRC is not recommended as a progress-monitoring tool until later in Kindergarten. Overall, results indicate that DIBELS 8th Edition is a highly reliable status indicator for progress monitoring. Slope reliability estimates, which represent the reliability of change over time within a growth model, were generally strong, falling at or above .45 for all scores and grades and far exceeding that threshold in most cases. The lowest slope reliability estimates were found in third and eighth grade for ORF. Reliability estimates of .90 or above were found for many grades and scores. As a result, the suite of DIBELS 8th Edition progress monitoring measures have acceptable to exceptional reliability for tracking change in student scores over time. Slope validity estimates represent how well change over time within a growth model predicts student performance on the indicated criterion measures administered at the end of the year. Results for PSF were best in Kindergarten and inadequate in first grade. Results for NWF-CLS were inadequate in kindergarten, but good in first through second grade. Results for WRF and ORF-WRC were both quite good, indicating moderate to strong relationships between progress as measured by these subtests and end of year performance. In sum, DIBELS 8th Edition measures has good technical adequacy as a progress monitoring instrument.

References: Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1). https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01 Enger, S., & Yager, R. (1998). The Iowa Assessment Handbook. Iowa City: Iowa University. R Core Team. (2018). A language and environment for statistical computing. Retrieved from URL https://www.R-project.org/ Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. University of Oregon. (2018). 8th Edition of Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS®). Retrieved from University of Oregon website: https://dibels.uoregon.edu/docs/materials/dibels_8_admin_and_scoring_guide_2018.pdf

Key Instructional Coaching Actions that Predict Classroom Practices

First presenter: Todd A. Glover, Rutgers University (todd.glover@rutgers.edu) Second presenter: Linda A. Reddy, Rutgers University (lreddy@gsapp.rutgers.edu)

Poster Abstract: There have been relatively few rigorous investigations of instructional coaching. Further, the limited research on coaching has focused primarily on the efficacy of entire coaching models rather than the relative benefits of individual coaching components (e.g., Kurz, Reddy, & Glover, 2017). Additional research is needed to determine which aspects of instructional coaching have the greatest influence on teachers' practice and student outcomes.

The purpose of this presentation is to discuss results from a large-scale study designed to address limitations in existing research by examining relationships between specific coaching characteristics and teacher practices, as well as the potential variables that mediate this relationship. Methods Participants Participants from 11 high poverty charter schools from the Northeastern U.S. included 25 instructional coaches, approximately 300 classroom teachers, and over 7,500 students.

Research Design A correlational investigation was conducted utilizing multiple regression to investigate relationships between coaching and (a) the fidelity and quality of teachers' implementation of interventions and (b) teachers' implementation of effective instructional approaches. Procedure Implementation, Measurement, and Data Collection School-based instructional coaches were trained in a coaching model found to be effective in large-scale randomized controlled trials (e.g. Glover, in press; Reddy, Dudek, & Lekwa, in press) via a 3-week summer workshop and monthly consultation trainings conducted by the investigators. Data on coaching practices (i.e., modeling of teacher practices, facilitated teacher practice opportunities, and the provision of feedback) were collected via an online coaching facilitation platform where coaches logged individual coaching actions that they conducted with teachers. Online observational checklists were used to assess both the fidelity and quality of implementation of interventions that teacher implemented to address students' needs. The Classroom Strategy Assessment System (CSAS; Reddy, Dudek, Fabiano, & Peters, 2015) was utilized to assess teachers' use of research-based instructional and behavioral management strategies (e.g., clear directives, academic corrective feedback, positive behavioral praise).

Results Multiple regression to investigate relationships between coaching actions (i.e., modeling of teacher practices, facilitated teacher practice opportunities, and the provision of feedback) and (a) the fidelity and quality of teachers' implementation of interventions and (b) teachers' implementation of effective instructional approaches (e.g., clear directives, academic corrective feedback, positive behavioral praise). The mediating influence of the fidelity and quality of teachers' implementation of interventions on the relationship between coaching actions and teacher practices was also examined. Results indicated that greater modeling and feedback during coaching was directly associated with greater reductions in the instructional gap in teachers' classrooms. In addition, facilitation of teacher practice was associated with greater fidelity and quality of teachers' intervention implementation. Further, fidelity and quality of intervention implementation were also found to mediate the relationship between facilitated practice and reductions in the instructional gap.

References: Every Student Succeeds Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1 et seq. (2015). Glover, T.A. (2017). A data-driven coaching model used to promote students' response to early reading intervention. Theory Into Practice, 56, 13-20. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004). Kurz, A., Reddy, L.A., & Glover, T. (2017). A multidisciplinary framework for instructional coaching. Theory into Practice, 56, 66-77. Reddy, L.A., Dudek, C., and Lekwa, A. (2017). Classroom Strategies Coaching Model: Integration of Formative Assessment and Instructional. Theory Into Practice, 56(1), 45-55. Reddy, L.A., Dudek, C.M., Fabiano, G., & Peters, S. (2015). Measuring teacher self-report on classroom practices: Construct validity and reliability of the Classroom Strategies Scale - Teacher Form. School Psychology Quarterly. 30, 513-533.

Examining achievement gaps in reading and math between DLLs and monolingual students

First presenter: J. Marc Goodrich, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (jgoodrich4@unl.edu) Poster Abstract: Recent data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP; e.g., Hemphill, Vanneman, & Rahman, 2011) indicate that English language learners perform significantly lower than their monolingual peers on measures of reading and mathematics achievement. Furthermore, these achievement gaps have remained stable over the last two decades. Although these statistics seem alarming, analyzing achievement gap data based on English language learner status is misleading when evaluating whether progress is being made in the education of students who speak a language other than English at home (i.e., dual language learners [DLLs]; Kieffer & Thompson, 2018). DLLs represent a population of children with varying levels of English proficiency, and only DLLs with limited English proficiency are eligible to receive services as English language learners in U.S. schools. When DLLs receiving services as English language learners cross a certain threshold of English proficiency, they are reclassified as non-English language learners and no longer receive additional services. Only including English language learners in evaluation of achievement gaps ignores those DLLs who were never classified as English language learners as well as those whose English proficiency improved over time and graduated from English language learner status. Kieffer and Thompson (2018) reported that when examining national achievement gap data by DLL status rather than English language learner status, the achievement gap between DLLs and monolingual students in reading and mathematics at fourth and eighth grade has declined over the last decade. The purpose of this study was to expand on the results of Kieffer and Thompson to evaluate changes over time in state and large-district achievement gaps by DLL status, including whether characteristics of states and districts predicted changes in the achievement gap over time.

Using publicly available NAEP data, we used growth curve modeling to model changes in the achievement gap over time. Additionally, we evaluated whether the number of DLL programs, the percent of DLLs who spoke Spanish, and the percent of the population comprised of DLLs in a given state or district predicted the initial level of the achievement gap or changes in the achievement gap over time. Results for state level achievement gaps replicated findings of Kieffer and Thompson (2018), indicating that achievement gaps were decreasing over time. Although the percent of the population that was comprised of DLLs and the number of dual language programs in a given state were negatively correlated with the size of the achievement gap, there were no consistent predictors of changes in the achievement gap over time. For large-district data, achievement gaps were much smaller and there were no changes in the achievement gap between DLLs and monolingual students; however, the smaller achievement gaps in large districts appear to be due to lower achievement of monolingual students. These results suggest that changes in the U.S. education system in recent years have promoted improved academic achievement for DLLs. However, achievement gaps remain, and more research is needed to identify specific practices and policies associated with reducing achievement gaps.

References: Hemphill, F. C., Vannmean, A., & Rahman, T. (2011). Achievement gaps: How Hispanic and White Students in public schools perform in mathematics and reading on the National Assessment of Educational Progress [Statistical Analysis Report]. Washington, DC: National Assessment of Educational Progress. Kieffer, M. J., & Thompson, K. D. (2018). Hidden progress of multilingual students on NAEP. Educational Researcher, 47, 391-398.

The structure of working memory in school-age children with dyslexia

First presenter: Shelley Gray, Arizona State University (Shelley.Gray@asu.edu)

Poster Abstract: Working memory is the multi-faceted portion of our human memory system responsible for simultaneously processing and storing incoming information. Multiple research studies show that children with dyslexia have working memory deficits. These deficits involve phonological working memory (i.e., memory involving auditory stimuli; see Vellutino et al., 2004), visual spatial working memory (i.e., memory involving visually presented stimuli; e.g., Facoetti et al., 2003), and central executive functioning (i.e., the 'controller' of parts of working memory for transfer from short- to long-term memory; e.g., Tiffin-Richards et al., 2007). Of note, past studies often examined only one component of working memory in children with dyslexia making it difficult to determine how the multi-faceted working memory system functioned or often included children with dyslexia who had co-morbid conditions such as ADHD and developmental language disorder, which makes comparisons across studies difficult. In our study, we address these gaps by examining working memory using a comprehensive, developmentally-appropriate, engaging battery of working memory tasks to examine the structure of working memory in 80 second graders with dyslexia (no ADHD and average oral language skills) compared to 168 age- and grade-matched typically developing peers. We asked, (1) What is the structure of working memory in school-age children with dyslexia and their typically developing peers? and (2) are there group differences between school-age children with dyslexia and their typically developing peers on components of working memory? Children completed the Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory; CABC-WM; Gray et al., n.d.; also see Cabbage et al, 2017) which included multiple measures of phonological working memory (digit span tasks, nonword repetition), visuo-spatial working memory (location span and visual span tasks), and central executive functioning (n-back auditory, n-back visual, and number updating). Using structure equation modeling, the final model adequately fit the data (CFI = .933, RMSEA = .039, N-adjusted BIC = 3377) for both groups of children and included three working memory factors that we referred to as the central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and phonological loop, after Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) and an additional fourth factor to account for covariance between errors for the span tasks. We also established metric and scalar invariance and found that uniformly, the non-standardized intercepts for the children with dyslexia were on average lower than their typically developing peers' average performance. These were greatest for the nonword repetition, number updating, and visual span tasks. The importance of these findings are that we established a similar working memory structure in children with dyslexia and their typically developing peers, but also showed that the children with dyslexia performed less accurately on several working memory tasks associated with multiple facets of working memory. In sum, children with dyslexia, even those with no co-morbid ADHD and/or developmental language disorder, have multi-faceted working memory deficits within a structural working memory system similar to their typically developing peers. Theoretical and clinical implications will be discussed.

References: 1. Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working Memory. In Gordon H. Bower (Ed.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47-89). New York, NY: Academic Press. 2. Cabbage, K.L., Brinkley, S., Gray, S., Alt, M., Cowan, N., Green, S., Kuo, T., & Hogan, T.P. (2017). Assessing working memory in children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM). Journal of Visualized Experiments, 2017 Jun 12 (124). DOI: 10.3791/55121. 3. Facoetti, A., Lorusso, M. L., Paganoni, P., Cattaneo, C., Galli, R., Umilta, C., & Mascetti, G. G. (2003). Auditory and visual automatic attention deficits in developmental dyslexia. Cognitive Brain Research, 16(2), 185-191. 4. Gray, S., Alt, M., Hogan, T.P., Green, S., Cowan, N. (n.d.). Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory. Unpublished measure under development. 5. Gray, S., Green, S., Alt, M., Hogan, T.P., Kuo, T., Brinkley, S., & Cowan, N. (2017). The structure of working memory in young school-age children and its relation to intelligence. Journal of Memory and Language, 92, 183-201. 6. Tiffin-Richards, M. C., Hasselhorn, M., Woerner, W., Rothenberger, A., & Banaschewski, T. (2008). Phonological short-term memory and central executive processing in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with/without dyslexia-evidence of cognitive overlap. Journal of Neural Transmission, 115(2), 227-234. 7. Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 2-40.

Efficacy of an Intelligent Tutoring System for Early Numeracy: A Conceptual Replication Study

First presenter: Ka Rene Grimes, University of Texas at Austin (renegrimes@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Soyoung Park, University of Texas at Austin (soyoungpark@utexas.edu)

Additional authors: Diane P. Bryant, University of Texas at Austin; Amanda McClelland; University of Texas at Austin; Maryam Nozari, University of Texas at Austin; Jiyeon Park; University of Texas at Austin; Paul Steinle, University of Texas at Austin; Zainab Umar, University of Texas at Austin

Poster Abstract: The long-term effect of mathematical difficulties (MD) is well established. A substantial body of evidence indicates that as early as kindergarten performance gaps between struggling students and their typically developing peers persist throughout school (Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, & Maczuga, 2016; Nelson & Powell, 2017). To understand variables associated with being at risk for MD, prevention research in early grades is logical and recommended (Claessens & Engel, 2013; Fuchs, 2005; Morgan, Farkas, & Wu, 2011).

One suggested means of prevention is differentiated instruction via technology (Deunk et al., 2018; Twyman & Sota, 2016). Reported effectiveness of technology to increase numerical skills has been mixed and may be due to methodological issues, the pedagogy and content within the technology, or the software's architecture (Li & Ma, 2010; Twyman & Sota, 2016). One genre of software that has shown strong evidence of effectiveness is intelligent tutoring systems (ITS). Adaptive and mastery-based, ITS embed individualized instruction in tandem with dynamic assessment (Ma, Adesope, Nesbit, & Liu, 2014). Meta-analyses and reviews of K-12 ITS programs revealed ITS were more effective than small-group instruction and almost as effective as one-to-one tutoring (Kulik & Fletcher, 2016). None of the studies in the meta-analyses or syntheses included research of ITS for mathematics for kindergarten. In a systematic review of ITSs for number sense instruction in grades PK through 1st, (authors) found only ten studies. Only one study had been conducted in the United States; and, the author (Dias, 2016) reported a substantial effect size (np2 = .622). Based on the Standards of Evidence for Efficacy, Effectiveness and Scale-up Research in Prevention Science: Next Generation (Gottfredson et al., 2015), a modified, conceptual replication of the Dias (2016) study was warranted. We conducted a randomized control conceptual replication based on four changes to the original (Dias, 2016) study: 1) inclusion of a maintenance period 2) providing the same treatment to a wait group 3) implemented in the spring rather than the fall 4) addition of an assessment of mathematical language The participants in our study (n = 46) were of similar socio-economic status and the study was conducted in a similar setting: three kindergarten classrooms in a private school in the Southwest Region of the United States. Research questions were: 1. How do gains in students' number sense compare to the original study? 2. How do outcomes of intrinsic motivation compare to the original study? 4. Did students' measures of the language of mathematics change as a result of using the ITS? Gains of number sense were significant both within and between the groups, with a moderate to large effect size; although not as large as the original study. The initial group's gains were statistically significant compared to the wait group. After treatment, the wait group and first group performed similarly, indicating both groups benefitted equally only after treatment. At five-weeks post-test, the first group had maintained their gains. Results provide future directions for research of intrinsic motivation, mathematical language, heterogeneity of responses, and MD.

References: Claessens, A., Engel, M., & Curran, F. C. (2014). Academic content, student learning, and the persistence of preschool effects. American Educational Research Journal, 51, 403-434. doi: 10.3102/0002831213513634 Dias, L., (2016). An adaptive computer-based kindergarten curriculum for number sense. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), Rivier University, Nashua, NH Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.02.002 Fuchs, L. S. (2005). Prevention research in mathematics: Improving outcomes, building identification models, and understanding disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 350-352. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194050380041201 Gottfredson, D. C., Cook, T. D., Gardner, F. E., Gorman-Smith, D., Howe, G. W., Sandler, I. N., & Zafft, K. M. (2015). Standards of evidence for efficacy, effectiveness, and scale-up research in prevention science: Next generation. Prevention Science, 16, 893-926. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-015-0555-x Kulik, J. A., & Fletcher, J. D. (2016). Effectiveness of intelligent tutoring systems: a meta- analytic review. Review of Educational Research, 86, 42-78. doi: 10.3102/ 0034654315581420 Li, Q., & Ma, X. (2010). A meta-analysis of the effects of computer technology on school students' mathematics learning. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 215-243. doi: 10.1007/s10648-010-9125-8 Ma, W., Adesope, O. O., Nesbit, J. C., & Liu, Q. (2014). Intelligent tutoring systems and learning outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106, 901-918. doi:10.1037/a0037123 Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., & Maczuga, S. (2016). Who is at risk for persistent mathematics difficulties in the United States?. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 49, 305-319. doi:10.1177/0022219414553849. Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., & Wu, Q. (2011). Kindergarten children's growth trajectories in reading and mathematics: Who falls increasingly behind? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44, 472-488. doi: 10.1177/0022219411414010 Nelson, G., & Powell, S. R. (2017). A systematic review of longitudinal studies of mathematics difficulty. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51, 523-529. doi:10.1177/0022219417714773. Twyman J., & Sota M. (2016). Educational technology and response to intervention: Affordances and considerations. In: S. Jimerson, M. Burns, A. VanDerHeyden (Eds), Handbook of response to intervention (pp. 493-517). Boston, MA: Springer

Comparing Reading Fluency Growth in At-Risk and Not At-Risk First Graders

First presenter: Ryan Grimm, SRI International (ryan.grimm@sri.com)

Poster Abstract: This study examined the growth trajectories of oral reading fluency (ORF) measured in fall, winter, and spring of first grade. The trajectories were then used to predict reading comprehension in the spring. Oral reading fluency has been identified as a crucial skill to reading comprehension (e.g., National Reading Panel, 2000). However, fluency is more often targeted in middle to late elementary than early elementary. Studies of early elementary reading skills often focus on skills such as phonological awareness and word recognition. But there is empirical evidence that ORF skills may develop concomitantly with word recognition (Speece & Ritchey, 2005). Additionally, few studies have compared ORF development between at-risk (AR) and not at-risk (NAR) students and its impact on reading comprehension in early elementary. Given evidence from studies illustrating early ORF's impact on later reading comprehension (Kim, Petscher, Schatschneider, & Foorman) for NAR children, it is vital to understand potential differences in the development of ORF between AR and NAR students.

This study uses data from N=426 students who were screened for risk of reading difficulties in the beginning of first grade using the Texas Primary Reading Inventory. In this study, n=216 students were NAR and n=210 students were AR. Multiple-group latent growth curve modeling was utilized to describe the growth trajectories of ORF for each group separately. ORF was measured using the DIBELS (Good, Kaminski, & Cummings, 2011). Next, the intercept and slope parameters were used to predict reading comprehension at end of first grade. Patterns of significance were compared to examine whether the groups differed in terms of which parameters significantly predicted reading comprehension. Finally, the intercept, slope, and regression estimates were directly compared to investigate if these estimates were significantly different across groups.

The model demonstrated excellent fit to the data. The NAR group scored significantly higher on ORF than the AR group in the fall (intercept) and exhibited a significantly steeper growth trajectory (slope). The NAR group read an average of 43 words per minute and grew by an average of 32 words per minute by spring. The AR group read an average of nine words per minute in fall and grew by an average of 17 words per minute by spring. Reading comprehension was predicted by both the intercept and slope for the NAR group, but only by the slope for the AR group.

It was not surprising that the NAR group performed significantly better than the AR group over time. However, since only the slope of the AR group was predictive of later reading comprehension, this suggests that these students' ORF skills in the beginning of first grade do not automatically translate to depressed later reading comprehension skills. Students in this sample did not receive any intervention, but these results indicate that intervention designed to accelerate ORF development should impact reading comprehension simultaneously. Though word recognition is often the focus of reading instruction in early elementary, students would benefit from simultaneous, and perhaps complimentary, fluency instruction.

References: Good RH, Kaminski RA, Cummings K et al. (2011) DIBELS Next. Eugene, OR: Dynamic Measurement Group. National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Report of the subgroups. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Child Health and Hu-man Development. Speece, D. L., & Ritchey, K. D. (2005). A longitudinal study of the development of oral reading fluency in young children at risk for reading failure. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(5), 387-399.

Focus on Implementation: Professional Development to Improve Content Reading in Middle School

First presenter: Diane Haager, Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk, University of Texas Austin (dhaager@calstatela.edu) Poster Abstract: The middle school years are viewed as a critical juncture between students' development of literacy skills and the high literacy demands of content learning. Students who struggle with content acquisition are more likely to experience academic failure and even school dropout (Allensworth & Easton, 2005; Balfanz, 2011; Balfanz, et al., 2012). Though content teachers are powerful mediators of academic outcomes, they rarely receive high-quality professional development (PD) to improve literacy instruction within content teaching. A deep research base of effective literacy practices for middle school content teachers exists, yet these practices are not widely implemented. Ongoing, intensive, and sustained PD is more likely to improve student achievement than isolated PD that educators typically receive (Wei et al., 2009). This poster summarizes the implementation process and outcomes in the first phase of a 3-year, IES-funded Goal 2 development grant. This project aims to develop a multi-component PD model to improve middle school teachers' content literacy instruction and students' reading comprehension. Fuchs and Fuchs (2011) recommend ongoing researcher-practitioner collaboration during the development phase to "promote sustained implementation of innovative, validated practices in the schools." In Year 1 of this project, we worked with one middle school in central Texas through focus groups, meetings with school leaders and written feedback. An advisory board of national experts also informed the process. This project extends the work of the Middle School Matters Institute, which supported the development of high-quality resources and tools for implementing evidence-based practices (Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk & George W. Bush Institute, 2016). This 3-year project will subject the PD model to empirical study in an iterative development process. PD processes and content are being developed in three phases, with the final phase including a quasi-experimental study of the impact of extended and embedded PD on teachers' instruction and students' reading outcomes. The study reported here represents the development of PD content and process for two evidence-based reading strategies (main idea and self-questioning), using four PD components: initial PD session with collegial planning and practice opportunities, high-quality resources and materials, follow-up "booster" sessions, and site-based coaching. The purpose of this poster is to present teacher implementation outcomes, including dosage, coach feedback and teacher-reported use. This initial phase involved teachers, school leaders and district administrators in providing feedback on PD components, content, and teacher resources. This poster will also present the model components and content that resulted from the initial phase of collaboration along with model revisions planned for the second phase of development that is currently under way with treatment and BAU conditions. Discussion will highlight the challenges and benefits of school-wide implementation.

References: Allensworth, E., & Easton, J. (2005). The on-track indicator as a predictor of high school graduation. Chicago, IL: Consortium on Chicago School Research. Balfanz, R. (2011). Back on Track to Graduate. Educational Leadership, 68(7), 54-58. Balfanz, R., Bridgeland, J. M., Moore, L. A., & Fox, J. H. (2012). Building a grad nation: Progress and challenge in ending the high school dropout epidemic. Retrieved from http://www. civicenterprises.net/MediaLibrary/Docs/ building_a_grad_nation.pdf Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2001). Principles for Sustaining Research-based Practice in the Schools: A Case Study. Focus on Exceptional Children, 33(6), 1-14. Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk & George W. Bush Institute. (2016). Middle School Matters field guide: Principles, practices, and tools. Austin, TX: Authors. Wei, R. C., Darling-Hammond, L., Adamson, F., & National Staff Development, C. (2010). Professional Development in the United States: Trends and Challenges. Phase II of a Three-Phase Study. Executive Summary. National Staff Development Council.

Examining the social validity of Morrison-style posters

First presenter: Michael Hebert, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (michael.hebert@unl.edu) Second presenter: J. Marc Goodrich, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (marc.goodrich@unl.edu)

Additional authors: Derek Rodgers, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (derek.rodgers@unl.edu)

Poster Abstract: This poster will be a Morrison style poster of an active survey study that will be in the data collection phase during the PCRC conference. Morrison posters are a new trend in science (e.g., National Public Radio, 2019), and are garnering preferential review treatment at some conferences (e.g., PCRC Homepage, 2019). However, some researchers question whether Morrison style posters help scientists disseminate research methods and findings effectively (e.g., Faulkes, 2019). Regardless, the Morrison poster phenomenon has added a new element to conversations among academics about how to improve the quality of dissemination efforts. The purpose of this poster is two-fold. First, the poster will be used to drive academic conversations about the merits of Morrison-style posters for disseminating educational research findings (in comparison to traditional posters). Second, the poster will inform PCRC conference attendees about an ongoing survey of educational researchers about Morrison-style posters and recruit the attendees to participate in the survey. Researchers will conduct a survey of participants of a national education conference (both presenters of Morrison posters and attendees who visited Morrison posters) on their experiences with the use of Morrison posters in practice. The survey will include questions on the attendees' opinions about (a) the visibility and ease of identifying research of interest, (b) the underlying forces driving the Morrison poster trend, (c) the depth and breadth of conversations about research methods and findings in Morrison poster sessions versus traditional poster sessions, and (d) the potential of the Morrison style poster to improve research dissemination efforts of educational research scientists. The researchers will survey conference participants during and after poster sessions at the PCRC conference using Qualtrics, with unique links (linked to individual email addresses) that ensure participants can only respond to the survey once, while also not allowing the researchers to trace responses back to specific respondents. Data collection will be incomplete at the time of this submission, but we expect to have approximately 200 participants (30-40 Morrison-style poster presenters and 160-170 attendees who visited Morrison-style posters). Analyses will include descriptive statistics and regression analysis examining the prediction of participant demographic variables (e.g., years of research experience, whether the participant has used the Morrison style poster format to present their own research findings) for predicting responses. We will provide a summary of findings to all conference attendees following the PCRC conference, and make the data available to participants following initial dissemination of the findings. Discussion will center around the potential advantages and disadvantages of the Morrison style poster, whether PCRC conference attendees view the Morrison-style poster as a valid and effective approach for disseminating research findings, and whether PCRC conference attendees believe there are alternatives/compromises for effectively and efficiently disseminating research findings at poster sessions of professional conferences.

References: Faulkes, Z. (2019). Critique: The Morrison Billboard Poster. Better Posters Blogspot. Retrieved from: http://betterposters.blogspot.com/2019/04/critique-morrison-billboard-poster.html Greenfield, B. (2019). To save the science poster, researchers want to kill it and start over. National Public Radio. Retrieved from: https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/06/11/729314248/to-save-the-science-poster-researchers-want-to-kill-it-and-start-over Pacific Coast Research Conference. (2019). Homepage. Retrieved from: https://vkc.mc.vanderbilt.edu/vkc/pcrc/

Construct Validity of Comprehension Measures for Individuals with Down Syndrome and Peers

First presenter: Alison Hessling, Vanderbilt University (alison.hessling@vanderbilt.edu) Second presenter: Melanie Schuele, Vanderbilt University (melanie.schuele@vumc.org)

Poster Abstract: Purpose We evaluated the construct validity and feasibility of four parallel measures of listening and reading comprehension for individuals with Down syndrome and peers with typical developmental (TD) histories.

Method Data collection and preliminary analyses are completed for children with TD; 20 children (M = 87 months, SD = 6 months, range = 73-97 months) participated. Data collection is ongoing for individuals with DS and will be completed prior to the conference. To date, five individuals with DS (M = 200 months, SD = 54 months, range = 131-273 months) have participated. Each DS participant is matched to a TD participant based on word-reading level.

Participants completed norm-referenced assessments for four parallel measures of listening and reading comprehension. The measures had the following formats: (1) nonverbal response, (2) cloze-procedure, (3) passage-level with multiple-choice questions, and (4) passage-level with open-ended questions. Participants also completed eligibility assessments of nonverbal cognition, oral language, word-level reading, and speech. Construct validity is assessed using the Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix (Campbell & Fisk, 1959), a correlation matrix arranged to facilitate the assessment and interpretation of construct validity of measures across various formats.

Results Construct validity analyses are conducted separately for the two groups; follow up group comparisons will be analyzed once DS data collection is complete. Although the full matrices will be graphically presented in the poster, the main preliminary findings are reported here. For the TD group, moderate and strong correlations (rs = .58-.71, ps < .05) were observed between the various measures of reading comprehension. Weak to strong correlations (rs = .47-.51, ps < .05) were observed between the various measures of listening comprehension. Only two of the correlations between reading and listening comprehension measures with parallel formats were significant-cloze-procedure: r = .50, p < .05 and passage-level with open-ended questions: r = .47, p < .05). As expected, the weakest correlations (rs = .17-.28, ps > .05) were observed between measures of the two traits - listening and reading comprehension - using nonparallel formats. As for feasibility, the proportion of TD participants who completed all measures and obtained scores above floor levels was 95%. In comparison, thus far only 60% of participants with DS have completed all measures and obtained scores above floor levels. Participants in both groups have not successfully completed the reading comprehension measure using a passage-level with multiple-choice questions format.

Discussion Construct validity findings can help researchers and educators ascertain optimal methods of assessing listening and reading comprehension for individuals with DS and peers. Preliminary findings among TD children indicate that reading comprehension measures demonstrate stronger evidence of construct validity compared to listening comprehension measures. Thus, despite using varying formats, the reading comprehension measures evaluated appear to measure similar facets of the underlying reading comprehension construct. In contrast, the listening comprehension measures evaluated may (a) be measuring different facets of the listening comprehension construct, (b) be susceptible to increased measurement error, or (c) be less fully validated. Thus, using multiple measures may be most informative for capturing an individual's listening comprehension ability.

References: Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological bulletin, 56, 81-105.

Influences of Teachers' Feedback on Iterations of Applied Research

First presenter: Stephanie Hopkins, University of Missouri (sand54@mail.missouri.edu) Second presenter: Jiyung Hwang, University of Missouri (jhdn8@mail.missouri.edu)

Additional authors: Erica Mason, University of Missouri; Erica Lembke, University of Missouri

Poster Abstract: Developing algebraic proficiency is an important foundation for all 21st century learners including those students with mathematics difficulty (Ketterlin-Geller & Chard, 2011; Ostler, 2012). To prepare students for the rigors of algebra coursework in late middle school or high school, students must develop algebraic reasoning. To develop algebraic reasoning, the National Math Advisory Panel (2008) suggests that all algebra curricula strive to develop conceptual understanding, computational fluency, and problem-solving skills (Kelly, 2008). For some students, including those with disabilities, middle school mathematics curricula presents a challenge, resulting in differential achievement (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017) and the need for intervention. With intervention the mathematics trajectories of students with disabilities can improve (e.g., Krawec, Huang, Montague, Kressler, & Melia de Alba, 2012; Xin, Jitendra, & Deatline-Buchman 2005). Despite schools increasingly adopting interventions for students with math difficulty at the elementary and high school levels, empirical investigations of middle school interventions are limited (Jitendra et al., 2018). Supporting Teaching of Algebra: Individual Readiness (Project STAIR) is a federally-funded project across three university sites. The primary aim of the project is supporting mathematics teachers in using the data-based individualization (DBI; National Center on Intensive Intervention [NCII], 2014) process. Project STAIR works with teachers as they support the algebra-readiness of middle school students (Grades 6-8) at-risk or identified with specific learning disabilities in mathematics. Within the larger study, the purpose of this investigation was to identify what teachers identified as challenges to DBI implementation. During the 2018-2019 school year, one university group worked with teachers in two middle schools in the Midwest. Unique to this research site, general education mathematics teachers (n = 13) participated in core professional development, coaching, and tailored professional development over the span of seven months. At the end of the project, each school team was invited to a face-to-face focus group during which a structured protocol was used. During this focus group, teachers articulated which components of Project STAIR were easy to implement and what challenges they experienced implementing the DBI process. The analysis of these data involved identifying every instance a teacher participant identified a challenge they experience when implementing DBI. Descriptive analyses revealed that teachers identified five challenges to DBI implementation: (a) finding time to collect progress monitoring data, (b) collecting progress monitoring data from a few and not all students, (c) using data to inform instruction, (d) integrating instructional strategies into whole-group instruction, and (e) including students in the DBI process. In response to these findings, key components of Project STAIR were revised. Core professional development was edited to include more explicit instruction about how to use data to inform instruction and efforts were made to streamline data collection processes to address teachers' concerns. The protocol for coaching was updated to include more opportunities for coaches and teachers to work together around these and other challenges. Finally, additional STAIR tailored videos were created to specifically address teachers' need for more information about instructional strategies recommended through the project.

References: Kelly, A. E. (2008). Reflections on the national mathematics advisory panel final report. Educational Researcher, 37(9), 561-564. Ketterlin-Geller, L. R., & Chard, D. J. (2011). Algebra readiness for students with learning difficulties in grades 4-8: Support through the study of number. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 16(1), 65-78. Krawec, J., Huang, J., Montague, M., Kressler, B., & Melia de Alba, A. (2013). The effects of cognitive strategy instruction on knowledge of math problem-solving processes of middle school students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 36(2), 80-92. National Center for Education Statistics. (2017). The nation's report card. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. Geary, D. C., Boykin, A. W., Embretson, S., Reyna, V., Siegler, R., Berch, D. B., & Graban, J. (2008). The Final Report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel. Washington, DC: US Department of Education. Ostler, E. (2012). 21st century STEM education: A tactical model for long-range success. International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 2(1). Xin, Y. P., Jitendra, A. K., & Deatline-Buchman, A. (2005). Effects of mathematical word Problem-Solving instruction on middle school students with learning problems. The Journal of Special Education, 39(3), 181-192.

Should we Encourage the Transition from Physical Manipulatives to Virtual Manipulatives

First presenter: Jiwon Hwang, California State University, Bakersfield (jhwangpsu@gmail.com) Second presenter: Seok Yoon Hwang, Daegu University (syhwang@daegu.ac.kr)

Poster Abstract: Many studies demonstrate the overall effects of using manipulatives when introducing mathematical concept and teaching problem solving. Among various types of representation, physical math manipulatives have been used for many years by educators as a best-practice intervention to help students with math concepts, particularly those who are struggling with fact fluency. Although virtual manipulatives are yet a relatively new resource to teachers, there are growing needs to include technology into instruction. Teachers looking for new and engaging interventions have started using virtual manipulatives in hopes to better help struggling learners. Over the last three-decades, technology has promulgated within the educational environment with an impact in classrooms worldwide. Schools have adopted many different types of technologies to enhance student learning and more have become available. The incorporation of virtual manipulatives is one tool that has been utilized to improve student learning in mathematics. Research has found that students that become fluent in basic mathematical operations are less anxious and more engaged, in comparison to those that are not fluent in these basic operations. Additionally, it is suggested that an increase in accuracy and speed (fluency) for basic mathematical operations can increase the performance when engaged in a math activity. Following research questions were addressed in the current study. First, how many single digit multiplication problems do students with learning disabilities solve correctly and incorrectly per minute (i.e., fluency) after instruction with virtual and physical manipulatives respectively? Which manipulatives is more effective based on visual analysis and Tau-U effect size measure? Second, after the intervention period, what is the percentage of two-digit (>20) by one-digit multiplication problem do students with LD solve correctly (i.e., accuracy) using virtual and physical manipulatives? Third, do effects of virtual and physical manipulatives on multiplication facts maintain after two weeks from the conclusion of the interventions? And are the intervention effects generalized to solving two-digit by two-digit multiplication problems? For this study, data collection has been completed and we are currently at data analysis stage which is expected to be completed by November 2019. Our preliminary findings presented a mixture of effectiveness (between virtual and physical manipulatives) across students that virtual manipulatives were more effective in some students while physical manipulatives were more effective in others. Our meticulous analysis will further present what factors (e.g., students' cognitive preference and skills) are related to a type of manipulatives that increase math fact fluency. We strongly believe our findings will contribute to the current body of comparison studies between virtual and concrete manipulatives (some studies reported physical manipulatives helped better in intuitive understanding than virtual manipulatives whereas others found that virtual manipulatives had more positive impact in students' achievement and engagement in learning mathematics).

Recoding and Word Unitizations: Should We Measure Both?

First presenter: Christopher Ives, University of Oregon (cives@uoregon.edu) Poster Abstract: Introduction In its most recent edition, the Dynamic Indicators for Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS 8; University of Oregon, 2018) modified its scoring procedures for Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) from whole words read (WWR) to words recoded correctly (WRC). WWR, the previous scoring procedure, required that students correctly read a nonsense word without sounding out its constituent parts to receive credit. In contrast, WRC allows students to receive credit if they correctly read and blend a nonsense word, regardless of whether the student needed to sound out the word before recoding. This scoring change holds important implications for interpreting results, as the new measurement net captures and confounds both recoding (/l/ /at/ /lat/) and word unitization (/lat/). As of yet, a formal comparison of these two methods has not been conducted to determine whether these scores deviate in their technical adequacy, particularly with the introduction of more complex sound-spelling patterns in DIBELS 8 NWF. In Harn and colleagues' (2008) cluster analysis, they found that students who primarily relied on a unitization strategy, on average, correctly read 16.81 more words on spring Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) than students using a sound-by-sound strategy; whereas students who used recoding did not demonstrate a significant difference. Cummings et al. (2011) conducted a similar analysis but instead found that both the unitization and recoding clusters had similar positive associations with spring ORF compared to the sound-by-sound cluster (4.73 and 6.18, respectively). These contradictory findings present uncertainty around the predictive alignment of recodes and unitizations. Notably, neither study analyzed a scoring approach that combines unitization and recoding, as found in DIBELS 8 WRC. The purpose of this poster session is to compare the predictive utility of scores and scoring procedures used across recent DIBELS editions, including correct letter sounds (CLS), WWR, and WRC. Specifically, we will examine their ability to predict end-of-year performance on DIBELS ORF and two external criterion measures: the Iowa Assessment (University of Iowa, 2015) and the Test of Word Reading Efficiency - Second Edition (TOWRE-2; Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 2012). Participants. This study utilizes distinct samples of first-grade students for each external criterion measure. The Iowa Assessment was administered to 138 first-grade students in five public and one private school in the Pacific, East North Central, West North Central, and South Atlantic census divisions. The TOWRE-2 was administered to 180 first-grade students from four public schools in the Pacific census division. Analyses and Anticipated Findings. To compare the predictive utility of each scoring procedure, we will calculate predictive correlations and conduct receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses in which NWF scores are used to predict scoring below the 20th percentile on each criterion measure. Results of these analyses have been conducted with the existing DIBELS 8 scoring methods, though item-level data is still being processed to derive WWR scores. We anticipate that, at the beginning of first-grade, WWR will exhibit greater floor effects and suffer from a narrower measurement range, resulting in less predictive accuracy compared to WRC.

References: Cummings, K. D., Dewey, E. N., Latimer, R. J., & Good, R. H. (2011). Pathways to word reading and decoding: The roles of automaticity and accuracy. School Psychology Review, 40(2), 284-295. Harn, B. A., Stoolmiller, M., & Chard, D. J. (2008). Measuring the dimensions of alphabetic principle on the reading development of first graders: The role of automaticity and unitization. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41(2), 143-157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219407313585 Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, J., & Rashotte, C. A. (2012). TOWRE-2 Test of Word Reading Efficiency-Second Edition. Austin, Texas: PRO-ED. University of Iowa. (2015). Iowa assessments. Orlando, FL: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. University of Oregon. (2018). 8th Edition of Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS®). Retrieved from University of Oregon website: https://dibels.uoregon.edu/docs/materials/dibels_8_admin_and_scoring_guide_2018.pdf

Writing in Social Studies (WiSS): Using Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) to Improve Students' Argument Writing

First presenter: Laura Jacobson, Central Connecticut State University (laura.jacobson@ccsu.edu) Second presenter: Sally Drew, Central Connecticut State University (drewsav@ccsu.edu)

Poster Abstract: The poster will display a concurrent triangulation mixed methods approach (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011) used to develop the Writing in Social Studies (WiSS) intervention to improve the quality of disciplinary arguments written by middle school (MS) students with and without high incidence disabilities. The goal of this project was to improve discipline-specific argumentative writing instruction using SRSD to teach the STOP and DARE strategies within a writing to learn framework aligned to CCSS and C3 Social Studies Framework.

The research questions were: RQ 1. What are the essential elements of the SRSD-WiSS intervention package and how is it most effectively implemented? RQ 2. What feedback is provided by the MS social studies teacher and students on the feasibility and usability of the WiSS routine? RQ 3. Is there initial evidence to suggest that the WiSS package can be used to improve the writing quality of disciplinary arguments written by students with and without high incidence disabilities?

Twenty seventh grade students received instruction using the WiSS intervention by their teacher with researcher support. Qualitative data included formal and informal interviews with the classroom teacher and researcher field notes from participant observation (RQ 1, 2). Quantitative data included Intervention Rating Profiles, teacher and student versions (RQ 1, 2). Initial evidence to answer RQ3 was collected via baseline and postintervention writing prompts scored for multiple sub-measures: (a) number of total words written (TWW), (b) written evidence of planning before writing, and (c) number of argumentative genre elements (i.e., claim, supporting ideas, counterargument, conclusion).

Preliminary data analysis indicated WiSS instruction improved student writing over baseline. All students increased their TWW, with the class average increasing by more than 200 words. Students who wrote fewer than 100 words in the pre-writing assessment increased their average TWW by 212, which is greater than the average TWW by those writing greater than 100 words in the pre-assessment. Students with IEPs increased their number of words putting their post-instructional performance substantially closer to those without IEPs

Before instruction only three students provided written evidence of planning. After instruction, all students, regardless of pre or post assessment performance used written plans, an increase from 15% to 100% of students. Number of argumentative genre elements included increased across students after WiSS instruction. After instruction students in all categories included all required genre elements, including reject arguments from the other side.

Results of the post-instruction student survey indicated a positive relationship between the SRSD model and positive changes to students' use of strategies, the strategies themselves, and their application within the content area. All students agreed that the strategies were useful and relevant, with only two stating that they didn't like the WiSS strategies.

Teacher survey results showed support for the strategies and their use, as well as the importance of teaching writing in social studies. When interviewed, fit of WiSS within a discipline-specific C3 aligned classroom, the improvement of WiSS instruction over previous instruction-particularly in the area of counterclaim-and the improvement of students with disabilities were noted.

References: Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Mason, L. H., & Friedlander, B. (2016). Powerful Writing Strategies For All Students (pp. 1-41). Baltimore, MD: Paul H Brookes Publishing Company. Harris, K. & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process work: Strategies for composition and self-regulation. Cambridge, MA: Brookline De La Paz, S. (n.d.). STOP and DARE: A persuasive writing strategy. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36(4), 234-242. De La Paz, S. (1999, January). Teaching writing strategies and self-regulation procedures to middle school students with learning disabilities. Focus on Exceptional Children, 31(5), 1-16. De La Paz, S., & Graham, S. (2002). Explicitly teaching strategies, skills, and knowledge: Writing instruction in middle school classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(4), 687-698 Limpo, T., Alves, R. (2013). Teaching planning or sentence-combining strategies: Effective SRSD interventions at different levels of written composition. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(4), 328-341 Hanson, A. (2009). Brain Friendly Strategies for Developing Student Writing Skills (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Witt, J. C. and Elliott, S. N. (1985). Acceptability of classroom intervention strategies. In T. R. Kratochwill (Ed.), Advances in School Psychology, 4, 251-288. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

A Meta-analysis of reading interventions for Dyslexia: What does the research say that we should prepare for students with dyslexia in the school?

First presenter: Sora Jeong, Seoul National University (sora.clare.jeong@gmail.com) Second presenter: Younghee Cho, Faith International University (helalj@snu.ac.kr)

Poster Abstract: Background: Recently, there has been increased attention focused on appropriate educational services meeting the needs of students with dyslexia nationwide. To date, 45 of 50 states have passed dyslexia laws or approved other dyslexia initiatives or resolutions. Despite the growing interest in dyslexia, teachers in the education field still face difficulty in teaching dyslexic children. In particular, teachers are required to have specific knowledge of the characteristics of children with dyslexia and to effectively screen and teach them. Therefore, this study aims to find how teachers identify initial signs of students with dyslexia, how teachers divide dyslexic children into subtypes based on their characteristics and how teachers develop effective interventions for them in the school setting. Method: This study reviewed 48 journals focusing on the field related to students with dyslexia over 10 years from 2009 to 2018. By reviewing previous studies on the characteristics of dyslexia, this study analyzed the characteristics of children with dyslexia and classified subtypes. Also, the effectiveness of the intervention was examined by multilevel analysis for intervention studies on dyslexia using HLM. Results: First, this study developed the checklist for screening students with dyslexia based on their characteristics derived from the results of the previous decade of research. This covered reading difficulties such as language development, articulation, phonemic awareness, letter/word recognition, vocabulary, and fluency that appear from the initial reading stage to school-grade level. Second, this study also introduced what are the effective interventions and how to implement it effectively in the public schools for each subtype of dyslexia. The mean effect size of interventions for students with dyslexia was .63. We found phonological awareness related interventions and computer-based interventions showed higher effect sizes than other variables. Conclusion: This study provides important and useful information for teachers and researchers who develop reading interventions for students with dyslexia by investigating the characteristics of children with dyslexia, distinguishing subtypes, and identifying intervention strategies for each subtype. This study has implications in that it contributes to future research and practical guidance for children with dyslexia, further contributing to reducing the gap between research and the field.

Development of CISA2-O: Analysis and synthesis of research on adaptive behavior assessment

First presenter: Dongil Kim, Seoul National University (dikimedu@snu.ac.kr) Second presenter: Jiyung Hwang, University of Missouri (jhdn8@mail.missouri.edu)

Poster Abstract: The purpose of this synthesis was to provide an overview of the research that has been done on CISA2-O, an adaptive behavior assessment tool in Korea. For review methods, we used narrative reviews. This strategy is particularly well suited to the literature on CISA2-O, because the studies are few in number and are substantively and methodologically diverse. Researchers found three major issues that are addressed in the studies; (1) reliability and validity of CISA2-O; (2) sensitivity and specificity as a construct validity of screening tool; (3) factor structure of adaptive behavior. In the first study, CISA2-O demonstrated high internal reliability and predictive validity by conducting discriminant analysis. As a result of research synthesis procedure, three major issues are addressed: (1) reliability and validity of CISA2-O; (2) sensitivity and specificity as a construct validity of screening tool; (3) factor structure of adaptive behavior. In the first study, CISA2-O demonstrated high internal reliability and predictive validity by conducting discriminant analysis. In the second following study indicated high discriminant accuracy of screening development delay considering sensitivity and specificity using ROC analysis. The last study of CISA2-O, supported high construct validity of three factor structure (e.g., conceptual/social/practical adaptive behavior) using confirmatory factor analysis.

Intervention Effectiveness for At-risk Students with Dyslexia and Reading Difficulties

First presenter: Dongil Kim, Seoul National University (dikimedu@snu.ac.kr) Second presenter: Hyeyun Gladys Shin, Seoul National University (gladysshin@hotmail.com)

Additional authors: Jaehyun Shin, Gyeongin National University of Education

Poster Abstract: Woo et al., (2016) reported that basic academic support system in Korea for public schools is run by education departments at the city or province level, yet such system is considered too minimal for securing students' academic success. For this reason, current status indicates that many underachieving school students go unnoticed or never get an opportunity to be referred for any type of diagnosis or screening for dyslexia, dyscalculia and other learning disabilities (Kim, et al., 2017). This can be interpreted as a reflection of serious cases to "wait-to-fail" model that accompanies relatively late intervening start for the underachievers. For this reason, this research intended to reach out and utilize the RTI model directly, not through the school system, to public schools and welfare child centers from the initial screening to providing the intensive intervention at the Tier 3 level of the RTI delivery model. After the screening stage and finally selecting students performing 15%tile or below in reading and writing, a total 69 participants from elementary schools and child centers with their classroom teacher / center teacher recommendation participated in this study. Some cases of clear dyslexia diagnosis were also included. This study, as a third year project, examined the effectiveness of the intervention program in all reading areas of phonological awareness, reading fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension on 69 elementary students (including 9 participants from the previous years) and found correlation with their writing skills too. Additionally, because vocabulary development and reading comprehension skills have shown high correlation in reading (Kim, et al., 2018) this study further attempted to analyze those two variables for students referred by schools and child centers. The research questions were as follows: 1) As a third year project, was the intervention program developed effective for improving reading skills of underachieving students with dyslexia or reading difficulties? 2) How did the students referred by schools and by child centers perform on vocabulary and reading comprehension areas of reading? 16 intervention sessions were provided for an hour lesson per session with 1:1 - 1:3 student teacher ratio for intensive differentiated instruction. Instructors taught with Reading Compass along with other teaching materials. 69 students were from 5 schools and 2 child centers in upper Kyeonggi province. After thorough screening and consultations, each student received intervention on one or two reading areas, and the evaluation was done using Basic Academic Skills Assessment. Pre and posttest with two progress monitoring results were analyzed. Such intensive and highly differentiated instruction yielded significant improvement in all targeted areas for intervention and writing. Among 5 students receiving both vocabulary and reading comprehension intervention throughout, 3 of them showed more significant improvement in vocabulary improvement rate than reading comprehension improvement rate, supporting the notion that reading comprehension is deemed more difficult area for improvement. From the findings, different improvement results for lower and upper grade students were discussed in depth, and implications for school referrals are investigated.

References: 1. Kim, D., An, Y., Kim, H, & Shin, H. G. (2018). Relationship analysis between vocabulary and reading comprehension factors according to achievement levels. Korean Journal of Learners Education, 18(13), 505-522. 2. Kim, D., Kim, H, An, Y., Ahn, S., Lim, H, & Hwang, J. (2017). Application of RTI for dyslexic screening: Focusing on reading fluency. Korean Journal of Educational Psychology, 31(2), 265-282. 3. Woo, J., Kim, Y., Kim, Y., & Kang, O. (2016). Group comparison analysis of administrators and teachers on support demand for dyslexic students. Korean Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13(1), 53-83.

Features of academic vocabulary test items affecting their difficulty for English Learners

First presenter: Paulina Kulesz, University of Houston (Paulina.Kulesz@times.uh.edu) Poster Abstract: Objective: In the current study, we used archival academic vocabulary test data from middle school students to determine item difficulty for groups of English learners compared to English-only (EO) students. Our objective was to identify features of items that explained differences in difficulty across groups, leading to the eventual revision and improvement of the academic vocabulary test. Theoretical Framework: Our work has been informed by lexical processing studies that explore multiple word-level features to explain speed and accuracy in lexical decision and naming tasks. We combined these features of interest with an analytic approach that focused on estimating item difficulty, allowing a more fine-grained analysis of individual items. Methods: Descriptive item response theory models were used to estimate item difficulty. Separate models compared performance of EO students to three separate groups of English learners: those identified as initially fluent (IF), those identified as limited English proficient (LEP), and those who were initially limited but later reclassified as fluent (RF). Then in a second stage, the item difficulty estimates obtained from these analyses were used as the outcome, and item features were included as explanatory variables. Data Sources: The primary measure was the Word Generation Assessment of Academic Vocabulary. We analyzed data from the pre-test assessments from the Word Generation trial, from a sample of 13,780 students who attended thirteen middle schools in a large, diverse urban district in California. Item feature information was obtained from various databases. Results: Word frequency, contextual diversity, and number of senses and meanings emerged as consistently important variables. In separate models, frequency and contextual diversity were significant for EO students (higher frequency or diversity predicting easier items), with small but significant increases in slopes for IF and RF students, and significant decrease in slopes for LEP students. Number of senses and meanings was also significant for EO students (more senses and meanings predicting easier items), with slopes not significantly different for IF or RF students, but a significant decrease in slope for LEP students. In a combined model, only contextual diversity remained as a significant unique predictor of item difficulty. Significance: Our findings confirm the advantage for higher-frequency words on academic vocabulary tests, and show that frequency is less predictive of performance for LEP students than it is for others. In contrast, students who are English learners but who are proficient in English appear to benefit as much or more from higher-frequency words as English-only students. We found a similar pattern of results for contextual diversity and number of meanings and senses, suggesting that these variables should be considered further by researchers and test developers. These findings will enable us to refine the existing academic vocabulary test to contain fewer items that function differentially for students with limited English proficiency.

Predicting Success for Chinese-speaking Tier 2 Students by Using Different Reading Measures

First presenter: Shu-Hsuan (Linda) Kung, National Tsing Hua University, (kung0006@gmail.com) Poster Abstract: The monitoring of student academic progress is an essential element in educational contexts worldwide. Progress monitoring, when implemented correctly, appears to result in accelerated student learning and more informed instructional decision making. For lower achievers, research suggests that an effective practice that intensifies interventions is the use of performance data-a process known as data-based individualization (DBI). DBI ensures accountability in the effectiveness of remedial programs. Numerous studies have demonstrated that CBM oral reading measures can be a valid and reliable instrument for monitoring progress in the literacy of English-speaking students. It would be interesting to examine whether a very dissimilar language structure, for example, Chinese, makes any difference; in addition, determining whether reading measures such as vocabulary and reading comprehension are more precise predictors of performance in Chinese reading development is appealing. Therefore, using data collected at different time periods over a school year, this study aimed to compare the relations between different reading measures and the PRIORI-tbt, a nationwide standardized test, for Chinese-speaking elementary students in Tier 2 remedial programs. Also, the study attempted to develop benchmarks by associating different reading scores with the probability of passing the PRIORI-tbt.

A total of 215 fourth graders in Taiwan participated in the study. All participants were identified as Tier 2 students according to the national eligibility criteria. Periodic test data correlated with outcomes on the PRIORI-tbt. The reading measures are outlined as follows. 1. CBM ORF probes were selected from G4-level passages and administered monthly during the study period. The number of words read correctly for 1 min was used to quantify the reading fluency ability outcome. 2. PMRC is a standardized test developed to monitor the reading comprehension ability of fourth to sixth graders in Taiwan. Six duplicate probes were administered during the study period. Test scores indicated changes in overall reading comprehension ability. 3. PMV is a standardized test developed to monitor the vocabulary ability of fourth to sixth graders in Taiwan. Six duplicate probes were administered during the study period. Test scores indicated changes in overall vocabulary ability. 4. PRIORI-tbt was developed to identify academically at-risk students in Taiwan. The PRIORI-tbt includes a screening test and growth test, which are implemented yearly in June and December, respectively. Students who have not passed the screening test in June receive additional intensive instruction in a Tier 2 remedial program for the school year. Test outcomes in the following June determine whether the students can leave the remedial program or move on to special education evaluation. PRIORI-tbt results were used as the criterion variable in this study. Preliminary results from longitudinal and cross-sectional analyses revealed that among the reading measures, ORF measures were more highly correlated with the PRIORI-tbt (r = .72) than the other two measures (r = .63 and .56). Therefore, ORF scores can serve as an adequate early indicator of the later performance of Chinese-speaking Tier 2 students in a standardized national-level test. More implications for research and practice are discussed herein.

References: Hung, L. Y., Chen, H. I., Chen, B. C., & Chen, H. F. (2014). Progress Monitoring Test of Vocabulary (PMV). Taipei, Taiwan: Chinese Behavioral Science Corp. Ministry of Education (2016). Project for Implementation of Remedial Instruction technology-based testing (PRIORI-tbt). Taipei, Taiwan: K-12 Education Administration. Su, I. F., Hung, L. Y., Chen, H. I., & Chen, B. C. (2015). Progress Monitoring Test of Reading Comprehension (PMRC). Taipei, Taiwan: Chinese Behavioral Science Corp.

Research of suitability of reading comprehension test and study of longitudinal change according to reading comprehension level

First presenter: Jaeho Lee, Kwangju Women's University (edu4ld@gmail.com) Second presenter: Dong-Il Kim, Seoul National University (dikimedu@snu.ac.kr)

Additional authors: HyeYun Gladys Shin , Seoul National University; Woo-Jin Lee, Kwangju Women's University

Poster Abstract: This research analyzed a longitudinal study of 400 elementary school students for reading comprehension skills through latent growth modeling. The research questions were; 1) can the validity and the level of difficulty of Basic Academic Skills Assessment (BASA): Reading Comprehension be re-confirmed and re-validated for each grade; 2) According to the sub assessment types of the reading comprehension levels in the construct of Explicit, Inferential, and Evaluative domains, what is the predictability change over time for each grade? One hundred students from third grade to sixth grade, totaling 400 students from Jeolla, Gwangju and Jeju province of Korea participated in this study. Using Basic Academic Skills Assessment (BASA): Reading Comprehension bi-monthly assessment was conducted for three occasions. The assessment consists of explicit, inferential and evaluative understanding constructs using the Korean national curriculum-based texts with 20, 23, 28 and 30 questions for grades three to six, and the rate of change in those constructs was carefully examined through latent growth modeling analysis. As part of the study, the difficulty level of the assessment and the validity of the assessment were reexamined. As a part of the result, the scores of the fifth grade outweighed that of the sixth grade, yet it was not statistically significant. With the analysis within the constructs of reading comprehension at three different time series, the importance of the quality instruction at the level of Tier 1 of the RTI in the classroom is carefully suggested.

References: Barrett, T. (1976). Taxonomy of reading comprehension, In R. Smith & T. Barrett eds., Teaching reading in the middle grades. Reading, MA., Addison-Wesley. Basaraba, D., Yovanoff, P., Alonzo, J., & Tindal, G. (2013). Examining the structure of reading comprehension: do literal, inferential, and evaluative comprehension truly exist? Reading & Writing, 26(3), 349-379. Doi: 10.1007/s11145-012-9372-9. Kim, D & Lee, J., 2017 Characteristic Analysis on Reading Comprehension Related Assessments in South Korea. Asian journal of education, 18(1), 121-144. Kim, K. & Kim. D. (2013). A Study on Growth Patterns in Reading Comprehension Ability of Students at Risk for Reading Disabilities. Korean Journal of Special Education, 48(3), 207-225. Lee, J., & Kim, D. (2016). The Validation of Q matrix for Analyzing Elementary School Students' Reading Comprehension Skills via Fusion Model. Journal of Educational Evaluation, Korea, 29(2), 325-355.

The Effectiveness of Fraction Interventions for Fifth Graders with Mathematics Difficulties

First presenter: Jihyn Lee, University of Wyoming (jlee59@uwyo.edu) Second presenter: Diane Bryant, University of Texas at Austin (dpbryant@austin.utexas.edu)

Poster Abstract: Success in learning algebra is crucial for graduating colleges and getting higher salary jobs (Sadler & Tai, 2007). Fractions is key for understanding an integral part of algebra. Moreover, fractional performance of elementary school students predicts their mathematical performance and algebra knowledge in high school. Specifically, fractional knowledge in grade 5 is the best predictor of which students will have better algebra performance. However, many students with mathematics difficulties (MD) have challenges in learning fraction (Siegler & Pyke, 2013). Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the effect of a fraction intervention that focuses on conceptual and procedural knowledge of fractions on performance of 5th graders with MD. The following research questions will guide this study: 1) What are the effects of fraction lessons on the performance of 5th grade students with MD on the easyCBM fraction measure? and 2) What are the perspectives of fifth grade students with MD toward the fraction intervention on learning fractional concepts and skills? The design for this study is a multiple probe design across groups. Participants were six fifth grade students with MD to make three groups of two. The lessons were developed based on the premise that the intervention development must be driven by the research on evidence-based practices (e.g., visual representation, modeling of problem solving, student verbalizations, guided and independent practices, and corrective feedback) to teach struggling students. This study includes two measures: the easyCBM fraction assessment and Social validity questionnaire. The fidelity of implementation and assessment will be measured for at least 30% of the lessons and the assessments. Inter-observer agreement will be calculated for measuring the fidelity of implementation and assessment. To examine social validity of the intervention, a Likert scale with items related to the intervention's content will be used to collect data on the perspectives of students at the end of the intervention. For research question 1, the results indicate that the fraction intervention improved participants' performance on the easyCBM fraction measure. Specifically, in terms of factors of visual analysis, all of the three groups had low and stable levels of responding during baseline phase, had stable and increasing trends after the introduction of the intervention, and had high levels of responding during the maintenance phase. Additionally, the investigator calculated Tau-U as an effect size between baseline and intervention phases. The Tau-U was medium or strong across the three groups between baseline and intervention phases. For research question 2, the results of the social validity survey indicated that participants' perspectives were strongly positive toward the intervention. The implications for future researchers and practitioner will be discussed.

References: References Sadler, P. M., & Tai, R. H. (2007). The two high-school pillars supporting college science. Science, 317, 457-458. doi:10.1126/science.1144214 Siegler, R. S., & Pyke, A. A. (2013). Developmental and individual differences in understanding of fractions. Developmental psychology, 49, 1994-2004. doi:10.1037/a0031200

A Synthesis of Algebraic Concepts and Skills Interventions for Secondary Students With Learning Disabilities

First presenter: Jihyun Lee, University of Wyoming (jlee59@uwyo.edu) Second presenter: Diane Bryant, University of Texas at Austin (dpbryant@austin.utexas.edu)

Additional authors: Min Wook Ok, Daegu University (minwook.ok@gmail.com); Mikyung Shin West Texas A&M University

Poster Abstract: Success in algebra is essential for more advanced mathematics, high school graduation, and college success (Shin & Bryant, 2015). Also, the Common Core State Standards in Mathematics (CCSSM) strongly focuses on algebra as one of the most important mathematics areas for career opportunities in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields (King, Lemons, & Davidson, 2016). However, those standards' rigorous expectations have been considerable challenges for secondary students with Learning Disabilities (LD) because of their insufficient foundational skills (e.g., number fluency, fraction knowledge, and reasoning) for achieving the standards (Myers, Wang, Brownell, & Gagnon, 2015). The purpose of this synthesis is to identify and understand intervention studies that focused on algebraic concepts and skills for secondary students with LD. The following questions guided this synthesis: (a) Which CCSSM standards were emphasized in each of the intervention studies?; (b) What were the instructional components (e.g., explicit instruction) of the interventions?; and (c) how effective are the interventions for teaching algebraic concepts and skills to middle and high school students with LD? A systematic search of peer-reviewed literature published between 1969 and February 2019 was conducted using electronic databases, hand searches of relevant journals, and ancestral searches. Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria(a) included participants identified as having LD in Grades 6 to 12; (b) used an experimental design, quasi-experimental design, or single case design (SCD); (c) included interventions for teaching algebraic concepts and skills; (d) measured students' performance on algebraic concepts and skills; and (e) included sufficient information to calculate effect sizes (ES). As a result, a total of 12 articles were included in this synthesis. In regard to the CCSSM Standards for Mathematical Content, a majority of the studies addressed linear equations, expression, and inequalities and quadratic expressions. However, none of the studies addressed extending understanding of numbers (i.e., integers) to the rational number systems and understanding, comparing, and using functions to model relationships between quantities. Additionally, results indicated that the included studies showed improved students' performance on algebraic concepts and skills following the interventions. Tau-U and hedges' g were typically large or very large. The most commonly used instructional components in the interventions were multiple representations, a sequence and/or range of examples, and explicit instruction. This synthesis includes several important implications for research and practice. First, to establish generalization of research findings to larger populations, more studies should use high quality randomized groups design, or disaggregate results for the population. Second, considering the importance of understanding rational numbers and functions for learning high school algebra and getting many middle- and upper-income jobs (Ayalon & Wilkie, 2019; Tian & Siegler, 2018), more studies need to address these concepts and skills. Third, teaching algebra concepts and skills to secondary students with LD is challenging for teachers. Thus, teachers need to be well acquainted with content knowledge of algebra concepts and skills as well as features of algebra interventions, including validated instructional components.

References: Ayalon, M., & Wilkie, K. J. (2019). Exploring secondary students' conceptualization of functions in three curriculum contexts. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmathb.2019.100718 King, S. A., Lemons, C. J., & Davidson, K. A. (2016). Math interventions for students with autism spectrum disorder: A best-evidence synthesis. Exceptional Children, 82, 443-462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402915625066 Myers, J. A., Wang, J., Brownell, M. T., & Gagnon, J. C. (2015). Mathematics interventions for students with learning disabilities in secondary school: A review of the literature. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 13, 207-235. Shin, M., & Bryant, D. P. (2015). Fraction interventions for students struggling to learn mathematics: A research synthesis. Remedial and Special Education, 36, 374-387. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932515572910 Tian, J., & Siegler, R. S. (2018). Which type of rational numbers should students learn first?. Educational Psychology Review, 30, 351-372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-017-9417-3.

Executive Functions Training Embedded into Evidence-based Early Literacy Curriculum

First presenter: Sergio Leiva, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (sleiva-cardona@huskers.unl.edu) Poster Abstract: The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate whether embedding executive function training into lessons adapted from an evidence-based early literacy curriculum resulted in improvements in preschool dual-language learners' (DLL) early language and literacy skills. Seventy-one preschool DLLs were recruited from eleven preschool centers in Nebraska. All children received instruction in English at their preschools and spoke a language other than English at home. Children were randomly assigned to a control group or one of two intervention groups: early literacy training only (EL) or early literacy training with embedded executive function activities (EL+EF). Instruction for each group varied depending on the three conditions of the intervention. For the EF group, instruction involved working memory and inhibitory control activities embedded into daily lesson plans adapted from an evidence-based early literacy curriculum. The targeted skills were print knowledge, phonological awareness, and storybook reading using a dialogic reading technique. Each of these lessons were taught by introducing the target skill first (e.g., print knowledge) followed by the addition of an executive function activity using the same content as the previously taught skill (e.g., recalling a list of letters while being introduced to new letters as a working memory activity). Instruction for the LE group was based on the same adapted lessons plans as the EF group without the executive function activities, and the control group received business-as-usual instruction in their preschool classroom. The intervention had a duration of seven weeks and each intervention group received 4 lessons per week with a duration of approximately 25 minutes per lesson. To evaluate the effects of the intervention, children were administered the Vocabulary, Syntax, and Language Acquisition (Process) subtest of the Quick Interactive Language Screener (QUILS, Golinkoff, de Villiers, Hirsh-Pasek, Iglesias, & Wilson, 2017) as well as the Print Knowledge, Definitional Vocabulary, and Phonological Awareness subtests of the Test of Preschool Early Literacy (TOPEL, Lonigan, Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 2007). Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) revealed a significant effect of pretest on all academic outcomes suggesting that DLL children with higher early literacy skills at pretest obtained significantly higher scores across all measure at posttest. There was a significant effect of treatment group on posttest scores for the vocabulary and syntax subtests of the QUILS, after controlling for the effects of pretest scores. Analyses comparing the intervention groups to the control group indicated that the effects for the vocabulary and syntax outcomes ranged from -.01 to .87. Specifically, the effects for vocabulary comparing both the LE and EF groups versus the control group was .59 and .54 respectively. Similarly, the effects for syntax comparing both the LE and EF groups versus the control group was .48 and .87 respectively. Effects comparing the two intervention groups were never statistically significant, but several effect sizes were in the "educationally meaningful" range (Tallmadge, 1977; ds ranged from -.13 to .52). These findings provide some evidence to suggest that executive functions training may benefit DLL preschool children's academic outcomes when embedded within evidence-based early literacy instruction.

References: Golinkoff, R. M., de Villiers, J., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Iglesias,A., & Wilson, M. S. (2017).User's manual for the Quick Interactive Language ScreenerTM (QUILSTM): A measure of vocabulary, syntax, and language acquisition skills in young children. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Lonigan, C. J., Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (2007). Test of preschool early literacy. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed Tallmadge, G. K. (1977). The Joint Dissemination Review Panel idea book. Washington, DC: National Institute of Education

The Effects of Literacy Coaching on Teacher Instructional Behaviors During Reading Instruction

First presenter: Kaitlin M. Leonard, University of Connecticut (kaitlin.leonard@uconn.edu) Poster Abstract: Rationale In 2017, The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reported that 37% of fourth graders were at or above the proficient level in reading. The need to teach reading well is urgent and with high literacy demands and an increasing diverse population of learners, it is critical that teachers can address the needs of all learners. However, teaching reading is complex and not all teachers and pre-service teachers possess the pedagogical knowledge necessary to be effective in the classroom. Literacy coaching has been widely endorsed as a means to improve quality teaching in reading (e.g., Teemant, Wink, & Tyra, 2011), but it becomes problematic when there is not a coordinated, systematic coaching model established that results in a change in teacher behavior and increasing student reading outcomes.

Purpose We know that coaching is effective. Kraft and colleagues (2018) identified four aspects of effective coaching based on their review of coaching studies: (a) coaching should be individualized; (b) coaching should be sustained over a period of time; (c) coaching should be context specific (i.e., teacher should be coached based on the program or curriculum they are using in their classroom); and (d) coaching should be focused on increasing teachers' specific instructional skills. Based on a review of the current literature on literacy coaching, there is a need for more research on the effects of literacy coaching that is context specific (i.e, focused on a specific reading program) and that focuses on increasing teachers' specific instructional skills. The purpose of the study is to experimentally investigate whether coaching increases the frequency with which teachers provide modeling, OTRs, and specific feedback.

Research Question Does coaching increase teachers' use of modeling, opportunities to respond, and specific feedback above and beyond one stand-alone training?

Procedures To investigate the effects on coaching, findings from a multiple-baseline design across behaviors will be presented. The participants will include two second grade teachers who are implementing an evidence-based reading program. The coach will observe teachers during the 30-minute whole group reading lesson and provide feedback to teachers in a post-observation conference two times per week. Effectiveness of the coaching intervention will be determined by increased frequency of modeling, OTRs, and specific feedback through visual analysis. I hypothesize that teachers will increase their instructional behaviors. Visual inspection of the data will suggest an increase in changes in the mean across time, trend, level, and latency of change.

Results The dissertation study is expected to begin in October of 2019.

Discussion Research has demonstrated that the role of a literacy coach is not clearly defined, and often the roles and responsibilities of coaches vary (Blarney, Meyer, &Walpole 2009; Duessen, Coskie, Robinson, & Autio, 2007). Future work for schools may include defining the role of a literacy coach and/or reading specialist, as the definition can have impactful effects on teacher behavior and student outcomes.

References: Clark, M., Max, J., Silva, T., Makowsky, L., Hallgren, K. & Constantine, J. (2016). Feasibility and design of an impact evaluation of teacher preparation and professional development. IES: U.S. Department of Education. Kraft, M.A, Blazar, D., & Hogan, D. (2018). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 547-588. DOI: 10.3102/0034654318759268 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP; 2017). Retrieved from: https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ Teemant, A., Wink, J., & Tyra, S. (2011). Effects of coaching on teacher use of sociocultural instructional practices. Teaching and Teacher Education 27, (4) 683-693.

Literacy-Language Intervention via Telepractice in Primary School: A Single-Case Research Study

First presenter: Shih-Yuan Liang, Vanderbilt University (shih-yuan.liang@vanderbilt.edu) Poster Abstract: Purpose: Telepractice holds substantial promise for overcoming service delivery barriers (e.g., interventionist shortage and transportation) and facilitating accessible and cost-effective services for individuals with special learning needs. Yet, very few studies have examined the feasibility of delivering literacy-language interventions via telepractice. Moreover, the overwhelmingly positive evidence on telepractice intervention outcomes has been questioned for lacking sound research design and quality measurements (Rudolph & Rudolph, 2015). With a single-case research study, we addressed two research questions: (a) Is there a functional relation between a telepractice-based literacy-language intervention and child reading accuracy in oral text reading? (b) Can an online interventionist deliver a literacy-language intervention via telepractice with adequate procedural fidelity (> 80%)?

Method: We employed a single-case, multiple-probe design across 4 primary-grade participants who exhibited reading difficulties with/out language impairment. Participants attended three weekly individual 30- to 60-minute sessions across 14-20 weeks. In the baseline condition, each participant was engaged in a business-as-usual, adult-child reading interaction - immediate word supply at points of reading miscues. In the intervention condition, the interventionist implemented: (a) the Does It Make Sense comprehension monitoring program (Liang & Schuele, 2017) and (b) word work (supplemental). Does It Make Sense involves a modeling-shared instruction/guided practice-independent practice structure per lesson. The interventionist models that every time she reads to the sentence boundary regardless of accuracy, she poses the question "Does it make sense?". If her oral rendering of text makes sense, she puts a check mark by the sentence. If not, she rereads, identifies the word(s) possibly misread, and applies effective word-solving strategies to repair understanding. We used ZOOM as the primary platform for lesson delivering with the student using an iPad in his/her home.

The dependent variable, self-correction proportion, was operationalized as the number of self-correction behaviors divided by the number of reading miscues (corrected or not corrected) produced in a 4-minute reading probe administered on a weekly basis.

Results: The preliminary data projects that a functional relation between the telepractice literacy-language intervention and child self-correction proportion in oral text reading will be established. Currently two out of three participants who have received the telepractice intervention for at least a month have changed in self-correction behaviors. The fourth participant has just entered the intervention condition. Across participants, the mean self-correction proportion increased from baseline at 15% (range = 13% to 19%) to intervention at 35% (range = 27% to 39%). The percentage of non-overlapping data ranged from 80% to 100% across participants.

Implications: Telepractice is feasible in delivering literacy-language services and obtaining reliable assessment. Telepractice is not a replacement for traditional, face-to-face services. Rather, telepractice shows promise in enhancing interventionist-family contact and communication by removing barriers such as transportation and time away from work, and therefore, leading to more optimized treatment intensity. To ensure successful implementation, we recommend interventionists gather sufficient data on child developmental, behavioral and socio-emotional profiles and have a behavior management plan prior to launching the intervention, and work closely with the family/school staff to troubleshoot any potential problems (e.g., technology, behavior, limiting emotions related to learning frustration).

References: Rudolph, J. M., & Rudolph, S. (2015). Telepractice vs. On-Site Treatment: Are Outcomes Equivalent for School-Age Children? EBP Briefs (Evidence-based Practice Briefs), 10 (2).

A Meta-analysis on the Relation between Mathematics Language and Mathematics Performance

First presenter: Xin Lin, The University of Texas at Austin (xin.lin@utexas.edu) Poster Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to examine the relation between mathematics language (ML) and mathematics performance and to identify potential moderators and underlying mechanisms of such relation. A meta-analysis of 34 studies involving 39 independent samples and 4,831 participants suggested that ML was moderately related to mathematics performance, r = .44, 95% CI [.41, .46]. After controlling for publication type, sample status assessment time, and SES, the relation between ML and mathematics performance was not influenced by types of mathematics task, and ML is constantly important for mathematics performance across different grades. When comprehension, cognitive skills or both were partialled out, the correlation between ML and mathematics performance remained moderate and significant. Findings, taken together, suggested that ML represents a distinct and important construct for different types of mathematics skills across grades. Theoretical and practical implications were discussed.

Effects of Geometry Intervention on Geometry Skills for Elementary Students with LD

First presenter: Meijia Liu, The University of Texas at Austin (Meijia.liu@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Megan Rojo, The University of Texas at Austin (meganrojo@utexas.edu)

Additional authors: Diane Bryant; Brian Bryant; Dake Zhang

Poster Abstract: Rationale and Research Questions Geometry education is a core content area in K-12 mathematics education in U.S. Success in geometry may benefit students later in life, such as in higher education or STEM-related jobs. However, students with learning disabilities (LD) usually face challenges due to the possible cognitive deficits in solving mathematical problems. There are limited empirical studies on geometry interventions for students with LD, and no study has been conducted to teach geometry concepts and skills to students in lower grades, such as 3rd graders with LD. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to extend the current literature by examining the effect of a geometry intervention on the geometry performances for elementary students with LD using a multiple baseline design. The following research questions guided the study: 1. What effect will the geometry intervention have on the geometry performance of the elementary students with LD? 2. To what extent do the elementary students with LD maintain their geometry performance one and two weeks after the geometry intervention? 3. To what extent can the geometry performance be generalized to the distal measure (KeyMath)? 4. What are the perspectives of the elementary students on the geometry intervention they receive?

Method This study included a total of six participants from an elementary school. All of them were school-identified with LD. The intervention included research-based instructional components, such as the control of difficulty, guided practice, and sequencing. Geometry vocabulary instruction was also embedded in the geometry intervention. The geometry concepts and skills taught were aligned with the CCSSM standards, including learning the attributes of shapes and solving perimeter problems of various polygons. The interventionist implemented a total of 24 sessions to teach 8 lessons for each participant using multiple representations. The duration of the intervention for each participant was four times a week for a total of 6 weeks. For the present study, adapted easyCBM geometry measures were used as the proximal measure, and the KeyMath-R standardized assessment was used as the distal measure for the generalization phase.

Results Findings of the analyses will be reported in the result section. The data for the effects of the geometry intervention, the students' performances in the maintenance phase and generalization phase will be reported. The results will be used to analyze to what degree the geometry concepts and skills learned from the intervention can be maintained and generalized. Results from the social validity measure at the conclusion of the intervention will reflect the students' perspectives on the geometry intervention.

Discussion, limitations, future research directions, and implications for practice will be discussed.

Significance of preschool early-literacy skills and self-regulation for reading development across elementary school

First presenter: Christopher J. Lonigan, Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida State University (lonigan@psy.fsu.edu)

Poster Abstract: Purpose: Although studies have identified preschool early-literacy skills as important developmental precursors to later reading, few studies have examined the extent to which these skills affect continued development of reading skills. Self-regulation has also been suggested as an important determinant of later reading skills. This study examined the degree to which both level and growth in early-literacy skills in the context of self-regulation contributed to the development of children's decoding and reading comprehension in the early elementary school period.

Method: Data for this study came from 1,089 children (55% male; 48% White, 42% Black/African American) originally recruited when they were in preschool. Children completed subtests of the Test of Preschool Early Literacy at the beginning, middle, and end of their preschool year. Children's self-regulation was assessed with the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS) task and teacher ratings of inattention in the fall of preschool. Toward the end of the school year in kindergarten through third grades, children completed measures of decoding and reading comprehension, including the Word-Identification, Word Attack, and Passage Comprehension subtests of the Woodcock-Johnson, the Test of Word Reading Efficiency, and the Test of Silent Reading Efficiency and Comprehension.

Results: Intercepts and slopes from latent-growth-curve models of early-literacy skills (i.e., print knowledge, phonological awareness, vocabulary), with intercepts set at the end of the preschool year, along with self-regulation scores were used as predictors of reading skills in kindergarten through third grade. Autoregressive prediction models were used (e.g., prediction of second-grade reading skills controlled for kindergarten and first-grade reading skills). All models had excellent fit (e.g., CFI = 1.00, RMSEA < .02) and accounted for between 40% (kindergarten) and 70% (third grade) of the variance in decoding and reading comprehension outcomes. Across outcomes, end of preschool skills for both print knowledge and phonological awareness accounted for significant unique variance in decoding and reading comprehension into second grade. For all outcomes, growth in print knowledge across the preschool year was negatively associated with reading skills in kindergarten. End-of-preschool vocabulary uniquely predicted only reading comprehension and only in second or third grade. Teacher-rated inattention but not HTKS scores accounted for unique variance in all outcomes in first, second, and, for some outcomes, third grade.

Conclusions: These results highlight the importance of skill development during preschool for the acquisition of reading skills across the early-elementary-school period. Children's end-of preschool early-literacy skills accounted for significant variance in decoding and reading comprehension above the variance accounted for by earlier scores on the same outcome measure. Remarkably, children's self-regulation, as indexed by teachers' ratings of inattention in the fall of preschool, also accounted for significant variance in decoding and reading comprehension above the variance accounted for by earlier scores on the same outcome measure. Both findings suggest that early-literacy skills and early self-regulation may reveal stable characteristics about the child that affect children's acquisition of academic skills across the elementary-school period. The negative association between preschool growth and later skills may indicate that efforts to enhance children's early-literacy skills above this stable characteristic may require extended intervention.

More Reading Wars? Teaching Word Meanings in Word Recognition Interventions

First presenter: Cheryl Lyon, University of Connecticut (cheryl.lyon@uconn.edu) Second presenter: Shannon Kelley, University of Connecticut (shannon.kelley@uconn.edu)

Additional authors: Melodee Walker, University of Connecticut (melodee.walker@uconn.edu); Devin M. Kearns, University of Connecticut (devin.kearns@uconn.edu)

Poster Abstract: BACKGROUND In 1967, Kenneth Goodman ignited what would become the decades-long Reading Wars by arguing that reading was a "psycholinguistic guessing game," in which the reader uses only some of the letter information in words to quickly arrive at their meaning (see also Smith & Goodman, 2008). This theory of whole language instruction stood in direct opposition to advocates of phonics instruction, who argued that partial letter information was insufficient for word reading (see Castles, Rastle, & Nation, 2017 for a review). These vastly different views about the role of letter-sound instruction (phonics) or meaning-focused reading (whole language) in foundational reading instruction created a chasm in theory and instruction which has been difficult to bridge with successful outcomes for students (cf. Clay, 1969; Ehri et al., 2003).

PURPOSE One central problem that leads to serious divisions is the degree to which meaning is related to word recognition (Nation & Snowling, 1998). Over the last decade, researchers have started to think more seriously about the role of semantics (e.g., Kearns & Al Ghanem, 2019; Taylor et al., 2015), but there is, to our knowledge, no review of the literature examining the strength of the links between meaning and word recognition and the effects of interventions that emphasize word meanings. The goal of this poster is to present an integrative synthesis from targeted examination of the literature concerning the role of meaning (at the word and morpheme levels) in word recognition.

QUESTIONS AND RESULTS Our first research question examines the strength of the relation between semantic and morphological knowledge (e.g., vocabulary and awareness, respectively) in descriptive/correlational studies. Data analysis is ongoing, but qualitative analysis of the extant data indicate that semantic and morphological factors are strongly related to word recognition skills; such an effect was observed in recent work by van Rijthoven et al. (2017). Compared with other reading-related skills like phonological awareness and decoding, the contributions are often as large or larger. Our second question examines the degree to which instructional interventions for students with serious reading difficulty Our second research question concerned the degree to which including instruction on the semantic and/or morphological features of words related to student success in the intervention. Data analysis for this question is ongoing, and there are interesting findings from Rabovsky et al. (2011) showing effects for examining semantic richness and from other recent studies. Although we do not yet have clear results, it is clear that there are many possible ways to address semantics and morphology in word recognition instruction. Moreover, an increasing number of studies are showing potential for semantic or morphological (Wolter & Collins, 2017) interventions to improve student outcomes.

DISCUSSION At PCRC, we will present the results of the review, and we expect to have interesting findings concerning the correlational and instructional roles of semantics and morphology. We may not be able to answer the question in the title with certainty, but we think that it may be time to address the issues Goodman (1967) using empirical data (that he did not adequately present).

References: Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19, 5-51. DOI:10.1177/1529100618772271 Clay, M. (1969). Reading Errors and Self-Correction Behavior. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 39(1), 47-56. Duff & Hulme. (2012). The Role of Children's Phonological and Semantic Knowledge in Learning to Read Words. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16, 504-525. Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393-447. doi:10.3102/00346543071003393 Goodman, K. (1967). Reading: a Psycholinguistic Guessing Game. Journal of the Reading Specialist. 126-135. Nation & Snowling. (1998.) Semantic Processing and the Development of Word-Recognition Skills: Evidence from Children with Reading Comprehension Difficulties. Journal of Memory and Language, 39, 85-101 Rabovsky, M., Sommer, W., Abdel Rahman, R. (2011). Implicit Word Learning Benefits from Semantic Richness: Electrophysiological and Behavioral Evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38(4), 1076-1083. DOI: 10.1037/a0025646 Snow, C., Burns, S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Smith, F. and Goodman, K. (2008). "On the Psycholinguistic Method of Teaching Reading" Revisited. Language Arts. 86 (1). 61-65. Taylor, J.S.H., Duff, F.J. et al. (2015). "How word meaning influences word reading." Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(4), 322-328. DOI: 10.1177/0963721415574980 van Rijthoven, et al. (2017) Beyond the phonological deficit: Semantics contributes indirectly to decoding efficiency in children with dyslexia. Dyslexia. Wolter, J.A., & Collins, G. (2017). Morphological Awareness Intervention for Students Who Struggle with Language and Literacy. Perspectives, 43(2). 17-22.

Testing the Feasibility and Usability of a Tier-1 Grade-2 Science Program

First presenter: Steven A. Maddox, The University of Texas at Austin (maddox_86@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Victoria VanUitert, University of Virginia (victoria.vanuitert@gmail.com)

Additional authors: Christian Doabler, The University of Texas at Austin

Poster Abstract: Recently, the National Science and Technology Council (2018) called upon the field to improve the quality of STEM education. Specifically, the field was tasked with building strong foundations for STEM literacy as well as increasing diversity, equity, and inclusion of STEM. Despite this push, students in the early grades continue to struggle with STEM (Morgan et al., 2016). In the area of science, for example, results from the 2015 National Assessment of Educational Progress science assessment suggested that only 38% of Grade-4 students scored at or above proficiency.

Against this backdrop, Scientific Explorers (Sci2), a multi-year, National Science Foundation-funded Design and Development project, aims to design and empirically evaluate a Tier-1, Grade-2 science program focused on scientific concepts and practices related to Earth's Systems in the Grade-2 NGSS (2013). Specifically, Sci2 focuses on how natural phenomena, such as wind and water, can change the shape of the Earth, and how such processes affect humans. Recognizing the important role of early literacy and mathematics in science learning, the Sci2 program purposefully integrates targeted science content with critical mathematics and literacy concepts identified in national and state standards.

Also, because teaching scientific inquiry of natural phenomenon through a set of practices is equally critical (NRC, 2012), the Sci2 program is intrinsically linked to the eight scientific and engineering practices recognized by the NGSS (2013). In Sci2, such practices are judiciously integrated with the targeted scientific concepts, where students learn how to engage in and apply the NGSS practices to not only gain a deeper knowledge of the scientific concepts but also understand how scientists work. For example, students receive frequent opportunities to collect and analyze data, share their findings, and engage in scientific argumentation.

Grounded in validated practices of guided inquiry (i.e., explicit instruction; Therrien et al., 2017), a primary aim of the Sci2 program is to improve the science achievement of all Grade-2 students, including English Learners and students with learning disabilities. The Sci2 program is comprised of five major components: (a) Spark Your Thinking, (b) Vocabulary, (c) Read Aloud, (d) Scientific Investigations, and (e) Share Your Thinking. Instructional scaffolds are provided during the Sci2 program's hands-on and technology-based investigation activities to support all students, particularly those who demonstrate academic risk. Such supports include explicit teacher modeling, guided student practice opportunities, and academic feedback.

The purpose of this poster presentation is to discuss preliminary data - and lessons learned - generated from a series of implementation studies focused on documenting the Sci2 program's feasibility and usability among end-users (i.e., teachers and students). These studies, which targeted Sci2's technology-based and hands-on investigation activities, were conducted in 13 Grade-2 classrooms from school districts in Texas and Virginia. Approximately 325 Grade-2 students participated. A mixed methods approach was employed in our implementation studies. We have collected a diverse sample of participant data, including surveys, direct observations, and feedback from teacher-focus groups. This poster presentation will share quantitative and qualitative findings and discuss implications for designing Tier-1 science programs, particularly ones that include technology-based activities.

References: Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., & Maczuga, S. (2016). Science achievement gaps begin very early, persist, and are largely explained by modifiable factors. Educational Researcher, 45, 18-35. National Center for Education Statistics. (2015). National Assessment of Educational Progress: Science Assessment. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. National Research Council [NRC]. (2012). A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/13165 National Science and Technology Council, Committee on STEM Education. (2018). Chartering a course for success: America's strategy for STEM education. NGSS Lead States. (2013). Next generation science standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Therrien, W. J., Benson, S. K., Hughes, C. A., & Morris, J. R. (2017). Explicit instruction and next generation science standards aligned classrooms: A fit or a split? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 32(3), 149-154.

Modifying Assessment Administration for Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD)

First presenter: Guy Martin, Vanderbilt University (guy.martin@vanderbilt.edu) Poster Abstract: This project examines the effects of an antecedent-based prompting procedure and incorporation of additional practice items on student performance on pretest and progress monitoring testing batteries for 30 participants with IDD in a multiyear randomized control trial. The randomized control trial analyzes student-level early literacy and numeracy outcomes of elementary and middle school students with IDD. To account for student variability, we modified our testing procedure to ensure that our measurement procedure was sufficiently sensitive to detect student growth (Bouck, 2013). This poster will highlight our decision rules and further considerations for assessing students with IDD. The research team iteratively developed the assessment modification decision rules, and used a non-experimental, qualitative research design. Preliminary findings suggest that the use of antecedent prompts and additional practice items helped students complete additional items on the testing batteries.

References: Bouck, E. C. (2013). High stakes? Considering students with mild intellectual disability in accountability systems. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 48(3), 320-331.

Screening Accuracy for Predicting Academic Difficulty

First presenter: BrittanyLee N. Martin, Vanderbilt University (brittanylee.n.martin@vanderbilt.edu) Second presenter: Lynn S. Fuchs, Vanderbilt University (lynn.fuchs@vanderbilt.edu)

Poster Abstract: The purpose of this study was twofold. First, we wanted to examine the prevalence rates of reading and math disabilities in a large sample (N = 3,062) of first-grade students using a more stringent criterion for disability (at or below the 16th percentile and at or below the 7th percentile). Second, we wanted to examine the screening accuracy of two common screening measures, The First Grade Test of Computational Fluency (Fuchs, Hamlett, & Fuchs, 1990) and Word Identification Fluency (WIF; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2004).

In our sample, 22% of students scored below the 16th percentile on our computational fluency measure. Of these students, 41% also scored below the 16th percentile on our word reading fluency measure. In this same sample, 17% scored below the 16th percentile our word reading fluency measure, with 51% also scoring below the 16th percentile on our math fluency measure. Comorbid difficulties were twice as common as would be expected to occur by chance (observed-to-expected ratios 1.8 to 2.17) with students scoring below the 7th percentile in one domain five times more likely to score below the 7th percentile in the other domain (observed-to-expected ratio 5.0).

Logistic regression was used to predict membership (i.e., RD, MD, RMD, or ND) using performance on second-grade computation and reading ability measures. This was done separately for RD and MD and at the two cut-points (i.e., 16th and 7th percentiles). We computed the overall classification accuracy of each of the screening measures, examining the sensitivity, specificity, and ROC curves for each measure. For predicting RD status considering at or below the 16th percentile as the criterion for disability, our screening measure resulted in a hit rate of 86.66%, with specificity exceeding sensitivity, and the area under the ROC curve (AUC) was .904. For predicting MD status at the 16th percentile, our screening measure resulted in a hit rate of 80.76%, with specificity exceeding sensitivity, and an AUC of .805. Similar trends were seen when using our more stringent disability criterion of at or below the 7th percentile. When sensitivity was set at 85 percent, specificity among our measures ranged from 54 to 80 percent. In other words, setting sensitivity to 85 percent resulted in high rates of false positives. We were interested in determining whether the cut scores that produced 85% sensitivity differed for the ELL subgroup relative to their non-ELL peers. We found identical cut scores were needed between ELL and non-ELL populations to result in 85% sensitivity but produced drastically different specificity rates between the two subgroups. At the 16th percentile, a cut score of 3 results in 65% in the non-ELL group (i.e., fewer false positives). This same cut score for the ELL group resulted in a specificity rate of 29% for the ELL group (i.e., more false positives). A similar trend was seen at the 7th percentile.

This presentation will facilitate and encourage discussion surrounding the prevalence of comorbid learning disabilities and the predictive validity of using fluency screening measures in primary grades.

References: Fuchs, L. S., Hamlett, C. L., & Fuchs, D. (1990). First-grade test of computational fluency. Nashville, TN, USA: Vanderbilt University. Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., & Compton, D. L. (2004). Word identification fluency. Nashville, TN, USA: Vanderbilt University.

Moderators of an inference-making intervention for middle school students with reading difficulties

First presenter: Amanda Martinez-Lincoln, Vanderbilt University (Amanda.Martinez-Lincoln@Vanderbilt.Edu) Poster Abstract: Background: As students transition from elementary to middle school, reading comprehension becomes progressively more important to students' academic outcomes (Cain & Oakhill, 2006) and their college and career readiness (ACT, 2017). However, by the end of middle school, only about 36% of students are proficient or above proficient status in reading (U.S. Department of Education, 2018). Students generally have positive responses to reading comprehension interventions (Scammacca, Roberts, Vaughn, & Stuebing, 2015), but not all students will respond adequately (McMaster, Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2005; Torgesen, 2000). In efforts to understand the cognitive demands of reading comprehension and develop interventions that improve reading comprehension in all students, there has been a recent interest in determining for whom and under what conditions interventions are most effective. Moderation analysis provides a statistical approach to examine the variation in effects across individual students and determine if student characteristics impact how well the student responds to an intervention or what attributes are necessary for a student to respond to a specific intervention (e.g., Miciak et al., 2014).

Purpose: The current study was conducted within a parent intervention project, which investigated the effects of an inferential reading comprehension intervention for middle school students with reading difficulties. The goal of the current study was to examine the factors that can affect student engagement that in turn, might be associated with differential response to this inference-making intervention.

Participants and Research Design: Data was collected with sixty-six middle school students with reading difficulties. Students were randomized to a computerized version of the intervention, a teacher-led version, or a business-as-usual control. A moderation analysis was conducted to examine the influence of language status (i.e., monolingual student, English Learner) and pre-intervention levels of anxiety, mind-wandering, and mindset on the effects of an inference-making intervention.

Findings: Results indicated that anxiety, mind-wandering, and language status moderated the effects of the computer-led intervention for some reading and inference outcomes, but not others. In contrast, no moderator effects were found for the teacher-led group compared to the business-as-usual group. These findings suggest that a consideration of the interaction of students' characteristics with instructional elements may be important for understanding the effectiveness of reading interventions for middle school students. In particular, the computer version of the intervention was beneficial (i.e., increased inference-making) for students with high levels of anxiety and mind-wandering. Conversely, the computer version of the intervention was not favorable for English Learners.

Conclusions: The results of this study contribute to understanding some of the characteristics of students and intervention delivery systems that affect response to reading interventions in middle school students with reading difficulties. Mind-wandering, anxiety, language status, and whether the intervention was delivered by a teacher or by computer moderated treatment effects. These effects are particularly relevant for considering student characteristics and instructional characteristics when (1) examining the effectiveness of interventions and (2) creating inference interventions designed to be effective for students who tend to be less responsive to generally effective reading interventions.

References: ACT (2017). The ACT Profile Report- National. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from https://www.act.org/content/dam/act/unsecured/documents/cccr2017/P_99_999999_N_S_N00_CT-GCPR_National.pdf Ahmed, Y., Francis, D.J., York, M., Fletcher, J.M., Barnes, M., & Kulesz, P. (2016). Validation of the direct and inferential mediation (DIME) model of reading comprehension in grades 7 through 12. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 44, 68-82. doi:0.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.02.002 Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. (2006). Profiles of children with specific reading comprehension difficulties. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 683-696. doi: 10.1348/000709905X67610 McMaster, K. L., Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., & Compton, D. L. (2005). Responding to nonresponders: An experimental field trial of identification and intervention methods. Exceptional Children, 71, 445-463. doi: 10.1177/001440290507100404 Miciak, J., Stuebing, K. K., Vaughn, S., Roberts, G., Barth, A. E., & Fletcher, J. M. (2014). Cognitive attributes of adequate and inadequate responders to reading intervention in middle school. School Psychology Review, 43, 407-427. doi:10.17105/SPR-13-0052.1 Scammacca, N. K., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., & Stuebing, K. K. (2015). A meta-analysis of interventions for struggling readers in grades 4-12: 1980-2011. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48, 369-390. doi:10.1177/002221941350499 Torgesen, J. K. (2000). Individual differences in response to early interventions in reading: The lingering problem of treatment resisters. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 15, 55-64. doi:10.1207/SLDRP1501_6 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2018). The Condition of Education 2018 (2018-144), Reading Performance.

Views of Students with Disabilities as Mathematically Capable: A Mixed Methods Study

First presenter: Erica N. Mason, University of Missouri (ericamason@mail.missouri.edu) Poster Abstract: The majority of students with disabilities receive the majority of their instruction in general education settings, positioning general education teachers as the instructional decision makers for these students. In addition to feeling instructionally unprepared to support students with disabilities in inclusive settings (DeSimone & Parmar, 2006), general education mathematics teachers struggle to adjust their instruction for these students in ways that maintain the rigor of mathematics tasks (Mayrowetz, 2009). Adjustments of this nature contradict standards for mathematics learning articulated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) and by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2014). Despite guiding documents and policies, evidence suggests that individual teachers might disregard policies or reform efforts and enact instructional adjustments based on their own judgements (Jackson, Gibbons, & Sharpe, 2017; Lipsky, 2010), which can differ by individual student characteristics, such as disability status (Lambert, 2015).

General education mathematics teachers make a variety of instructional adjustments for students with disabilities (Maccini & Gagnon, 2006). What is less clear are teachers' rationales for those instructional adjustments. The purpose of this study was to identify teachers' visions of high-quality mathematics instruction, their explanation for students' struggle, and their rationales for why certain instructional adjustments were made. The research questions guiding this investigation were: How are teachers' visions of high-quality mathematics instruction related to their rationales for instructional adjustments? What is the relation between a student's disability status and a teachers' explanation for an instructional adjustment?

Informed by frame analysis (Goffman, 1974), and within a sequential mixed methods model, interviews were conducted with general education mathematics teachers (n = 20) who taught students in grades 3-8. The semi-structured protocol used in this study was compiled from two existing interview protocols-Visions of High-Quality Mathematics Instruction (VHQMI; Munter, 2014) and Views of Students as Mathematically Capable (VSMC; Jackson et al., 2017)-with questions added or modified in order to meet the goals of this study. Teachers responded to questions about individual students in one of their classes that included students with disabilities. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed. Using the VHQMI rubrics, each response was coded and quantitative rubric scores translated into qualitative codes. The remaining portion of each transcript was read and idea units (Gee, 2014) were identified. Each idea unit was examined using the VSMC coding scheme. This process yielded one of three qualitative codes (e.g., productive, unproductive, mixed) for each student within each teacher's class. Codes were then analyzed individually (e.g., "This teacher gave an unproductive rationale for why they made that instructional adjustment for that student.") or between groups (e.g., "In this class, unproductive rationales for instructional adjustments were given for students with disabilities, while productive rationales were given for students without disabilities."). Quantitative analysis included a multinomial logistic regression in which students' demographic characteristics (e.g., disability status) were the independent variables and the categories derived from qualitative coding were the dependent variables. Analysis will be completed by December 2019 and a full report should be expected by the time of this presentation.

References: DeSimone, J. R., & Parmar, R. S. (2006). Middle school mathematics teachers' beliefs about inclusion of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 21(2), 98-110. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2006.00210.x Gee, J. P. (2014c). Discourse analysis. Introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and Method (4th ed., pp. 135-146). Florence, KY: Taylor and Francis. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400-1482 (2004). Jackson, K., Gibbons, L., & Sharpe, C. J. (2017). Teachers' views of students' mathematical capabilities: Challenges and possibilities for ambitious reform. Teachers College Record, 119, 1-43. Lambert, R. (2015). Constructing and resisting disability in mathematics classroom: A case study exploring the impact of different pedagogies. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 89, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-014-9587-6 Lipsky, M. (2010). Street level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public services. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Maccini, P., & Gagnon, J. C. (2006). Mathematics instructional practices and assessment accommodations by secondary special and general educators. Exceptional Children, 72(2), 217-234. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290607200206 Mayrowetz, D. (2009). Instructional practice in the context of converging policies: Teaching mathematics in inclusive elementary classrooms in the standards reform era. Educational Policy, 23(4), 554-588. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0895904807312472 Munter, C. (2014). Developing visions of high-quality mathematics instruction. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 45(5), 585-636. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.45.5.0584 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2014). Principles to actions: Ensuring mathematical success for all. Reston, VA: Author.

Monitoring written expression gains during intensive writing intervention

First presenter: Sterett H. Mercer, University of British Columbia (sterett.mercer@ubc.ca) Second presenter: Joanna E. Cannon, University of British Columbia (joanna.cannon@ubc.ca)

Poster Abstract: Because academic interventions that are highly effective on average are sometimes not effective for specific students, data-based individualization (DBI), an approach that generates evidence of effectiveness for specific students, is increasingly being adopted for service delivery (Fuchs, McMaster, Fuchs, & Al Otaiba, 2013). To successfully implement DBI, reliable and valid assessments of academic skills that are sensitive to skill growth are needed, but research on such assessments (often curriculum-based measures; CBM) has lagged in the area of written expression relative to reading and math for several reasons. First, because efficiency has been emphasized, typical written expression CBM procedures have involved collecting one brief writing sample, often for a duration of 3 minutes, from students; however, recent research indicates that multiple, longer duration samples are needed to yield reliable data (Keller-Margulis, Mercer, & Thomas, 2016). Second, to validly index writing quality, more complex scoring metrics are needed, particularly as students' grade levels increase (Weissenburger & Espin, 2005). Both of these issues present feasibility challenges for educators given the time required to accurately score extensive writing samples in a reliable manner.

Recent research has indicated that computerized automated text evaluation may address these feasibility concerns (Mercer, Keller-Margulis, Faith, Reid, & Ochs, 2019; Wilson, 2018), but thus far research has focused on screening of general education students rather than progress monitoring of students with significant learning difficulties. The purpose of the current study is to evaluate the validity of automated text evaluation to monitor learning growth across one academic year for students with learning difficulties participating in an intensive writing intervention.

Method Writing samples (i.e., 10-minute picture prompted narrative samples) from students receiving one-on-one academic intervention through the Learning Disabilities Society of Greater Vancouver (LDS) were collected at the beginning (Sep. - Oct.) and end (May - June) of two academic years. Results below are based on 2017-2018 data, and 2018-2019 data would also be presented at PCRC.

Writing samples (n = 204) from 105 students in grades 2-12 were used to develop automated text evaluation models (based on open-source software) predicting human-evaluated writing quality, and a non-random sample of 33 participants were administered a standardized writing assessment (the TOWL-4) in May - June of the same academic year.

Results The automated text evaluation composite scores explained 85% of the variance in human holistic judgments of quality on the writing samples. For the fall and spring samples, the automated scores predicted 48 and 57% of the variance in spring TOWL Contextual Conventions scores, but less variance in TOWL Story Composition Scores (22 and 28%). Interestingly, when the automated scoring model was applied to the TOWL writing samples, automated scores predicted 60 and 48% of the variance in the TOWL scores, suggesting that reliability may be more of an issue (i.e., more writing samples needed) for external validity than the validity of the automated scoring model itself. Statistically significant (p < .001), moderate-to-large overall change (d = .77) from fall to spring was found for the automated quality scores, indicating sensitivity to annual skill growth during intensive writing intervention.

References: Fuchs, D., McMaster, K. L., Fuchs, L. S., & Al Otaiba, S. (2013). Data-based individualization as a means of providing intensive instruction to students with serious learning disorders. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (2nd ed., pp. 526-544). New York: Guilford. Keller-Margulis, M. A., Mercer, S. H., & Thomas, E. L. (2016). Generalizability theory reliability of written expression curriculum-based measurement in universal screening. School Psychology Quarterly, 31(3), 383-392. doi:10.1037/spq0000126 Mercer, S. H., Keller-Margulis, M. A., Faith, E. L., Reid, E. K., & Ochs, S. (2019). The potential for automated text evaluation to improve the technical adequacy of written expression curriculum-based measurement. Learning Disability Quarterly, 42(2), 117-128. doi:10.1177/0731948718803296 Weissenburger, J. W., & Espin, C. A. (2005). Curriculum-based measures of writing across grade levels. Journal of School Psychology, 43(2), 153-169. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2005.03.002 Wilson, J. (2018). Universal screening with automated essay scoring: Evaluating classification accuracy in grades 3 and 4. Journal of School Psychology, 68, 19-37. doi:j.jsp.2017.12.005

Validity of Automated vs. Hand-Scored Written Expression Curriculum-Based Measurement Samples

First presenter: Sterett H. Mercer, University of British Columbia (sterett.mercer@ubc.ca) Second presenter: Milena A. Keller-Margulis, University of Houston (mkmargulis@Central.UH.edu)

Poster Abstract: Because many students underperform in writing, it is important to develop tools that can accurately screen students so that instruction can be modified and intervention supports can be provided to ameliorate early writing difficulties. Although curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tools in reading and math are technically adequate for screening and widely used in schools, issues with technical adequacy and scoring feasibility have hindered more widespread adoption of CBM in written expression (CBM-WE). Specifically, more complex scoring methods (Mercer, Martínez, Faust, & Mitchell, 2012; Weissenburger & Espin, 2005) and the collection of multiple longer duration writing samples (Keller-Margulis, Mercer, & Thomas, 2016) are needed to obtain reliable and valid screening data as student grade level increases, but these modifications increase the time and skill required to accurately and reliably score CBM-WE samples. These feasibility concerns have been partially mitigated in recent research demonstrating that commercial automated text evaluation programs can be used for screening (Wilson, 2018); however, scoring algorithms in these programs are proprietary, thus we do not know which aspects of student writing are being considered in the scoring models, an important consideration for validity.

This poster will address these concerns by examining the relative validity of typical CBM-WE hand scoring of screening samples vs. automated text evaluation with commercial and open-source tools in relation to performance on a statewide writing assessment.

Method Participants include 147 students in fourth grade who completed 3-minute narrative writing samples in the fall, winter, and spring of one academic year. Writing samples were hand scored for several CBM-WE metrics and entered into three automated text evaluation programs: Project Essay Grade (commercial), ReaderBench (open source), and a researcher-created application to count spelling and grammar mistakes. The Texas statewide writing assessment in the spring of fourth grade was the criterion measure.

Results All data have been collected; however, analyses are ongoing and will soon be completed. Thus far, we have some results based on the spring screening samples to share. Criterion-related validity of less complex CBM-WE metrics (e.g., total words written) was lower than for more complex hand scoring metrics like correct minus incorrect word sequences (R2 = .03 and .05 compared to .20 and .22). ReaderBench scores (R2 = .23) were comparable to the best performing WE-CBM metrics, and adding scores capturing spelling and grammatical errors to the ReaderBench quality scores resulted in improved validity (R2 = .33). Despite the improved validity coefficients, diagnostic accuracy when predicting satisfactory/not on the state test was similar to complex CBM-WE handscoring. At PCRC, similar results based on the fall and winter screening samples, plus comparisons of validity relative to Project Essay Grade and information on text characteristic importance based on the ReaderBench models, will be presented.

Implications Overall, the results indicate that open source automated text evaluation programs can be used to feasibly score CBM-WE screening samples; however, the weak validity coefficients across all scoring methods highlight the need for longer duration and multiple writing samples to be collected during screening.

References: Keller-Margulis, M. A., Mercer, S. H., & Thomas, E. L. (2016). Generalizability theory reliability of written expression curriculum-based measurement in universal screening. School Psychology Quarterly, 31(3), 383-392. doi:10.1037/spq0000126 Mercer, S. H., Martínez, R. S., Faust, D., & Mitchell, R. R. (2012). Criterion-related validity of curriculum-based measurement in writing with narrative and expository prompts relative to passage copying speed in 10th grade students. School Psychology Quarterly, 27(2), 85-95. doi:10.1037/a0029123 Weissenburger, J. W., & Espin, C. A. (2005). Curriculum-based measures of writing across grade levels. Journal of School Psychology, 43(2), 153-169. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2005.03.002 Wilson, J. (2018). Universal screening with automated essay scoring: Evaluating classification accuracy in grades 3 and 4. Journal of School Psychology, 68, 19-37. doi:j.jsp.2017.12.005

Responsiveness profiles and maintenance effects associated with a reading and self-regulation intervention

First presenter: Clinton E. Moore, University of Texas at Austin (clintonem@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Alexis N. Boucher, University of Texas at Austin (alexisnboucher@utexas.edu)

Additional authors: Saashya Rodrigo, University of Texas at Austin; Nathan H. Clemens, University of Texas at Austin; Christy R. Austin, University of Texas at Austin

Poster Abstract: Academic and behavior problems co-occur at high rates (Sexton, Gelhorn, Bell, & Classi, 2012). Early deficits in behavior self-regulation explain a significant amount of variance in long- term, persistent difficulties in reading and mathematics, even when prior academic achievement and other predictive factors are accounted for (McClelland, Acock, & Morrison, 2006; Morgan, Farkas, Tufis, & Sperling, 2008). Interventions which improve students' self-regulation skills (i.e., on-task and sustained attention to the teacher or assigned activity) may be associated with stronger gains in academic achievement over targeting the academic problem alone. It is also important to understand for which sub-groups an intervention was more or less effective and the extent to which intervention effects were maintained over time. This study will examine profiles of responders and non-responders in an ongoing experimental study investigating the integration of reading and self-regulation supports for struggling readers. We will also identify the extent to which students who were responsive to intervention maintained the effects over time. Analyses will utilize data from a project investigating adaptive interventions within the context of multi-tiered system of supports (MTSS). We will utilize data from year 1 of the project, implemented with third grade struggling readers, to address the following research questions: (a) What differences in reading and behavior skills were observed among students who were responsive and non-responsive to a supplemental 10-week intervention? (b) Did responders maintain intervention effects at 10 weeks and one year following the initial intervention?

Third-grade students (N = 242) qualified for the study based on scores below the 32nd percentile on the Test of Silent Reading Efficiency and Comprehension (TOSREC). Qualifying students were administered additional pre-test assessments and were randomly assigned to (a) reading intervention; (b) reading intervention plus behavior self-regulation support; or (c) business-as-usual (BAU) instruction. Students in the experimental groups received small-group intervention five days/week for 30 minutes per session. After 10 weeks the TOSREC was re-administered, and students who scored at or above the 40th percentile were considered "responders" (the cut-point was higher relative to screening to help ensure that students were not exited prematurely). Students in need of continued support received intensified intervention for another 10 weeks, which was followed by a post-test assessment battery with all students. A follow-up assessment battery will be administered with all students in November of 2019 (i.e., one year following the initial 10-week intervention). Data collection is complete with all students with the exception of the one-year follow-up.

Out of the initial sample of 242 students, 44 students were classified as responders to the initial 10-week intervention. Analyses will include the maintenance effects of the intervention for responders at 10 weeks and one-year following the initial intervention. To identify factors that distinguished responders from non-responders, we will conduct a profile analysis including (a) pre-test reading and behavior skills, (b) interventionist-reported behavior ratings, and (c) reading progress monitoring data. These findings will contribute to an understanding of responder characteristics and maintenance effects for struggling readers who participated in a reading intervention with behavioral support.

References: McClelland, M. M., Acock, A. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2006). The impact of kindergarten learning-related skills on academic trajectories at the end of elementary school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21(4), 471-490. Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Tufis, P. A., & Sperling, R. A. (2008). Are reading and behavior problems risk factors for each other? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41(5), 417-436. Sexton, C. C., Gelhorn, H. L., Bell, J. A., & Classi, P. M. (2012). The co-occurrence of reading disorder and ADHD: Epidemiology, treatment, psychosocial impact, and economic burden. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(6), 538-564.

Are schools discriminating in how they suspend students with disabilities?

First presenter: Paul Morgan, Penn State (paulmorgan@psu.edu) Poster Abstract: We examined whether U.S. schools systemically discriminate when suspending or otherwise disciplining students with disabilities (SWDs). Eighteen studies met inclusion criteria. We coded 147 available risk estimates from these 18 studies to investigate the following three research questions: 1. What is the strength of the empirical evidence that SWDs are more likely than otherwise similar students without disabilities to be suspended, particularly as increasingly strong confounds are accounted for, including individual-level behavior? Is there consistent evidence that among similarly behaving students, U.S. schools differentially suspend SWDs? To better inform federal legislation and policy making, we also examined to what extent the available evidence is based on nationally representative samples. 2. What is the strength of the empirical evidence that SWDs who are of color are more likely to be suspended than otherwise similar SWD who are White? 3. What is the strength of the empirical evidence that SWDs are instead less likely to be suspended?

Of four studies including individual-level controls for infraction reasons, over half of the available estimates (i.e., 14 of 24, or 58%) failed to indicate that SWD were more likely to be suspended than otherwise similar students without disabilities. Of the seven available estimates adjusted for the strong confound of individual-level behavior, most (i.e., five of seven, or 71%) failed to indicate that SWDs were more likely to be suspended. The other two estimates indicating SWDs were more likely to be suspended were from one study. No study has yet contrasted whether SWD of color are more likely to be disciplined than otherwise similar SWD who are White. We also examined whether SWDs were less likely to be suspended than otherwise similar students without disabilities. There was no strong evidence of this. Whether U.S. schools discriminate when disciplining SWDs is currently inconclusive.

Which Students with Disabilities are Placed Outside of U.S. General Education Classrooms?

First presenter: Paul Morgan, Penn State (paulmorgan@psu.edu) Poster Abstract: Students with disabilities (SWD) who are of color have been reported to be more likely to receive special education services outside of general education classrooms. Yet whether racial disparities in placement are explained by systemic bias or other factors including family socioeconomic resources and experiencing significant academic or behavioral difficulties is currently unknown. We analyzed longitudinal data across kindergarten to fifth grade of subsamples of SWD participating in two nationally representative cohorts entering U.S. kindergarten classrooms in 1998 and 2010, respectively. We analyzed these data using both growth models that pooled the survey waves together and separate cross-sectional analyses for each survey wave. Results from our analyses of these two datasets were inconclusive. We observed directionally positive coefficients for Black students, but these coefficients were generally not statistically significant. The coefficients for Hispanic students were directionally positive and negative, and also were generally not statistically significant. Those SWD who had experienced significant academic difficulties were consistently far more likely to be placed primarily outside of general education classrooms.

Complex Syntax Vocabulary: Characterizing Input from Maternal Spoken Language and Basal Readers

First presenter: Ian Morton, Vanderbilt University (ian.d.morton@vanderbilt.edu) Poster Abstract: Research Question(s): Children's complex syntax (CS; dependent clauses) production is likely important to later reading comprehension (Dickinson, Hofer, & Rivera, 2019), but is rarely a classroom instructional target. CS vocabulary, complement-taking verbs (CTV) and subordinate conjunctions (SC), are words used to construct dependent clauses. To explore the learning opportunities for CS vocabulary in relation to children's production, we characterized CS vocabulary in maternal spoken input related to preschoolers, Grade 1 to 3 basal readers, and 5-year-olds' spoken language. We anticipated that basal readers would include a greater diversity of CS vocabulary as compared to maternal input. We posed two research questions: 1. What is the CTV and SC diversity in each context? 2. Given the sum of all CTV and SC tokens, what is the proportion of the three most frequent CTVs and SCs in each context?

Methods: We analyzed CS production in maternal (n = 7) input from extant home recordings (n = 200 clausal-level utterances; Kaiser, 2009), stories from Grade 1 to 3 basal readers (n = 12; Houghton Mifflin Harcourt's Journeys), and 5-Year-Olds' (n = 13) spontaneous language in extant language samples (n = 144 utterances). We derived the following variables: (a) CTV diversity (i.e., mean number of different CTVs), (b) SC diversity (i.e., mean number of different SCs), (c) proportion of the three most frequent CTVs in each context, and (d) the proportion of the three most frequent SCs in each context.

Analysis and Results: CTV diversity was 6.41 (SD = 1.51, range= 3 to 8) in maternal utterances, 3.00 (SD = 2.37, range = 1 to 6) in basal readers and 3.69 (SD = 1.43, range = 1 to 6) in 5-year-olds' utterances. SC diversity was 3.71 (SD = 1.60, range= 1 to 6) in maternal utterances, 4.17 (SD = 1.88, range= 0 to 9) in basal readers, and 3.15 (SD = 1.86, range = 1 to 6) in 5-year-olds' utterances. In maternal input, think, know, and say comprised 35%, 24%, and 11% of the total number of CTVs. In basal readers, think, know, and say comprised 12%, 24%, and 10% of the total number of CTVs. In 5-year-olds, think, know, and see comprised 40%, 25%, and 5% of the total number of CTVs. In maternal input, because, if, and when comprised 28%, 31%, and 18% of the total number of SCs. In basal readers, because, if, and when comprised 11%, 11%, and 41% of the total number of SCs. In 5-year-olds, because, if, and when comprised 53%, 5%, and 27% of the total number of SCs.

Implications: Basal readers and maternal input provide a different composition of CS vocabulary learning opportunities. Our findings suggest that books have a greater proportion of lower frequency CS vocabulary. CS vocabulary from spoken and written language should be considered in relation to reading expectations and instruction. Future studies may consider how to alter spoken input to supplement children's CS vocabulary development as it relates to classroom expectations.

References: Dickinson, D. K., Hofer, K. G., & Rivera, B. L. (2019). The developing language foundation for reading comprehension. Narrative, Literacy and Other Skills: Studies in intervention, 25, 21. Kaiser, A. (2009). An efficacy trial of milieu teaching language intervention in preschoolers with language disorders. National Center for Special Education Research. Schuele, C. M. (2009). Complex syntax coding manual. Unpublished coding manual, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.

Effects of Early Explicit Strategic Intervention on the Mathematics Performance of Students At-Risk for Mathematics Difficulties

First presenter: Maryam Nozari, The University of Texas at Austin, The Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk (maryam.nozari@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Diane Bryant, The University of Texas at Austin, The Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk (dpbryant@austin.utexas.edu)

Additional authors: Christian Doabler,The University of Texas at Austin; Terry Falcomata, The University of Texas at Austin; Marcia Barnes, Vanderbilt University

Poster Abstract: The purpose of this study was to test the effectiveness of the early systematic strategic mathematics intervention on the mathematics performance of students at risk for Mathematics Difficulties (MD) in first grade. A multiple baseline design across participants was utilized to evaluate results related to the following research questions: (1) Does the early mathematics intervention result in improved performance on a weekly proximal measure of mathematics? (2) Does the early mathematics intervention result in improved performance on a less proximal to the intervention? (3) Does the early mathematics intervention result in improved performance on a distal mathematics measure? (4) Are the effects of the intervention maintained two- and four-weeks post-intervention? (5) What are the students' perspectives on the early mathematics intervention? Four first-grade students were identified at risk for MD as established by a performance at or below the 30th percentile on a standardized mathematics outcome measure. The intervention sessions were delivered four days per week, in 30-35 minutes sessions, over six weeks. The results of visual analysis and computation of the effect size of the proximal measure showed that the explicit, strategic early mathematics intervention was effective on the mathematics performance of first-grade students at risk for mathematics difficulties. All participants showed improvement in their mathematical skills and knowledge during the intervention phase and maintained intervention effects after two and four weeks. The results demonstrated that there was a significant effect of the intervention on the participants' performance in the addition-strategy task, and number-sets tasks. The result in the pre/post-intervention demonstrated significant effects of the intervention on the overall mathematical performance of first-grade students with mathematics difficulties. The result of a social validity questionnaire showed that all participants had positive perspectives toward the intervention components and agreed that the intervention had a positive impact on their understanding of mathematics.

: Understanding teacher factors related to data-based decision making using mediation

First presenter: Eric L. Oslund, Middle Tennessee State University (eric.oslund@mtsu.edu) Poster Abstract: The ability to make informed decisions using student data is critical for successful DBDM, especially in tiered instructional systems (response to intervention and multi-tier system of supports) that rely on ongoing assessment of students at-risk or experiencing academic difficulties. Prior research has demonstrated that, on average, teachers have difficulty analyzing and interpreting student progress monitoring data presented graphically. Less is known about the teacher characteristics and factors that contribute to graph literacy. This study examines the impact teacher training, experience, and use of student data has on teacher graph literacy. Additionally, the mediating role of teacher factors related to their perception and knowledge of the utility, processes, and purpose of RTI will be examined. Research questions: 1) What is the impact of teacher factors (e.g., use of PM data to inform instruction, hours training in RTI and data analysis, years experience with DBDM, undergrad training) on teachers graph literacy? 2) What teacher factors (e.g., belief in utility of DBDM, perceived benefit of RTI, perceived effectiveness in identifying struggling students) mediate the relation of experience/training on graph literacy? Data was gathered from a nationally representative sample of 450 teachers and included items related to their experience, training, beliefs as well as data-based decision making skills using a 14 item graph literacy assessment. Multiple regression analysis will be used to examine the direct effects that training and experience (e.g., hours of PD in DBDM, years experience with PM data, teacher prep) have on teacher graph literacy. Additionally, mediation models including teacher perception factors (perceived usefulness of student data, confidence in DBDM, effectiveness of RTI at identifying struggling students) will be used to examine whether these factors mediate teacher training and experience. We seek to identify the relations among teacher factors that influence their ability to analyze and interpret data to make informed instructional decisions. Please note, results are still pending. Please refer to Chris Lemons for further information regarding this proposal. Thank you!

Effects of Intervention on Handwriting for Elementary Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

First presenter: Kristin Panos, Wichita State University (panoskristin@gmail.com) Second presenter: Shawn M. Datchuk, University of Iowa (shawn-datchuk@uiowa.edu)

Poster Abstract: Elementary students who develop fluent handwriting are better able to generate longer, higher quality composition. Unfortunately, students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often struggle with multiple aspects of handwriting, including legibility, size, alignment, and speed (Finnegan & Accardo, 2018). These difficulties with handwriting may in turn hinder development of advanced writing skills. A small number of published studies have investigated handwriting intervention for this population; however, most prior research taught small skills sets (e.g., letters in the student's first name) to single participants. The present study used a single-subject, multiple-baseline across participants design to examine the effects of CASL (Center for Advancing Student Learning) handwriting intervention (Graham, Harris & Fink, 2000) on handwriting accuracy and speed for three early elementary students with ASD. There were three research questions. First, what are the effects of CASL Handwriting intervention on the accuracy of handwriting for elementary students with ASD? Second, what are the effects of CASL Handwriting intervention on the speed of handwriting for elementary students with ASD? Third, if there are effects from intervention, do students maintain any improvement after the completion of intervention? During eighteen, 20-min intervention sessions, explicit instruction involved (a) alphabetic knowledge activities; (b) tracing and copying letters with numbered arrow cues; and copying words, word combinations, and sentences with error correction and self-evaluation. Timed practice involved goal setting, performance feedback based on accuracy and speed, and self-graphing. All letters of the alphabet were taught in sets of three, grouped according to difficulty, frequency of use, and similarity of visual characteristics. During each baseline and maintenance sessions and following each intervention session, a 90-s sentence copy probe was administered under no-feedback conditions and scored for correct letter points (CLP) and error letter points (ELP) using scoring guidelines from the Minnesota Handwriting Assessment (Reisman, 1999). Each letter could either score a CLP or an ELP in the visual dimensions of legibility, form, size, alignment, and spacing. After completing the first session, each student showed immediate increases in handwriting accuracy on the dependent measure probe. During the course of intervention, overall handwriting accuracy continued to improve for all students, while handwriting speed increased for 2 of the 3 students. Small decrements in performance were observed during maintenance phase. However, when viewing the observed gains through the lens of behavioral fluency theory (Kubina & Yurich, 2012), no student reached levels of accuracy or speed needed to achieve fluency as a learning outcome. Findings from the current study extend the scope of skills taught in prior literature on handwriting intervention for students with ASD. Results also extend prior research on the CASL Handwriting Program, behavioral fluency theory, the Instructional Hierarchy, explicit instruction, and timed practice. Future studies should use more than 3 baseline points to increase study design quality. Additionally, future studies should investigate the effects of applying intervention using criteria based on performance rather than time.

References: Finnegan, E., & Accardo, A. L. (2018). Written expression in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(3), 868-882. doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3385-9 Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Fink, B. (2000). Is handwriting causally related to learning to write? Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(4), 620-633. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.4.620 Kubina, R. M., & Yurich, K. K. L. (2012). The precision teaching book. Lemont, PA: Greatness Achieved.

Risk Factors in Kindergarten That Lead to Mathematical Word Problem Solving Difficulties

First presenter: Soyoung Park, University of Texas at Austin (soyoungpark@utexas.edu) Poster Abstract: Students with mathematical difficulties manifest serious deficits in mathematical word problem solving due to issues with direct language, extraneous information, and multi-step procedures (Jitendra, 2019). Most of the current studies on mathematical word problem solving focus on elementary students (Fuchs et al., 2019). This is because word problem solving requires mathematical computation, reading comprehension, and problem-solving skills at the same time. Research has not yet addressed how risk factors at the kindergarten level contribute to word problem solving difficulties in later grades. The purpose of this study is to explore the ways in which these risk factors differ depending on the students' early literacy and early numeracy abilities. By exploring risk factors for kindergarten students that relate to mathematical word problems later on, early literacy and early numeracy in kindergarten can be assessed in order to identify early mathematical learning problems. To better understand the risk factors of mathematical word problem solving in later grades, I seek to answer the following question: What are kindergarteners' skill profiles in early literacy and early numeracy that are associated with mathematical word problem solving skills in third grade? Method The data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study will be used for the analysis. Third-grade students who scored below the 25th percentile on a word problem solving mathematics test will be selected as a sample and their kindergarten scores in early numeracy and literacy measures will be included to identify their risk factors in the analysis. Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) is built on the assumption of various probabilities of individual responses within observable variables (Muthén & Muthén, 2000). LPA will be conducted in order to identify subgroups of kindergarteners. Results The model containing four latent groups is expected to be found to be optimal after conducting LPA based on the response patterns of predicting mathematical word problem skills. The four classes are the 1-class early literacy risk group, the 2-class early numeracy risk group, the 3-class early literacy and early numeracy risk group, and the 4-class early literacy and numeracy average group. Most of the participants are expected to be in the early literacy and numeracy average group. Those in the early literacy risk group will show a greater than 10-point gap in average reading skills, and those in the early numeracy risk group will be more than one standard deviation away from the average mathematical skills. Comparatively, the early literacy and early numeracy risk group should show relatively lower levels of mathematical and reading abilities compared to other groups. Implications From the potential findings, there could be two major implications for this study. First, identifying risk factors at kindergarten in order to predict later mathematical word problem solving skill will provide input for instructional guidelines. Second, investigating unobserved latent groups can provide important information of the heterogeneity of the mathematical word problem solving difficulty group. Uncovering the heterogeneity of mathematical word problem solving groups is another contribution of this research and will lead us to understand the multifaceted complexities of mathematical word-problem challenges.

References: Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Seethaler, P. M., Cutting, L. E., & Mancilla-Martinez, J. (2019). Connections between reading comprehension and word-problem solving via oral language comprehension: Implications for comorbid learning disabilities. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20288 Jitendra, A. K. (2019). Using Schema-Based Instruction to Improve Students' Mathematical Word Problem Solving Performance. In International Handbook of Mathematical Learning Difficulties (pp. 595-609). Springer, Cham. Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. K. (2000). Integrating person-centered and variable-centered analyses: Growth mixture modeling with latent trajectory classes. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(6), 882-891.

Moderator Effects of Assessment Characteristics on Early Numeracy Outcomes

First presenter: Soyoung Park, University of Texas at Austin (soyoungpark@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Gena Nelson, Boise State University (genanelson@boisestate.edu)

Poster Abstract: There is an increased demand for valid and useful measures that can capture students' math learning (Purpura & Lonigan, 2015). To ensure that appropriate mathematics assessments are used for early numeracy intervention research (Clements et al., 2018), we investigated the effect of assessment characteristics as moderators on early numeracy intervention outcomes. We researched a variety of the different assessment characteristics including proximal versus distal measures, single-skill versus multi-skill outcome measures, quality indicators, and the overlap between assessment constructs and intervention components. Specifically, we addressed the following research question: What are the effects of moderator variables related to assessments on early numeracy outcomes? From the systematic literature review, 94 assessments from 25 studies were included in the analysis. For the analysis, we adopted a three-level multivariate meta-analysis model with robust standard errors (using robust variance estimation; RVE) to conduct the moderator analysis. A three-level multivariate meta-analysis handles a moderator that varies with and between studies and allows specification of the known covariances within studies. The use of RVE provides standard errors that are robust to inexact values for those covariances; RVE also controls for dependent effect sizes from the same sample of students (Pustejovsky, Tipton, & Aloe, 2018). As a result, there was a statistically significant difference between effect sizes for proximal and distal measures (Beta = .116, p < .05), in favor of proximal measures. The effect size estimates did not differ significantly (p > .05) as a function of the use of single versus multi-skill outcome measures (Beta = -.073). The effect size estimates did not differ significantly (p = .383) as a function of the level of quality indicators (Beta = .021). The effect size estimates differed significantly (Beta = -.489, p < .05) based on the percentage of overlap between intervention components and assessment constructs. In summary, we analyzed the effect of assessment characteristics on intervention outcomes by including moderators by types of assessment, indicators of quality and overlap between assessment constructs and intervention components. The results of the study showed significant effects on intervention outcomes. It is worth considering the effects of assessment characteristics when we analyze the effect size of the meta-analysis. Thus, this research shows the importance of taking the characteristics of assessments into account when evaluating the effectiveness of intervention on early numeracy outcomes.

References: Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Day-Hess, C., Germeroth, C., Ganzar, J., Pugia, A., & Barker, J. (2018, April). Comprehensive review of assessments of early childhood mathematics competencies. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, NY. Purpura, D. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (2015). Early Numeracy Assessment: The Development of the Preschool Numeracy Scales. Early Education and Development, 26, 286-313. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2015.991084 Pustejovsky, J. E., Tipton, E., & Aloe, A. (2018, April). Meta-analysis of dependent effect sizes: A review and consolidation of methods. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, NY.

Integrating Self-Awareness Strategies into a Reading Intervention

First presenter: Meagan Payne, Boise State University (meaganpayne@u.boisestate.edu) Second presenter: Evelyn Johnson, Boise State University (evelynjohnson@boisestate.edu)

Additional authors: Laura Moylan, Lee Pesky Learning Center

Poster Abstract: Project Summary: Students with learning disabilities (LD) tend to struggle with many different aspects of reading behavior, including making errors in word reading (Kim, Bryant, Bryant & Park, 2016). Although many students with LD can be taught to read words accurately in isolation and/or when guided by their teacher, students tend to have difficulty generalizing these positive reading behaviors to passage reading (Kim et al., 2016). Therefore, it is important to teach students who struggle with reading strategies to become more self-aware of the types of word level reading errors they make. Students are more likely to engage in self-correction when they engage in recording their own reading behaviors (Joseph & Eveleigh, 2011).

The purpose of the current study was to examine the use of a self-monitoring (or self-awareness) strategy in which they watched and self-evaluated a video-recording of their passage reading and used a self-evaluation tool to identify the number and type of reading errors they made.

The following research questions were investigated through an ABA single case research design: 1) Does a video self-reflection intervention improve decoding and reading fluency for students with reading and self-regulation difficulties? 2) Do students who engage in video self-reflection of their reading performance improve their ability to recognize their own reading errors? Sample. Three students in grades 3-6 participated in this study. All three students were diagnosed with a learning disability that impacted their reading and had reading achievement performance below the 25th percentile as measured by the Woodcock Johnson IV Tests of Achievement.

Procedures. This study is currently in process. Each student is receiving 1:1 intensive intervention using the Wilson Reading System at a university-affiliated reading clinic in the Pacific Northwest. Intervention sessions are 1 hour long, three times per week. Reading fluency and accuracy are measured with easyCBM passage reading fluency. Once a stable baseline was established for each student, the self-awareness intervention was introduced. Each student is video recorded while reading an instructional grade level reading passage. Then, each student completed a rubric that required them to count the number of reading errors made and to categorize the nature of the reading errors.

Measures. Reading measures include the easyCBM PRF scores (both accuracy and fluency). In addition to measuring reading fluency and accuracy, students' self-awareness was computed by determining the level of agreement (using ICC) between the student-completed and interventionist-completed rubrics. It is hypothesized that the level of agreement on the evaluations of reading errors will improve over time.

Data Analysis. Data are currently being collected and plotted for both the reading and the self-awareness measures. In the remaining weeks of this study, once a stable pattern during the treatment phase is detected, students will be returned to baseline conditions (reading intervention only). Data will be analyzed first through visual analysis techniques (within and between phase examinations and improvement rate difference), then effect sizes will be calculated and reported.

References: Guzman, G., Goldberg, T. S., & Swanson, H. L. (2018). A meta-analysis of self-monitoring on reading performance of K-12 students. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 160. Kim, M. K., Bryant, D. P., Bryant, B. R., & Park, Y. (2017). A synthesis of interventions for improving oral reading fluency of elementary students with learning disabilities. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 61(2), 116-125.

Using Conceptual Change Theory to Improve Preservice Teachers Understanding of Dyslexia

First presenter: Tiffany K. Peltier, University of Oklahoma (tpeltier@ou.edu) Second presenter: Corey Peltier, University of Oklahoma (coreypeltier@ou.edu)

Poster Abstract: Purpose Various sources from the medical field, education, and government agencies have defined dyslexia. One common theme has emerged: dyslexia is a specific learning disability in word-level reading skills (Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, & Barnes, 2018; Kearns, Hancock, Hoeft, Pugh, & Frost, 2019; Kilpatrick, 2018; Lyon, Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, 2003; Vellutino, Fletcher, Snowling, & Scanlon, 2004). Despite these findings from research in the fields of special education, neuroscience, reading, educational psychology, and speech and language pathology, various misconceptions are still prevalent among pre-service teachers (Ness & Southall, 2010; Wadlington & Wadlington, 2005; Washburn, Binks-Cantrell, & Joshi, 2014; Washburn, Joshi, Binks-Cantrell, 2011a), in-service teachers (Allington, 1982; Knight, 2018; Washburn, Joshi, Binks-Cantrell, 2011b), and higher education faculty in colleges of education (Gabriel, 2018; Wadlington & Wadlington, 2005). Pre-service and in-service teachers as well as higher education faculty have indicated that students with dyslexia see words or letters backwards, should use colored lenses or overlays to help them read, and should be remediated with eye tracking exercises (Wadlington & Wadlington, 2005; Washburn, et al., 2011b, Washburn, et al., 2014). Adopting a research-based understanding of dyslexia rather than a prevalent, nonscientific view involves a reorganization of existing knowledge structures, a process referred to as conceptual change (Vosniadou, 2007). Identifying a framework to re-orient educators to research-based beliefs may improve service delivery. Currently, there are no studies that we know of that attempt to change conceptions of dyslexia among any population. Research Question Would the refutation text facilitate significantly more conceptual change than the Dyslexia Basics text among pre-service teachers?

Participants We recruited preservice teachers from three professional sequence courses which were required for all general and special education pre-service teachers. Participants (n=97) were randomly assigned to treatment or comparison. A chi-square analysis confirmed participant demographics were comparable across conditions.

General Research Method We used an experimental, two-group pretest-posttest design to examine whether preservice teachers experienced more conceptual change if they read the treatment or comparison text. The pre-assessment was administered to all participants and the treatment or comparison was randomly provided. All readings were turned facedown, and then the posttest was completed.

Findings The results of the repeated measures ANOVA revealed that the interaction between time and group was statistically significant. To examine the nature of the interaction, simple effects were examined. Pretest scores did not differ between the two conditions (p=0.885). However, posttest scores were significantly greater for the treatment group than for the comparison group, p < .001, η 2 = 0.33, indicating a large effect size. This suggests the researcher-created refutation text facilitated significantly more conceptual change from pretest to posttest than the Dyslexia Basics text. In the future, stakeholders should consider restructuring professional development and course materials for pre-service teachers using principles of conceptual change theory.

References: Allington, R. L. (1982). The persistence of teacher beliefs in facets of the visual perceptual deficit hypothesis. The Elementary School Journal, 82(4), 351-359. doi:10.1086/461272 Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2018). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention. New York, NY: Guilford Publications. doi:10.1080/09297040701455171 Gabriel, R. (2018). Preparing literacy professionals: The case of dyslexia. Journal of Literacy Research, 50(2), 262-270. doi:10.1177/1086296x18765917 Kearns, D. M., Hancock, R., Hoeft, F., Pugh, K. R., & Frost, S. J. (2019). The neurobiology of dyslexia. Teaching Exceptional Children, 51(3), 175-188. doi:10.1177/0040059918820051 Kilpatrick, D. A. (2018). Genetics, the environment, and poor instruction as contributors to word-level reading difficulties: Does it matter for early identification and instruction? Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 44(3), 25-28. Knight, C. (2018). What is dyslexia? An exploration of the relationship between teachers' understandings of dyslexia and their training experiences. Dyslexia, 24(3), 207-219. doi:10.1002/dys.1593 Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53(1), 1- 14. doi:10.1007/s11881-003-0001-9 Ness, M. K., & Southall, G. (2010). Preservice Teachers' Knowledge of and Beliefs About Dyslexia. Journal of Reading Education, 36(1). Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(1), 2-40. doi:10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00305.x Vosniadou, S. (2007). Conceptual change and education. Human Development, 50(1), 47-54. doi:10.1159/000097684 Wadlington, E. M., & Wadlington, P. L. (2005). What educators really believe about dyslexia. Reading Improvement, 42(1), 16-33. Washburn, E. K., Joshi, R. M., & Cantrell, E. B. (2011). Are pre-service teachers prepared to teach struggling readers? Annals of Dyslexia, 61(1), 21-43. doi:10.1007/s11881-010-0040-y Washburn, E. K., Joshi, R. M., & Binks-Cantrell, E. S. (2011b). Teacher knowledge of basic language concepts and dyslexia. Dyslexia, 17(2), 165-183. doi:10.1002/dys.426 Washburn, E. K., Binks-Cantrell, E. S., & Joshi, R. M. (2014). What do pre-service teachers from the USA and the UK know about dyslexia? Dyslexia, 20(1), 1-18. doi:10.1002/dys.1459

Language and Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis to Explore the Medium and the Thinking Functions of Language in Mathematics

First presenter: Peng Peng, University of Texas at Austin (pengpeng@austin.utexas.edu) Poster Abstract: The current study investigated the relation between language and mathematics. A meta-analysis of 344 studies with 393 independent samples and over 360, 000 participants found a moderate relation between language and mathematics, r = .42, 95CI [.40, .44]. Moderation and partial correlation analyses revealed: 1) types of language and mathematics skills are important moderators such that more complicated language and mathematics skills increase the relation between language and mathematics. After partialling out working memory and reasoning, most of these task effects were not found except rapid automatized naming showed the strongest relation to numerical knowledge; 2) the relation between language and mathematics was stronger among native language speakers than among second language learners, but this difference was not found after partialling out working memory and reasoning; 3) working memory and reasoning together explained over 50% variance in the relation between language and mathematics and they in particular, explained more variance in the relations involving advanced mathematics skills (word problems, fractions, and algebra); 4) language and mathematics predicted each other in the development even after controlling for initial performance. These findings, taken together, suggest a developmental function model of language for mathematics. That is, language bears both medium and thinking functions for mathematics, but the importance of these functions may vary for different mathematics skills with development: The medium function becomes more important for fundamental mathematics, whereas the thinking function becomes more important for advanced mathematics. The use of language may drive the mutual effects between cognition and mathematics with development.

Reading Error Distance (R.E.D.) Measure Automates Miscue Analysis

First presenter: Sage E Pickren, Vanderbilt University (sage.e.pickren@vanderbilt.edu) Second presenter: Neena M Saha, Vanderbilt University (neena.m.saha@vanderbilt.edu)

Poster Abstract: Curriculum-based measurement is commonly used by practitioners to gather information about a student's reading fluency and response to instruction (Fuchs, 2017). Typically, teachers will calculate an accuracy score (i.e., correct words/total words x 100) or count the words read correctly per minute (WCPM) to measure performance on this type of formative reading assessments. Although these metrics give reliable information about a student's reading fluency, they may not be fully capitalizing on all the available information that could inform instruction in a more granular manner and/or capture finer increments of progress. We hypothesized that quantifying and analyzing student miscues or word reading errors using a more granular measure would provide additional information about a student's reading fluency performance. Preliminary evidence showed that our lab-created error distance measure (R.E.D.) explained variance in generalized word reading ability, above and beyond WCPM. Specifically, results of a linear regression model indicated that average error distance, measured by subtracting the miscue's decodability score from the printed word's decodability score, predicted Basic Reading from the Woodcock-Johnson IV Test of Achievement (Schrank, McGrew, Mather, Wendling, & LaForte, 2014) after controlling for WCPM (B= -9.58, p <.001). These findings indicate that word reading ability can be predicted by the degree to which word reading errors are discrepant, in terms of decodability, from the printed text (with greater distance predicting poorer word reading abilities), even after controlling for overall reading fluency/WCPM, suggesting that the R.E.D. measure could further inform instruction. The above analysis uses a sample of 74 second-grade students; however, we plan to attempt to replicate our findings using two separate larger samples of students (each with approximately 200 students) and with a separate, younger population of students who are at-risk for reading disabilities. Also, we plan to extend our analyses using multilevel models with individual words nested within participants.

References: Fuchs, L. S. (2017). Curriculum-Based Measurement as the Emerging Alternative: Three Decades Later. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 32, 5-7. Schrank, F. A., McGrew, K. S., Mather, N., Wendling, B. J., & LaForte, E. M. (2014). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement: Form A. Riverside Publishing Company.

Revisiting Special Educators' Usability and Feasibility of Data-Based Instruction in Writing

First presenter: Apryl L. Poch, Duquesne University (PochA1@duq.edu) Poster Abstract: Data-Based Instruction (DBI) has a strong empirical base for supporting the intensive academic needs of students who do not respond to traditional treatment protocols. However, little is known about how useable and feasible teachers find DBI, even when provided tools, learning supports, and coaching (or TLC). The purpose of this study was to revisit special educators' understanding of the usability and feasibility of DBI with early elementary students with intensive writing needs by conducting an underpowered randomized control trial to determine if students in the treatment classes outperformed students receiving business-as-usual writing instruction. This study was conducted in two public school districts across two Midwestern states during the 2015-16 academic year. District 1 was a large urban public school district (66% students of color, 18% received special education services). District 2 was a mid-size city public school district (38% students of color, 10% received special education services). Ten teachers in District 1, and 11 teachers in District 2 participated in this study (treatment n = 11 and control n = 10). All teachers across conditions identified as female, all treatment group teachers identified as White, and all but one control teacher was a special educator. Complete data were available for 53 students (treatment n = 31 and control n = 22). No statistically significant between group differences were observed across demographic variables for students with the exception of race/ethnicity; more students of color were assigned to the control group. Treatment teachers participated in DBI-TLC, a researcher-developed professional development (PD) system, for 20 weeks. DBI-TLC teachers delivered writing interventions approximately three times per week for about 20-30 minutes for each session. Control teachers delivered their usual writing instruction and assessment. A convergent triangulation mixed methods design (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011) allowed for a complementary synthesis of both qualitative (e.g., teachers' logs, coaches' logs, focus group conversations, coaching survey) and quantitative data (e.g., teachers' logs, knowledge and skills assessment, coaching survey, students' assessment scores) in order to better understand the usability and feasibility of DBI-TLC.

Similar to Poch et al. (2019), we identified a comparable hierarchical coding structure with three levels. In this study, teachers also provided a subset of suggested facilitators for new teachers. Actual facilitators that teachers identified were primarily those that aided their use of DBI and/or their participation in DBI-TLC. Suggested facilitators comparably reflected DBI, tools, coaching, and learning modules. Teachers' challenges were also primarily specific to DBI. Along with the triangulated quantitative findings, our findings align with many of the insights identified by Desimone and Garet (2015). Namely, (a) teachers vary in response to the same PD as noted by needs for differing amounts of coaching support, (b) PD is more successful when it is explicitly linked to classroom lessons as reflected by a focus on alignment, and (c) leadership plays a key role in supporting and encouraging teachers to implement in the classroom the ideas and strategies they learned, as evidenced by how to involve administration and support new teachers.

References: Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Desimone, L. M., & Garet, M. S. (2015). Best practices in teachers' professional development in the United States. Psychology, Society, & Education, 7(3), 252-263. Poch, A. L., McMaster, K. L., & Lembke, E. S. (2019). Usability and feasibility of data-based instruction for students with intensive writing needs. Manuscript under review.

Writing Instruction in Inclusive Elementary Classrooms: A Yearlong Implementation of SRSD

First presenter: Amber B. Ray, University of Hawaii at Manoa (amberray@hawaii.edu) Poster Abstract: Purpose: Many students, including students with disabilities and language learners, struggle when learning how to write. This challenge is heightened, per the Common Core State Standards, when students are asked to incorporate ideas from sources in their writing. Research indicates Self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) for writing is effective with students who represent the full range of writing ability in a typical elementary class (Graham, Kiuhara, McKeown, & Harris, 2012). While SRSD is an effective approach to writing instruction, very few studies have reported on teacher implementation of SRSD in an inclusive classroom. Practice based professional development (PBPD) offers promise to help teachers learn how to effectively teach strategies using SRSD through collaboration, modeling, contextualization of lessons, and feedback (Ball & Forzani, 2009; Harris et al., 2012). Furthermore, no studies have investigated the effectiveness for struggling students and students with disabilities when taught through a yearlong sequence of informative, opinion, and narrative writing instruction using SRSD from a classroom teacher in an inclusive setting.

Research Questions: 1. What are the effects of yearlong SRSD writing instruction for informational, opinion, and narrative essays on 1st through 5th grade students' planning, genre elements, quality, length, and number of transition words? 2. What are the effects of SRSD writing instruction on 3rd through 5th grade students' Smarter Balanced English/Language Arts Performance Task Full-Write scores? 3. What are the effects of SRSD writing instruction on ACCESS writing scores for 1st through 5th grade language learners with disabilities?

Participants and Research Method: In this quasi-experimental, pretest post-test design study, 17 teachers at a Title 1 elementary school engaged in PBPD. They then implemented a year's worth of SRSD writing instruction to teach informative, opinion, and narrative writing strategies to their students in first through fifth grades (N = 250). Teachers were observed for instructional fidelity and received instructional coaching throughout the year.

Findings: This study evaluated the impact of PBPD in SRSD on teachers' writing instruction and students' writing performance. Implementation of the yearlong SRSD writing instruction by classroom teachers positively impacted the quality of students' planning, number of genre specific elements, quality, length, and number of transition words in informational, opinion, and narrative essays. The performance of 3rd through 5th grade students on the Smarter Balanced English/Language Arts Performance Task Full-Write scores and the performance of 1st through 5th grade language learners with disabilities on the ACCESS writing assessment are currently being analyzed.

Results indicated that the yearlong SRSD writing instruction for informative, opinion, and narrative genres was effective for teachers who received PBPD and taught their students in inclusive classrooms. Students improved on: planning, genre specific elements, quality, length, and number of transition words for informative, opinion, and narrative writing. In addition, teachers reported feeling more capable of providing high quality writing instruction and meeting their students' needs through the implementation of SRSD.

References: Ball, D. L., & Forzani, F. M. (2009). The work of teaching and the challenge for teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(5), 497-511. Graham, S., Kiuhara, S., McKeown, D., & Harris, K.R. (2012). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 879-896. Harris, K.R., Lane, K., Graham, S., Driscoll, S., Sandmel, K., Brindle, M., & Schatschneider, C. (2012) Practice-based professional development for strategies instruction in writing: A randomized controlled study. Journal of Teacher Education, 63, 103-119.

Enhancing the Writing Skills of Special Education Teacher Candidates

First presenter: Amber B. Ray, University of Hawaii at Manoa (amberray@hawaii.edu) Poster Abstract: Purpose: Many universities and states require special education teacher candidates to pass standardized exams to gain admittance to a program or for licensure. One common exam is the Praxis Core: Writing. The purpose of the Praxis Core: Writing exam is to measure an individual's academic skills in writing that are needed when preparing for a career in education. Additionally, writing skills are essential for special education teachers as they are responsible for writing Individualized Education Plans, which are legally binding documents. This test is often a barrier for many students. The most recent data from a large state university showed that only 49% of special education teacher candidates passed the Praxis Core: Writing exam. Self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) is an effective method for preparing students to perform well on standardized writing tests such as the GED (Berry & Mason, 2012) and ACT writing exam (i.e., Ray, Graham, & Liu, 2019). Furthermore, SRSD has been tested in over 100 studies involving students in first grade through adulthood (Graham, Harris, & McKeown, 2013).

Research Questions: 1. What are the effects of supplemental writing instruction using SRSD on special education teacher candidates' genre elements, quality, length, and number of transition words on argumentative and source based informative essays? 2. What are the effects of SRSD writing instruction on special education teacher candidates' writing knowledge? 3. What are the effects of SRSD writing instruction on special education teacher candidates' Praxis Core: Writing exam scores?

Participants and Research Method: In this quasi-experimental, pretest post-test design study, 25 special education teacher candidates received supplemental writing instruction using SRSD to enhance their writing knowledge, argumentative writing, and informative source-based writing abilities and to prepare them for the Praxis Core: Writing exam. The supplemental writing instruction was designed to help special education teacher candidates as they work towards teacher licensure.

Findings: This study evaluated the impact of supplemental writing instruction using SRSD on special education teacher candidates' writing knowledge, argumentative writing, and informative source-based writing abilities and their performance on the Praxis Core: Writing exam. The writing instruction positively impacted special education teacher candidate's writing knowledge, argumentative writing, and informative source-based writing abilities and their scores on the Praxis Core: Writing exam. Paired samples t-tests revealed posttest scores were statistically higher than pretest scores for writing knowledge (p = .012), argumentative essay quality (p < .001), argumentative genre elements (p < .001), transition words in argumentative essay (p = .001), source-based essay quality (p = .001), informative genre elements in source-based essay (p = .002), and transition words in source-based essay (p = .011). Furthermore, special education teacher candidates reported increased confidence in their abilities to do well on the Praxis Core: Writing exam after receiving the intervention.

Results indicated that providing special education teacher candidates with supplemental writing instruction using SRSD was effective in improving their writing knowledge, argumentative writing, and informative source-based writing abilities and scores on the Praxis Core: Writing exam.

References: Berry, A. B., & Mason, L. H. (2012). The effects of self-regulated strategy development on the writing of expository essays for adults with written expression difficulties: Preparing of the GED. Remedial and Special Education, 33(2), 124 - 136. doi: 10.1177/0741932510375469 Graham, S., Harris, K.R., & McKeown, D. (2013). The writing of students with LD and a meta- analysis of SRSD writing intervention studies: Redux. In L. Swanson, K.R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (2nd Edition; pp. 405-438). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Ray, A. B., Graham, S., & Liu, X. (2019). Effects of college entrance essay exam instruction for high school students with disabilities or at-risk for writing difficulties. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. Online First: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9900-3

Initial Findings of Paraprofessional Behavior Coaching for Elementary Students with Disruptive Behaviors

First presenter: Linda Reddy, Rutgers University (lreddy@rutgers.edu) Second presenter: Todd Glover, Rutgers University (tg356@gsapp.rutgers.edu)

Poster Abstract: Students with or at risk for disruptive behavior disorders (e.g., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder [ADHD], oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder) utilize almost 25% of all special education services in schools. When these students fail to receive adequate behavioral support, the consequences are often significant, leading to poor school performance, school drop-out, juvenile delinquency, and social problems. Although paraprofessionals are among the most prevalent providers of classroom-based behavioral interventions for students, they often have very little training or job-embedded support in behavior management. This gap in paraprofessional training is alarming, given potential academic and behavior risks associated with externalizing behavior disorders. This study serves as the first randomized controlled trial (RCT) of an innovative coaching approach (i.e., Behavior Support Coaching for Paraprofessionals; BSC-P) design for paraprofessionals that serve student with or at risk for disruptive behavior disorders (DBDs). The BSC-P model is currently being evaluated in an IES-funded NCSER (R324A170069) four-cohort RCT with paraprofessionals working with high-poverty elementary school students with or at risk for DBDs. Coaching is provided individually to teachers and paraprofessionals in single classroom settings. Cohorts 1 and 2 implementation (37 schools, 108 paraprofessionals, 239 student with or at risk for DBDs) suggest strong support for the efficacy of this coaching model in high-poverty schools. Compared to waitlist controls, BSC-P paraprofessionals yielded statistically significant and practical improvements on observed student total engagement (F= 30.54, p < .01, d=. 67), inappropriate physical behaviors (F= 24.52, p < .01, d=.66), and inappropriate verbal behaviors (F= 17.87, p < .01, d=.42) as measured by the Behavioral Observation of Students in School (BOSS; Shapiro, 2004). Likewise, BSC-P classroom teachers rated statistically significant and practical improvements in BASC-3 students' adaptive skills (F= 12.40, p < .01, d= .48) and school problems (F= 7.48, p < .01, d= .29) and SSIS students' Social Skills [ F (1, 177) = 10.99, p < .01; d = .39) and Academic Competence [F (1, 144) = 6.20, p < .05; d = .32) than waitlist controls. Furthermore, paraprofessionals who received BSC-P rated statistically significant and practical improvement in instructional support (F= 12.18, p < .01, d= .59) than waitlist controls. High levels of coaching fidelity and teacher and paraprofessional acceptability of BSC-P coaching were found. At its conclusion, the efficacy study will include over 80 elementary schools, 250 paraprofessional, and 720 K-5 grade students with or at risk for DBDs. Findings will be discussed in relation to previous research, as well as directions for research, practice and policy.

Online Synchronous Discussion with Electronic Graphic Organizers for Learning Science Content

First presenter: Deborah K. Reed, Iowa Reading Research Center, University of Iowa (deborah-reed@uiowa.edu) Poster Abstract: Rationale. Efforts to support students' performance in science classes often include explicit vocabulary instruction, including the use of graphic organizers (e.g., Dexter, Park, Hughes, 2011; Therrien, Taylor, Watt, & Kaldenberg, 2014). However, research on electronic organizers has been more limited and typically focused on student-generated maps or webs that require extended practice and support (Ciullo & Reutebuch, 2013). A commonly used graphic organizer for learning vocabulary is based on a framework called the Frayer Model (Frayer, Frederick, & Klausmeier, 1969), but this tool has insufficient research to infer a causal relationship with improved student outcomes. Moreover, within science, learning the words must be accompanied by discussion to stimulate students' thinking and reasoning about the concepts as well as practice applying the language of science (Colley & Windschitl, 2016; Yacoubian & BouJaoude, 2010).

Purpose. Given the limited research on using electronic graphic organizers and synchronous online discussions at the elementary level, this study investigated the content learning of fourth graders randomly assigned to complete electronic Frayer Models on life science vocabulary by themselves or while engaging in synchronous online discussions with a partner. Research Questions. The primary research question addressed was: What is the effect of synchronous online discussion on the science learning of fourth graders in a blended learning environment? Our secondary question was: To what extent does student performance on the Frayer Model (completed individually or with online discussion) mediate the relation between prior science or reading ability and students' science outcomes?

Participants. A total of 92 fourth graders from two classes in a Title 1 elementary school were randomly assigned to complete electronic Frayer Models either in the online partner-discussion treatment (n = 45) or the independent comparison group (n = 47). The pretest ANOVAs established baseline equivalence between the groups.

Method. A total of 30 science lessons were implemented in a blended learning fashion for approximately 45 min each, over 7 weeks in the spring semester. Working at individual computer stations with internet connectivity, students completed at least 2 Frayer Models per week, interspersed with other science activities. The only distinction between the treatment and comparison groups concerned whether students completed the Frayer Models on the target vocabulary independently or through online synchronous discussions with an assigned partner of a slightly different ability level (based on reading and science benchmark performance levels). Students took a science benchmark at pre- and posttest, and their Frayer Models were evaluated for quality with a rubric. Fidelity was monitored throughout.

Findings. Paired sample t-tests confirmed that all students significantly improved their pre/post science content knowledge (d ≈ 0.60), but weighted least squares regression revealed the two treatment groups did not demonstrate significantly different performance after controlling for pretest abilities, F(1, 80) = 1.767, p = .188. Multigroup path analysis revealed the rubric scores on students' organizers were more strongly predictive of the posttest science benchmark in the online discussion group than the independent group, suggesting that collaboratively completing Frayer Models may help bolster the relationship between reading and science.

References: Ciullo, S.P., & Reutebuch, C. (2013). Computer-based graphic organizers for students with LD: A systematic review of literature. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 28, 196-210. doi:10.1111/ldrp.12017 Colley, C., & Windschitl, M. (2016). Rigor in elementary science students' discourse: The role of responsiveness and supportive conditions for talk. Science Education, 100, 1009-1038. doi: 10.1002/sce.21243 Dexter, D.D., Park, Y.J., & Hughes, C.A. (2011). A meta-analytic review of graphic organizers and science instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities: Implications for the intermediate and secondary science classroom. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 26, 204-213. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5826.2011.00341.x Frayer, D., Frederick, W., & Klausmeier, H. (1969). A schema for testing the level of concept mastery. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Center for Education. Therrien, W.J., Taylor, J.C., Watt, S., & Kaldenberg, E.R. (2014). Science instruction for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 35, 15-27. doi: 10.1177/0741932513503557 Yacoubian, H.A., & BouJaoude, S. (2010). The effect of reflective discussions following inquiry-based laboratory activities on students' views of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47, 1229-1252. doi: 10.1002/tea.20380

A Synthesis of Interventions for Students with Co-occurring Reading and Behavior Difficulties

First presenter: Garrett J. Roberts, University of Denver (garrett.roberts@du.edu) Second presenter: Dina Malala, University of Denver (dina.malala@du.edu)

Additional authors: Joseph Licata, University of Denver; Senaida Mehmedovic, University of Denver

Poster Abstract: There is a strong and positive association between reading and behavioral difficulties. Therefore, this synthesis systematically identified single-case design studies for students with or at-risk for co-occurring reading and behavior (e.g., emotional and behavioral disorder [EBD], attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]) difficulties in Grades K-12 to (a) determine the impact of these interventions on reading and behavioral outcomes, (b) determine the extent to which reading and behavioral outcomes varied based on intervention (e.g., self-monitoring, phonics) and student characteristics (e.g., grade, disability), and (c) indirectly test the hypotheses explaining the mechanisms underlying the high co-occurrence rate of reading and behavior difficulties. In total, we identified 22 studies which met the What Works Clearing House (WWC) Quality Design Standards with or without Reservations. From these 22 studies, ten included a reading intervention, ten included a behavioral intervention, and two included a combined reading and behavioral intervention. Studies will be evaluated based on WWC Quality Design Standards, the WWC Criteria for demonstrating a causal relationship, and Tau-U effect sizes. To indirectly test the hypotheses explaining the mechanisms underlying the high co-occurrence of reading and behavior difficulties, follow-up analyses will investigate three of the hypothesized causal mechanisms underlying the high co-occurrence rate between reading and behavior difficulties: (a) reading difficulties lead to future behavioral difficulties, (b) behavior difficulties lead to future reading difficulties and (b) a bi-directional relationship exists between reading and behavioral difficulties. To test whether behavior difficulties result from reading difficulties, we will examine the effects of reading interventions provided without any behavioral support (compared to a phase without behavior support) on behavior. If supported, we expect reading only intervention will improve behavior outcomes. To test whether reading difficulties result from behavior problems, we will examine the effects of behavior interventions provided without any reading support (compared to a phase without reading support) on reading. If supported, we expect behavior only intervention will improve reading outcomes. To test the hypothesis of bi-directional relations, we will compare two sets of studies: (a) reading and behavior intervention compared to a phase which did not include reading or behavior support and (b) reading only intervention to a phase that did not include reading or behavior support. If supported, the first set of studies would show larger effect sizes on reading and behavior compared to the second set of studies. Findings from this study will support a better understanding of the relationship between reading and behavior as well as provide further evidence on how to best support students with co-occurring reading and behavioral difficulties in the classroom.

Fraction screeners predicting mathematics risk status in fourth, fifth, and sixth grades

First presenter: Jessica Rodrigues, University of Missouri (rodriguesjm@missouri.edu)

Poster Abstract: Purpose Proficiency in algebra prepares students for success in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) college courses and vocations (National Mathematics Advisory Panel [NMAP], 2008). Fraction knowledge, in turn, is foundational for learning algebra (Booth, Newton, & Twiss-Garrity, 2014). Unfortunately, deep fraction knowledge eludes many students particularly students with diagnosed learning disabilities (Hansen, Jordan, & Rodrigues, 2017).

The present study investigated fraction measures as screeners of later mathematics difficulties for the intermediate grades. These fraction measures included a single proficiency measure that assessed students' accuracy when estimating fraction magnitudes on a number line; a more general measure of fraction concepts; and a measure of fraction arithmetic skills. We also explored the accuracy of combinations of the fraction measures.

Method Participants Students were drawn from nine elementary schools within two school districts. Data were collected as a part of a larger longitudinal study (Jordan, Resnick, Rodrigues, Hansen, & Dyson, 2017). Of the total sample from the larger project, 411 students had complete data for the present study. The sample was 46.2% male, 52.6% White, 38.7% Black, 5.8% Asian/Pacific Island, and 2.9% American Indian/Alaskan Native, with 16.5% of the students self-identified as Hispanic. More than half of the sample (58.4%) qualified to participate in the free/reduced lunch program. The sample included 11.2% English learners and 10.7% of students who were reported to be receiving special education services. Missing data result in slightly different total students included each analysis of the present study (n = 411 in fourth grade; 362 in fifth grade; 304 in sixth grade).

Fraction Measures Fraction number line estimation. Students estimated the location of fractions on 0-1 and 0-2 number lines (adapted from Siegler et al., 2011). Estimations were combined to create a single score, calculated as the mean percent absolute error (α = .91).

Fraction concepts. A measure of 18 total released items from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (U.S. Department of Education, 1990-2009) measured fraction conceptual understanding (α = .78). Fraction arithmetic. The measure adapted from Hecht (1998) included four addition (e.g., 2/5 + 1/5) and four subtraction (e.g., 3/4 - 1/4) computation items (α = .95).

Outcome Measure Students' mathematics performance was assessed on a statewide test of mathematics achievement (α = .86 in fourth grade; .89 in fifth grade; and .88 in sixth grade; American Institutes of Research, 2012).

Data Analysis ROC curve analyses assessed the diagnostic accuracy of the fraction measures. Best Subset automatic linear modeling (ALM) improved the efficiency of the screener.

Findings A combined measure consisting primarily of fraction number line estimation items and general fraction concepts items was the most accurate screener of risk status in 4th, 5th, and 6th grades (AUC = .84; .81; .85; respectively). To our knowledge, this study is the first to develop and validate fraction screeners through rigorous analysis. Findings suggest that screeners focused on core components of the mathematics curriculum-such as fractions -may be powerful approaches for identifying students who are at risk for later mathematics difficulties.

References: American Institutes for Research. (2012). DCAS 2011-2012 Technical Report. Retrieved from http://www.doe.k12.de.us/cms/lib09/DE01922744/Centricity/Domain/111/Vol1_Annual_TechRep.pdf Booth, J. L., Newton, K. J., & Twiss-Garrity, L. K. (2014). The impact of fraction magnitude knowledge on algebra performance and learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 118, 110-118. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.09.001 Hansen, N., Jordan, N. C., & Rodrigues, J. (2017). Identifying persistent learning difficulties in fractions: A longitudinal study of student growth from third through sixth grade. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 50, 45-59. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.11.002 Hecht, S. (1998). Toward an information-processing account of individual differences in fraction skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 545-59. doi:10.1037//0022-0663.90.3.545 Jordan, N. C., Resnick, I., Rodrigues, J., Hansen, N., & Dyson, N. (2017). Delaware longitudinal study of fraction learning: Implications for helping children with mathematics learning difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(6), 621-630. doi:10.1177/0022219416662033 National Mathematics Advisory Panel (NMAP) (2008). Foundations for success: The final report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Siegler, R. S., Thompson, C. A., & Schneider, M. (2011). An integrated theory of whole number and fractions development. Cognitive Psychology, 62, 273-296. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2011.03.001 U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). (1990-2009). Mathematics assessment. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard

Reviewing State-Created Curriculum Evaluation Tools through an Implementation Lens

First presenter: Kristen R. Rolf, Utah State University (kristen.rolf@usu.edu) Second presenter: Kaitlin Bundock, Utah State University (kaitlin.bundock@usu.edu)

Poster Abstract: Examining implementation is critical to ensuring effective use of evidence-based practices. Metz, Halle, Bartley, and Blasberg (2013) describe four stages of implementation: exploration, installation, initial, and full. The curriculum-adoption process undertaken by state departments of education and/or school districts corresponds to the exploration stage, during which decision-makers must consider implementation-related issues such as specific needs, the fit of a curriculum and the feasibility of its implementation, and perspectives of stakeholders (Metz et al., 2013). The National Implementation Research Network created The Hexagon Tool (2018) to help individuals and teams address implementation issues related to the adoption of an innovation during the exploration stage. The Hexagon Tool includes six implementation-related indicators: Evidence, Usability, Supports, Need, Fit, and Capacity. To learn more about the support states provide to their school districts for the implementation of evidence-based practices during the curriculum-adoption process, we asked the following research question: How do state-created curriculum evaluation tools for English/language arts (ELA) and/or mathematics support users to attend to implementation-related issues, as defined by The Hexagon Tool, during the curriculum adoption process? We conducted a systematic review of every state's department of education website (n = 50). In phase one, we used Google to search for the following terms: [insert state's name] curriculum evaluation tool. Next, the first author visited each state's department of education website and searched for any curriculum evaluation tools that may have been missed during the first phase. In the third phase, we repeated the Google search using a new set of terms: [insert state's name] instructional materials evaluation tool. State-created tools with an explicitly stated purpose of evaluating curricula and instructional materials related to K-12 ELA and/or mathematics were included for review. The authors independently coded for six implementation indicators (i.e. Evidence, Usability, Supports, Need, Fit, and Capacity) before comparing results and coming to consensus on any discrepancies.

Fifteen states provided 25 unique state-created curriculum evaluation tools. Specifically, ten states provided a total of 14 curriculum evaluation tools for use with ELA curricula, seven states provided a total of nine tools for evaluating mathematics curricula, and two states provided two tools designed for evaluating programs and practices more generally. Three of the 14 tools for ELA did not address any of the six implementation indicators. Eleven of the tools partially addressed some of the implementation indicators. The Evidence, Fit, and Capacity indicators were the most likely to be addressed by the curriculum evaluation tools.

All nine of the tools designed for evaluating mathematics curricula partially addressed at least one of the six implementation indicators. The Fit, Support, and Evidence indicators were the most likely to be addressed. Both of the general evaluation tools scored higher than the subject-specific tools. One tool partially addressed five of the six implementation indicators, and the other tool thoroughly addressed all six indicators. These findings suggest that few states support districts in attending to issues of implementation during the curriculum-adoption process. Future research is needed to investigate the best ways to support districts in implementing high-quality curricula.

References: Metz, A., Halle, T., Bartley, L., and Blasberg, A. (2013). The key components of successful implementation. In Applying implementation science in early childhood programs and systems. Baltimore, MD: Brookes, 21-42. National Implementation Research Network. (2018). The hexagon: An exploration tool: Hexagon discussion & analysis tool instructions. Retrieved from https://implementation.fpg.unc.edu/sites/implementation.fpg.unc.edu/files/resources/NIRN_HexagonTool_11.2.18.pdf

Reviewing 50 Years of Disproportionality Research: Predictor Variables and Analysis Methods

First presenter: Kristen R. Rolf, Utah State University (kristen.rolf@usu.edu) Second presenter: Kaitlin Bundock, Utah State University (kaitlin.bundock@usu.edu)

Poster Abstract: The disproportionate representation of diverse students in special education is an unresolved issue. Some researchers point to disproportionality as a sign of bias and discrimination (Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan, 2011). Others assert that disproportionality is an expected outcome resulting from the relation between race and socioeconomic status (Delgado and Scott, 2006). Specific Learning Disability (SLD) is one category that relies heavily on the judgment of the Individualized Education Plan team during qualification. As a result, diverse students may be disproportionately identified as learning disabled. Research investigating the prevalence and causes of disproportionality, particularly in the category of SLD, has produced mixed results, contributing to confusion surrounding this issue (Collins et al., 2016; Morgan et al., 2015). We completed this systematic review of studies investigating the disproportionate identification of students with SLD in mathematics in an attempt to bring clarity to and encourage continued research in this area.

Our research questions were: 1. What predictor variables are used in research examining the disproportionate identification of diverse students with SLD in mathematics? 2. What statistical analyses are used in research examining the disproportionate identification of diverse students with SLD in mathematics? 3. What, if any, patterns of disproportionate identification of subgroups of students emerge across studies? 4. To what extent does research examining the disproportionate identification of diverse students with SLD in mathematics meet research quality standards?

We systematically searched four education databases to find relevant articles. To be included in our review, reports needed to be correlational studies of the disproportionate identification of students with SLD in mathematics in the USA, published in English in peer-reviewed journals since 1970 (the year P.L. 91-230 (Education of the Handicapped Act) was passed). After identifying the articles to include, we conducted an ancestral search and contacted other researchers in an attempt to locate all relevant studies. The initial search of the databases produced 510 unique articles. After screening titles and abstracts and applying inclusion/exclusion criteria, we analyzed five articles that reported on studies investigating the disproportionate identification of students with SLD in mathematics.

Results show that studies investigating the disproportionate identification of students with LD in mathematics included a wide number of predictor variables, few of which were included in more than one study. Similarly, past researchers have used a variety of statistical analyses, and the quality of the studies varied. Patterns of disproportionality among groups of students vary by eligibility method (eg. ability/achievement discrepancy, low achievement). We also found evidence of a mix of over-, under-, and proportional representation for students who identified as racial and/or ethnic minorities. There was consistent evidence of overrepresentation for students with below normal birth weight. The results of this study suggest the need for additional research on this topic using a core set of predictor variables. Using a core set of predictor variables may support the synthesis of disproportionality research and bring clarity to the contradictory body of research that presently exists on this topic. We will present additional implications for research and practice.

References: Collins, K. M., Connor, D., Ferri, B., Gallagher, D., and Samson, J. F. (2016). Dangerous assumptions and unspoken limitations: A disability studies in education response to Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, Mattison, Maczuga, Li, and Cook (2015). Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners, 16(1), 4-16. Delgado, C. E. F. and Scott, K. G. (2006). Comparison of referral rates for preschool children at risk for disabilities using information obtained from birth certificate records. The Journal of Special Education, 40(1), 28-35. Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., Mattison, R., Maczuga, S., Li, H., and Cook, M. (2015). Minorities are disproportionately underrepresented in Special Education: Longitudinal evidence across five disability conditions. Educational Researcher 44(5), 278-292. doi: 10.3102/0013189X15591157 Shifrer, D., Muller, C., and Callahan, R. (2011). Disproportionality and learning disabilities: Parsing apart race, socioeconomic status, and language. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44(3), 246-257. doi: 10.1177/0022219410374236

Making Middle School Mathematicians: Achievement, Attitudes, and Course-Taking in Grade 8

First presenter: Lina Shanley, University of Oregon (shanley2@uoregon.edu) Poster Abstract: Research suggests that mathematics proficiency as early as kindergarten is predictive of later academic success (Duncan et al., 2007) and the predictive nature of mathematics proficiency extends into the later grades as well. Mathematics proficiency and course-taking in Grade 8 are predictive of mathematics course-taking in high school and college (Ma, 2005; Wang & Goldschmidt, 2003) and mathematics achievement is a prerequisite for a range of postsecondary pursuits (Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012). Research also indicates that while the distributions of mathematics course-taking varies among demographic subgroups in Grade 8, course-taking patterns become increasingly inequitable over time, resulting in an overrepresentation of White and Asian students in advanced mathematics courses by Grade 11. Although these findings point to issues of equitable access to advanced mathematics content, one potential limitation of these studies is that they have not explored the role of academic attitudes. Thus, the current study explored the role of Grade 8 students' self-concept and attitudes toward mathematics. Much of the research conducted to-date (Jones, Wilkins, Long, & Wang, 2012; McConney & Perry, 2010) has found significant, positive relations between self-evaluations and attitudes toward math and mathematics achievement. Collectively, these studies demonstrate a significant relationship between attitudes toward math and mathematics achievement. The current study explored the following research question: 1.How do attitudes toward math and self-appraisals differ based on math achievement and course-taking for 8th grade students?

Research Method and Participants Interviews were conducted to identify themes and patterns in associations between attitudes toward math and mathematics experiences for students with various levels of achievement and self-concept who were assigned to either general math or Algebra. Participants (n = 38) included approximately eight students from five mathematics classes in three schools in a Pacific Northwest school district. To sample students with a range of achievement and self-concept levels, teachers were asked rank students from high to low on both achievement and self-concept and students were randomly selected based on those rankings. Once selected and consented, participating students completed brief interviews about mathematics self-concept, attitudes toward mathematics, and their enjoyment of math, as well. These interviews were then transcribed and coded to identify themes and patterns across respondents.

Results Various themes emerged during the interviews, but one of the most consistent patterns was that students in Algebra consistently reported higher levels of self-concept, regardless of their level of achievement or success in the class. Another consistent theme was that high achieving students in the Algebra classes regularly reported that they were able to seek help from their parents when they did not understand something in their class. Alternatively, lower performing students tended to identify their peers and friends as their first option when they did not understand something in class. Finally, the role of the teacher in communicating math concepts and supporting math self-concept also emerged as an important theme and one that was especially common in interviews with students in the general math class.

References: Duncan, G., Dowsett, C., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A., Klebanov, P., Pagani, L., et al. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1428-1446. Jones, B. D., Wilkins, J. L., Long, M. H., & Wang, F. (2012). Testing a motivational model of achievement: How students' mathematical beliefs and interests are related to their achievement. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 27, 1-20. Ma, X. (2005). Early acceleration of students in mathematics: Does it promote growth and stability of growth in achievement across mathematical areas? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30, 439-460. McConney, A., & Perry, L. B. (2010). Socioeconomic status, self-efficacy, and mathematics achievement in Australia: A secondary analysis. Educational Research Policy & Practice, 9, 77-91. Pellegrino, J. W. & Hilton, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Wang, J., & Goldschmidt, P. (2003). Importance of middle school mathematics on high school students' mathematics achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 97, 3-17.

A Synthesis of Interventions Targeting Prosody

First presenter: Aya A Shhub, University of California Riverside (ashhu001@ucr.edu) Second presenter: Zaira Jimenez, University of California Riverside (zjime001@ucr.edu) Additional authors: Michael Solis, University of California, Riverside

Poster Abstract: Within reading research literature, reading prosody is generally conceptualized as an appropriate pitch, appropriate intonation, and appropriate expression. One systematic review of prosody interventions conducted by Hargrove, Anderson, and Jones (2009) focused on prosody interventions conceptualized narrowly as changes in stress, pitch, and intonation. Results indicated significant variation across the studies with respect to age of participants, types of communication disorders, treatment procedures, and outcomes. Studies of prosody interventions focus primarily on expressive skills (Peppe, 2009). Hargrove, Anderson, and Jones (2009) explain that a possible reason for this is that problems with prosody extend across various communication disorders. The purpose of this synthesis is to expand the understanding of prosody interventions by operationalizing the prosody interventions more broadly to include appropriate phrasing and appropriate syntax rather than just on expressive skills. An electronic search of the ERIC and PsycINFO databases was completed to locate studies published in peer-reviewed journals between 1985 and 2017. Every combination of the descriptors (prosody, prosodic, intervention, intervention strategies, intervention techniques, learning strategies) was used to ensure the identification of all possible studies. The initial search yielded 202 studies. Studies were selected based on the following criteria: 1. Articles published between 1985 through 2017 2. One or more dependent variables assessed reading prosody 3. Participants were in Kindergarten through 12th grade whose first language was English. 4. Participants identified with reading difficulties were included. Reading difficulties were defined as struggling readers, learning disabilities, and reading disabilities Participants with no reading difficulties were included. 5. Studies were excluded if participants were English Language Learners 6. Study designs included experimental, quasi-experimental designs, single-case design studies. 7. Studies must include a dependent variable that focuses on an instructional component of prosody, including multi-component reading interventions that include prosody instruction. 8. Studies were included if they reported descriptive statistics An extensive coding sheet from a previous study (Solis, Ciullo, Vaughn, Pyle, Hassaram, and Leroux, 2012) was adapted. The code sheet organized the following information: (a) study, (b) study design, (c) participants, (d) grade, (e) duration, (f) reading materials, (g) person implementing, (h) treatment groups, (i) measures, (j) findings, (k) socio-economic status, (l) assignment/selection of students, (m) fidelity, (n) pretest scores reported, (f) treatment groups. The coding sheet used a similar forced-choice (e.g., research design, assignments method, implementation) and open-ended items (e.g., age, duration). A total of seven studies met the selection criteria for the synthesis. Five experimental, one quasi-experimental, and one single case design met the inclusion criterion. A total of 186 participants represented within the identified studies from 2nd, 4th, and 5th grades. The measures used in the identified studies include pauses between words/commas/periods, pausal intrusion, inappropriate phrasing, and fluency. Preliminary findings indicate that repeated reading interventions with an emphasis on modeling of prosody had a positive impact on improving participants ability to read with prosody. These improvements included an increase in appropriate use of syntax (pauses after periods and commas) and appropriate grouping of words.

References: Ardoin, S. P., Morena, L. S., Binder, K. S., & Foster, T. E. (2013). Examining the impact of feedback and repeated readings on oral reading fluency: Let's not forget prosody. School Psychology Quarterly,28(4), 391-404. doi:10.1037/spq0000027 CHALL, J.S. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: McGraw-Hill. Chard, D. J., Ketterlin-Geller, L. R., Baker, S. K.,Doabler, C., & Apichatabutra, C. (2009). Repeated Reading interventions for students with learning disabilities: Status of the evidence. Exceptional Children, 75, 263-281. Chard, D. J., Vaughn, S., & Tyler, B. J. (2002). A Synthesis of research on effective interventions for building reading fluency with elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 386-406. doi:10.1177/00222194020350050101 Dowhower, S. L. (1987). Effects of repeated reading on second-grade transitional readers' fluency and comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 22(4), 389-406. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/747699 Eckert, T. L., Ardoin, S. P., Daly, E. J., III, &Martens, B. K. (2002). Improving oral reading fluency: A brief experimental analysis of combining an antecedent intervention with consequences. Edmonds, M. S., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C., Cable, A., Hargrove, P., Aanderson, A., & Jones, J. (2009). A critical review of interventions targeting prosody. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11(4), 298-304. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17549500902969477 HUEY, E. (1908/1968). The psychology and pedagogy of reading. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. (Originally published 1908). Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 271-281. doi:10.1901/jaba.2002.35-271Eckert, T. L., Dunn, E. K., & Ardoin, S. P. (2006). Klingler-Tackett, K., & Wick-Schnakenberg, J. (2009). A synthesis of reading interventions and effects on reading comprehension outcomes for older struggling readers. Review of Educational Research, 79, 262-300. Kuhn, M. R. (2005). A comparative study of small group fluency instruction. Reading Psychology, 26(2), 127-146. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02702710590930492 Leslie, L., & Caldwell, J. (1988). Qualitative reading inventory. New York: HarperCollins. Leslie, L., & Caldwell, J. (1995). Qualitative reading inventory-II. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. LeVasseur, V. M., Macaruso, P., & Shankweiler, D. (2008). Promoting gains in reading fluency: A comparison of three approaches. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 21(3), 205-230. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11145-007-9070-1 MacGinitie, W. H., & MacGinitie, R. K. (1978). Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests: Canadian Edition. Toronto: Nelson Publishing. Noltemeyer, A., Joseph, L. M., & Watson, M. (2014). Improving reading prosody and oral retell fluency: A comparison of three intervention approaches. Reading Improvement, 51(2), 221-232. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1651858595?accountid=14521 Peppé, S. J. E. (2009). Why is prosody in speech-language pathology so difficult?International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11(4), 258-271. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17549500902906339 SEQUENTIAL TEST OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS (Circus Pri- mary C, Form X). (1976). Educational Testing Solis, M., Ciullo, S., Vaughn, S., Pyle, N., Hassaram, B., & Leroux, A. (2012). Reading comprehension interventions for middle school students with learning disabilities: A synthesis of 30 years of research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(4), 327-340. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022219411402691 The effects of alternate forms of performance feedback on elementary-aged students' oral reading fluency. Journal of Behavioral Education, 15,149-162. doi:10.1007/s10864-006-9018-6 U.S. Department of Education. (1995, August). NAEP's oral reading fluency scale. Woodcock, R. (1987). Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Young, A. R., Bowers, P. G., & MacKinnon, G. E. (1996). Effects of prosodic modeling and repeated reading on poor readers' fluency and comprehension. Applied Psycholinguistics, 17(1), 59-84. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400009462

Social Privilege: The Racialization of Special Education Labels

First presenter: Alex Smith, The University of Southern Mississippi (r.alexander.smith@usm.edu) Second presenter: Erin Smith, The University of Southern Mississippi (erin.marie.smith@usm.edu)

Poster Abstract: There is a long line of research examining the relationship between race and special education specifically related to under/over-representation (Morgan et al., 2015), but little research has examined the relationship between specific labels, race, and social privilege (Kauffman & Bader, 2013). In our study, we define social privilege as multifaceted, which includes social awareness (e.g., public media attention), legitimacy (e.g., mandated health insurance coverage), resources (e.g., support groups), and stigma (e.g., the label is associated with poor parenting practices). Since special education labels were introduced in 1975, some labels appear to have received differential social attention (e.g., social support, public media attention) and, as a result, different social privileges. In addition, some labels appear to be more stigmatizing, more restrictive, and even have their legitimacy questioned more often (Kauffman & Bader, 2013; Skiba et al., 2006). Thus, given the appearance of social privilege for specific labels, this study sought to answer the question, What historic trends exist across labels by race and how are these related, if at all, to social privilege? To answer this question, we are examining data from multiple sources (e.g., reports on the implementation of IDEA, the number of children diagnosed, etc.) using mixed methods. We are using quantitative methods to identify the trends across labels associated with special education, racial categories, and social privilege. We are using qualitative methods to examine U.S. national discourse to identify what constitutes social privilege, especially stigma, and how labels are positioned in order to provide a more robust and nuanced picture of trends. Although analysis is on-going across several labels and specific disabilities (e.g., ADHD, OHI, LD, Dyslexia), preliminary findings indicate relationships exists between the number of students identified with Autism and ID. For example, since 2000 there has been a decline in ID coinciding with an increase in Autism while the total number of students served under both labels combined has remained relatively stable. However, African Americans appear to be disproportionately over-identified under ID but under-identified for Autism (NCES, 2019). Furthermore, preliminary findings suggest that Autism has more social privilege than ID. For example, the number of current Facebook support groups (i.e., resources) for Autism is 11 while the number for ID is 4. Additionally, the number of news articles published in the top six news outlets (i.e., social awareness) over the last 2 years for Autism were 58 while ID was 15. In fact, there were more Facebook support groups and news articles for Autism than for ID, BD, and LD combined. Findings from this study call attention to the nuanced relationship between race, special education, and social privilege in the U.S. and have specific implications for future directions related to special education labels. Actionable recommendations to address disparities in social privilege across labels and future policy decisions will be provided, particularly as they relate to label specific identification, resourcing, and national U.S. discourse.

References: Kauffman, J.M. & Bader, J. (2013). How we might make special education for students with emotional or behavioral disorders less stigmatizing. Behavioral Disorders, 39, 25-36. Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., Mattison, R., Maczuga, S., Li, H., & Cook, M. (2015). Minorities are disproportionately underrepresented in special education: Longitudinal evidence across five disability conditions. Educational Researcher, 44, 278-292. Skiba, R. J., Poloni-Staudinger, L., Gallini, S., Simmons, A. B., & Feggins-Azziz, R. (2006). Disparate access: The disproportionality of African American students with disabilities across educational environments. Exceptional Children, 72, 411-424.

Effects of Multicomponent Reading Intervention for Students with ASD in the Middle Grades

First presenter: Michael Solis, University of California Riverside (msolis@ucr.edu) Second presenter: Colleen Reutebuch, The University of Texas at Austin (ckreutebuch@austin.utexas.edu)

Additional authors: Sharon Vaughn, The University of Texas at Austin

Poster Abstract: We conducted a matched randomized experiment for students with ASD in grades 3-8 (N=28). Tutors (N=10) were hired, supervised, and trained by the research staff on Project READ instruction and curriculum materials. Students were matched into pairs according to symptom severity and reading fluency by a researcher independent of the research team and then randomly assigned to treatment (n=15) or business-as-usual (BAU) comparison condition (n=13).

Measures. Pretest and posttest measures included the following: researcher-developed strategy use measure (SUM), researcher-developed vocabulary measure, AIMSweb Oral Reading Fluency, Test of Sentence Reading Efficiency and Comprehension (TOSREC), Woodcock Johnson Passage Comp (WJ-PC), Kaufmann Brief Intelligence Test (KBIT) verbal and matrices subtests, and Gilliam Autism Rating Scales, Third Edition (GARS). The KBIT and GARS were administered at pretest only.

Project READ Intervention. Tutors provided one-on-one instruction to students for 30-minute sessions four to five days per week for a total of 23 to 30 sessions (M = 27). The instructional components allowed tutors flexibility with text readability levels based on student needs. Daily intervention instruction included vocabulary focused on academic language (30 vocabulary words), fluency with text (five readability levels) emphasizing prosody and sentence-level comprehension, and text-based main idea/summarization (two readability levels).

Data Analysis Plan. Data were analyzed using repeated measures multilevel models in HLM 7. At level-1, scores at pretest and posttest for each outcome (i.e., vocabulary, SUM, TOSREC, and WJ-PC) were modeled as functions of student-level variables (e.g., time, intervention exposure) plus random error. At level-2 and level-3, coefficients for student-level variables were modeled as functions of district-level averages, which in turn were modeled as functions of grand averages plus random errors for pretest and posttest scores (i.e., residuals between district averages, grand average). To identify significant effects, we selected an alpha level of .10 due to the study's small sample size, the associated low statistical power to detect effects, and the exploratory nature of the study.

Results. The Project READ intervention was associated with significant gains in WJ-PC scores of 22.62 (se=8.19, df=3, p=.070) for students at GARS severity level 1, and with significant gains in vocabulary scores of 10.19 (se=2.78, df=3, p=.035) and 5.46 (se=1.60, df=3, p=.042) for students rated at GARS severity levels 1 and 2. No significant differences between Project READ and the comparison condition were detected for SUM or TOSREC scores. We describe the results from the final models for each dependent variable.

Discussion. We examined the effectiveness of Project READ for a diverse sample of students with ASD in grades 3-8. There are several findings that show promise and others that suggest a more extensive time for the intervention may be productive. Compared with students in the comparison condition, students who received Project READ (GARS levels 1 and 2) made important gains on standardized measure of reading comprehension and proximal measure of vocabulary. It appears that students with higher functioning ASD responded well to Project READ.

Data-based decision-making: Using learning-progress assessment and differentiated reading material

First presenter: Elmar Souvignier, University of Münster (elmar.souvignier@uni-muenster.de) Poster Abstract: The use of data for instructional decision-making in education is considered an important but complex skill and has been found to be challenging for teachers (Espin, Wayman, Deno, McMaster, & de Rooij, 2017). Against this background we developed (1) a system for learning progress assessment (LPA) to monitor students' reading progress and (2) worked-out material to support teachers in implementing assessment-based differentiated instruction on reading fluency and comprehension (Reading Sportsman, RS). We evaluated the effects of providing teachers with learning progress assessment (LPA) with or without additional material for differentiated reading instruction (RS) particularly for students with reading difficulties. We identified students with reading difficulties by reading fluency scores of one or more standard deviations below mean scores. Data is based on three intervention studies that were conducted in general education in German second and third grade classrooms using quasi-experimental three-group pretest-posttest designs. The resulting sample consisted of N=190 second and N=525 third grade students from 119 classes. Participants received either business-as-usual reading instruction (control group) or were randomly assigned to a LPA-intervention group with (LPA-RS) or without (LPA) additional worked-out material. The LPA system provided teachers with information about students' reading progress at eight measurement points using equivalent, short, web-based assessments. The worked-out material (RS) included evidence-based reading methods. Students' reading fluency and comprehension were assessed using standardized achievement tests at the beginning and the end of the school year. Preliminary findings indicate that struggling readers take benefit from both interventions (LPA and LPA-RS). However, results from classroom observation and teacher questionnaires show that using data to differentiate instruction is a rather novel challenge for most of the teachers. The findings will be discussed regarding teachers' use of LPA assessments to differentiate instruction for struggling readers and with respect to findings from earlier studies (Förster, Kawohl, & Souvignier, 2018).

References: Espin, C., Wayman, M. M., Deno, S., L., McMaster, K. L., & de Rooij, M. (2017). Data-Based Decision-Making: Developing a Method for Capturing Teachers' Understanding of CBM Graphs. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 32(1), 8-21. Förster, N., Kawohl, E., & Souvignier, E. (2018). Short- and long-term effects of assessment-based differentiated reading instruction in general education on reading fluency and reading comprehension. Learning and Instruction, 56, 98-109.

Using a Peer Tutoring Application With Primary Students to Practice Word Reading

First presenter: Pamela M. Stecker, Clemson University (stecker@clemson.edu) Second presenter: Michelle Popham, Clemson University (mpopham@clemson.edu)

Poster Abstract: Background and Purpose Young, struggling readers need to be able to read high-frequency words fluently; thus, = efficient and intensive intervention is vital with frequent opportunities to practice (Denton & Al Otaiba, 2011). Peer tutoring is an evidence-based strategy with frequent student responding and error correction (Bowman-Perrott et al., 2013). One limitation is that the tutor needs to know the target word to give feedback to the tutee, which becomes challenging when both students lack the target word (Wood et al., 2007). One solution is to provide feedback through electronic audio prompting (Mackiewicz et al., 2011). We studied the effect of a peer tutoring application (app) with auditory prompting on word and passage reading among early elementary students with varying levels of reading performance.

General Research Methods Participants (n = 106) were first grade (n = 74) and kindergarten students (n = 32) in one rural school in the Southeast. Participant sample included 49% female, 70% White, 28% Hispanic, 14% receiving special education services, 77% free/reduced lunch eligible, and 18% English learners. A quasi-experimental control group design with pre-/posttesting and randomization at the classroom level was used with 53 participants in each condition.

Pre- and posttest measures were used to capture word reading (Dolch list of 220 words; Dolch, 1936) and reading fluency (DIBELS, University of Oregon, 2018, for first graders and researcher-developed sentences constructed with high-frequency words for kindergartners). Fluency measures were timed for 1 minute; total correct words read served as the score for all measures. In the experimental app condition, students read Dolch words in pairs with one student functioning as a "coach" while the "reader" practiced reading assigned words for 5 minutes. Then the partners switched roles for 5 minutes with the new reader's list. The app presented each target word and said, "What word?" After the reader said the word aloud, the coach pressed the "speaker" button, and the app presented the correct pronunciation of the target word. After hearing the word, the coach decided whether the reader read the word correctly and pressed a button for either correct or incorrect response. When the reader was incorrect, the app prompted the reader with "try again." The reader continued trying until saying the word correctly. Partner practice occurred three times per week for 6 weeks with fidelity checks of 90%.

Findings and Implications Preliminary results indicated a significant intervention effect on pre-primer words F(1, 104) = 4.26, p = .04. When controlling for pretest Dolch word scores, significant intervention effects were found for pre-primer F(1, 103) = 10.40, p = .002, primer F(1, 103) = 17.70, p = .001, first F(1, 103) = 10.59, p = .002, and second grade words F(1, 103) = 4.75, p = .032. Results supported efficacy of the app for improving students' reading of early high-frequency words. Young students were able to use the app appropriately, and readers were able to function as coaches for their partners even when they did not know the particular words themselves.

References: References *Bowman-Perrott, L., Davis, H., Vannest, K., Williams, L., Greenwood, C., & Parker, R. (2013). Academic benefits of peer tutoring: A meta-analytic review of single-case research. School Psychology Review, 42(1), 39-56. *Denton, C. A., & Al Otaiba, S. (2011). Teaching word identification to students with reading difficulties and disabilities. Focus on Exceptional Children, 43(7), 1-16. *Dolch, E. W. (1936). A basic sight vocabulary. The Elementary School Journal, 36(6), 456-460. *Mackiewicz, S. M., Wood, C. L., Cooke, N. L., & Mazzotti, V. L. (2011). Effects of peer tutoring with audio prompting on vocabulary acquisition for struggling readers. Remedial and Special Education, 32(4), 345-354. *University of Oregon (2018). 8th Edition of Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS ®). Eugene, OR: University of Oregon. *Wood, C. L., Mackiewicz, S. M., Van Norman, R. K., & Cooke, N. L. (2007). Tutoring with technology. Intervention in School and Clinic, 43(2), 108-115.

Investigating the Efficacy of Intensive Intervention for English Learners with Reading Difficulties

First presenter: Paul K. Steinle, The University of Texas at Austin (paulksteinle@utexas.edu) Second presenter: Philip Capin, The University of Texas at Austin (pcapin@utexas.edu)

Additional authors: Jeremy Miciak, University of Houston; Sharon Vaughn, The University of Texas at Austin

Poster Abstract: Broadly speaking, students in secondary grades continue to show deficits in reading ability. In 2017, 64% of eighth-graders were below a proficient level in reading, with 24% scoring below a basic level (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2018). For 8th grade English language learners (ELL), the deficits are even more severe, with 95% of ELL students below a proficient level and 68% below a basic level (NCES, 2018). There are a number of factors why ELLs struggle to demonstrate satisfactory reading performance. In addition to becoming proficient in a second language, ELLs are asked to comprehend grade-level text and content across domains (August & Shanahan, 2006). ELL students in secondary grades may also not have access to instruction aimed at remedying deficits in fundamental literacy skills, as instruction in upper grades focuses on acquiring content knowledge. Therefore, interventions supporting ELL students may need to address multiple components of reading.

Recent literature reviews show a relative lack of research into improving reading outcomes for ELLs in secondary grades. Hall et al. (2017) found only four multicomponent studies that involved teaching reading comprehension strategies. The summary of results from these multicomponent studies showed overall effect sizes aligned with previous research on struggling readers who are not ELLs, suggesting these multicomponent strategies will have similar positive results for ELLs.

The current study aims to answer the following research question: what is the efficacy of an intensive two-year intervention for English learners in Grades 7 and 8 with persistent reading disabilities? This two-year study (n=350) aims to improve achievement on reading outcomes, including decoding, fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension of middle school aged English language learners (ELL) with reading difficulties. Students were randomized to a treatment condition or a "business-as-usual" control condition. In year one, students were delivered instruction in decoding, oral reading fluency and reading comprehension. During the course of the year, students were also taught self-regulation strategies of reading as well: students set goals for reading, monitored these goals, and reflected on their usage. Over the second year of the study, students will continue with intensive instruction in fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. The emphasis on self-regulation will remain, as students monitor their own understanding. In the second year, students will also gain exposure to instruction of narrative language elements.

Currently, post-testing results have been collected after the first year of intervention. An initial review of findings suggests modest gains in word reading ability. Further analysis is ongoing and will examine group differences on measures of reading fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension.

References: August, D. L., & Shanahan, T. (2006). Introduction and methodology. In D. L. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing literacy in second-language learners: a report of the national literacy panel on language minority children and youth (pp. 1-42). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Hall, C., Roberts, G. J., Cho, E., McCulley, L. V., Carroll, M., & Vaughn, S. (2017). Reading instruction for English learners in the middle grades: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 29(4), 763-794. National Center for Education Statistics. (2018). 2017 NAEP Mathematics and Reading Assessments: Highlighted Results at Grades 4 and 8 for the Nation, States, and Districts (NCES 2018-037). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education

Putting it into FOCUS: A Snapshot of Students Experiencing Intensive Intervention

First presenter: Jennifer Stewart, Southern Methodist University (jenniferse@smu.edu) Second presenter: Kristi Baker, Southern Methodist University (klbaker@smu.edu)

Additional authors: Stephanie Al Otaiba, Southern Methodist University; Jill Allor, Southern Methodist University; Paul Yovanoff, Southern Methodist University

Poster Abstract: Over nearly two decades, Response to Intervention (RTI) has been used in schools to help identify students with specific learning disabilities (as encouraged by IDEA, 2004) and to provide remediation and early intervention for struggling learners. To provide guidance on RTI for struggling readers, Gersten et al. (2009) was commissioned by the What Works Clearinghouse to synthesize the existing research in a practice guide about effective RTI practices for struggling readers. While he and his colleagues found detailed research about the effectiveness of Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions, only a few studies demonstrated promising effects of Tier 3 interventions. Gersten and colleagues described a student within Tier 3 as one that does not make progress from Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions and needing more intensive assistance. In another synthesis about intensive intervention, Vaughn & Wanzek (2014) clarified that intensive supports include smaller group size, more time spent within an intervention, and individualized support based on students' performance data. Despite these evidences, there continues to be confusion surrounding school implementation of RTI. In addition, there is a lack of national guidelines and a clear formula of how to implement RTI (Hauerwas et al., 2013).

The purpose of this poster is to describe findings from a qualitative analysis that compare administrator's descriptions of Tier 3 students and their interventions with researcher-recommended practices. We will provide a descriptive snapshot of students that are receiving intensive intervention, how schools are implementing their intensive reading interventions, and discuss the implications for practice. The following research questions guided this study: What commonalities do administrators report that students receive in Tier 3? How does reported Tier 3 instruction align with the recommendations by Gersten et al. (2009) and Vaughn & Wanzek (2014)?

Data was collected from a broader IES funded grant, Project FOCUS, which used administrator interviews, teacher surveys, and classroom observations to learn about the knowledge and implementation of RTI across the United States. Over a two-year period, fifty-nine elementary school administrators representing elementary schools from 11 states, were recruited to participate in the study.

This qualitative analysis was guided by a grounded theory (Corbin & Strauss, 2015) framework that focused on generating explanations through the changing conditions and variability of those students described as receiving Tier 3 services. Administrators were interviewed about the RTI practices in their schools using the RTI Essential Components Worksheet (NCII, 2011). The present study explored one non-scored question which asked administrators and RTI leaders "Describe an example of a student experiencing intensive intervention."

Analysis is ongoing, however, preliminary findings revealed three major themes based on researcher recommendations. First, administrators reported using case by case decision making processes to place a student in intensive intervention and in the development of team-created individualized intervention plans. Secondly, no consistent standardized tier 3 programs were described at any of the school sites. Third, a consistent description of group size was not reported by administrators.

References: Corbin, J., Strauss, A., & Strauss, A. L. (2015). Basics of qualitative research. (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Gersten, R., Compton, D., Connor, C. M., Dimino, J., Santoro, L., Linan-Thompson, S., & Tilly, W. D. (2008). Assisting students struggling with reading: Response to Intervention and multi-tier intervention for reading in the primary grades. A practice guide.(NCEE 2009-4045). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved from http://ies. ed. gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides. Hauerwas, L. B., Brown, R., & Scott, A. N. (2013). Specific learning disability and response to intervention: State-level guidance. Exceptional Children, 80(1), 101-120. Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004, 20 USC §1400 et seq. National Center on Response to Intervention. (2011). RTI Essential Components Integrity Worksheet. ERIC Clearinghouse. Vaughn, S., & Wanzek, J. (2014). Intensive interventions in reading for students with reading disabilities: Meaningful impacts. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 29(2), 46-53.

Effects of Bilingual versus Monolingual Education on Young Bilinguals' Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis

First presenter: Lauren Thayer, University of Nebraska - Lincoln (thayerlet@gmail.com)

Poster Abstract: The dual language learner (DLL) student population continues to grow in the United States (U.S., Department of Education, 2018). Unfortunately, DLL students continue to show a persistent gap in national and statewide standardized testing when compared to their monolingual peers, including reading scores (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009). For example, Kindler (2002) reported that only 18.7% of limited English proficient students were able to meet the norms for English reading achievement in a high-stakes test environment. Although there is no consensus on the most effective approach to closing this gap, dual language programs are one solution that has become more readily offered by schools in recent years. The purpose of this study is to examine whether there is an effect of language of instruction on DLL students' English language and literacy outcomes. To address this, we conducted a search of three databases: PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Search terms included a comprehensive list of terms related to dual language instructional programs and language and literacy outcomes to ensure all relevant articles were found. There were an initial 3,136 articles found after removing duplicates. Once titles and abstracts were screened for relevance, there were a total of 344 articles reviewed in full, and 13 included in the final analysis. All of these studies included DLL students enrolled in both dual language and English-only instructional programs. Based on articles identified for inclusion, we focused on three types of dual language programs in this meta-analysis: structured immersion, two-way bilingual, and transitional programs. These three program types were chosen because they are the most commonly studied and they encompass programs that may go by a different name. For example, some studies report on one-way immersion programs, but they are essentially equal to structured immersion programs because they both focus on providing instruction in one language. Proponents of these programs argue that hearing English, with support of the home language, in a structured, high-quality setting such as a classroom may allow better understanding of the materials and facilitate acquisition of academic skills in the second language.

The current meta-analysis seeks to consolidate the existing research on the effects of language of instruction on DLLs' academic outcomes in English. More specifically, is there a difference in English academic outcomes for students in dual language programs when compared to students in English-only instructional programs? In preliminary data analyses (n = 13, k = 131), there was a significant negative effect of dual language programs on kindergarten through second grade DLLs' English language and literacy scores (g = -0.292, p = 0.04). Program type significantly moderated the main effect. Specifically, transitional bilingual programs had a significant negative effect on the outcomes of interest (β = -0.204, p < .05), whereas effects for structured immersion and two-way bilingual programs were non-significant. This indicates that programs providing instruction in two languages may not lead to improvements in English language and literacy outcomes for DLL students beyond effects of traditional English-only instruction.

References: 1. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2018). The Condition of Education 2018 (2018-144), Retrieved September 20, 2018 from: https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=96 2. National Center for Education Statistics. (2009b). The nation's report card: Reading 2009 (NCES 2010-458). Washington, DC: Author. 3. Kindler, A.L. (2002). Survey of the states' limited English proficient students and available educational programs and services: 2000-2001 summary report. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition.

What Works in 3rd Grade Comprehension Intervention? Building Knowledge Might be Key

First presenter: Meagan E. Walsh, Vanderbilt University (meagan.e.walsh@vanderbilt.edu) Poster Abstract: We initially hoped to create a single reading comprehension (RC) intervention package focused on informational text for students in grades 3-5. However, after 3 years in this pursuit, results indicated that 3rd graders needed something qualitatively different from 4th and 5th graders. Thus, we undertook to develop a separate program specifically targeting 3rd graders at risk for comprehension deficits. We wanted to know 1) What 3rd grade struggling comprehenders needed, and 2) How those needs might be met in a comprehensive intervention package. For this poster, we will discuss our efforts to answer these questions via an efficacy study and a meta-analysis. Data from our earlier studies (see Fuchs et al., 2018) indicated that the poor performance of 3rd grade students could not be attributed to text difficulty alone. If not word-reading, we hypothesized that the poor performance was related to some other developmental difference between 3rd graders and the older students in our samples. Knowledge, or more specifically, the lack of it, was implicated. Compared to students in older grades 3rd graders have less of the knowledge important for RC: both passage specific and general. We felt that gaps in knowledge might be undermining our interventions efficacy. Thus, we sought to develop a program that fostered knowledge building. We tested our knowledge-building program with 78 3rd graders with adequate word reading and risk for RC deficits who were randomly assigned to receive either our intervention or BAU. Students assigned to the intervention condition received 42 sessions of instruction delivered in pairs by trained graduate research assistants. Both groups were assessed at pre and post on a variety of RC measures chosen to assess varying degrees of instructional transfer. Results were analyzed using cross-classified hierarchical linear models with covariates for pre-treatment ability and error terms for pair assignment, classroom, and school. Treatment students outperformed controls on knowledge and strategy acquisition measures as well as on measures of proximal RC. There were no statistically significant differences on a distal commercial measure. Despite this result, we were encouraged, because the strongest effects were observed on main idea creation (g=1.00) and inference items (g=.60). It seemed that our approach to knowledge building facilitated improved RC for struggling 3rd grade readers. To contextualize the findings from this study, we are currently conducting a meta-analysis of 3rd grade reading comprehension interventions. Using comprehensive search and screening procedures, we have identified 29 studies (22 group design and 7 single case) which provide disaggregated results for struggling third grade readers. We are currently coding studies for intervention content, outcomes, and study quality. When complete, we will conduct a meta-regression with robust error variance to estimate the aggregate effect. We will then examine heterogeneity statistics to determine if additional moderation analysis is warranted. Potential moderators include the number of strategies explicitly taught, text type, peer interaction, dosage, and, importantly, knowledge building activities. Our goal is to determine which of these generally accepted RC components is most potent for third grade students.

References: Fuchs, D., Hendricks, E., Walsh, M. E., Fuchs, L. S., Gilbert, J. K., Tracy, W. Z., Patton, S., Davis-Perkins, N., & Kim, W. (2018). Evaluating a multi-dimensional reading comprehension program and reconsidering the lowly reputation of tests of near-transfer. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 33(1), 11-23.

Improving Instruction in the Co-Taught Middle School Classroom to Support Reading Comprehension

First presenter: Jade Wexler, University of Maryland (jawexler@umd.edu) Second presenter: Devin Kearns, University of Connecticut (devin.kearns@uconn.edu)

Additional authors: Chris Lemons (chris.lemons@vanderbilt.edu); Alexandra Shelton 9alexandra.e.shelton@gmail.com); Cheryl Lyon (cheryl.lyon@uconn.edu); Erin Hogan (ekhogan77@gmail.com)

Poster Abstract: Currently, schools are facing pressure to help students with disabilities (SWDs) meet rigorous achievement standards (Every Student Succeeds Act, 2015). In this effort, many schools place SWDs in the general education setting and use co-teaching as a service delivery model (Magiera & Zigmond, 2005). In principle, co-teaching can increase the effectiveness of inclusion, reduce the student-teacher ratio, and improve student outcomes (Arguelles, Hughes, & Schumm, 2000). However, a lack of evidence exists supporting co-teaching as a way to improve student achievement (Murawski & Swanson, 2001) and recent observation study research has confirmed that co-teaching is not being implemented in its intended form (i.e., integrating evidence-based literacy instruction and parity in the roles and responsibilities of the content-area teacher (CAT) and special education teacher (SET); Wexler et al., 2018). We designed Project CALI (Content Area Literacy Instruction), an IES Goal 2 Professional Development (PD) study, to address these gaps. The CALI components draw on the co-teaching, professional development, and content-area literacy instruction literatures and include the CALI Instructional Framework and accompanying PD with Coaching model. In this poster, we will present the findings from the year 3 pilot study. We address the following research questions: (1) What is the effect of CALI compared with a comparison group on teachers' ability to generate a main idea statement from text, perceptions of their own effectiveness, and their co-teachers' effectiveness? (2) To what extent do teachers who receive CALI PD with coaching implement the CALI IF with fidelity? (3) What is the effect of CALI compared with a comparison group on the reading outcomes of middle school students in co-taught classrooms? (4) Does the effect of CALI compared with a comparison group vary depending on disability status? Eleven co-teaching pairs in nine schools were randomly assigned to CALI (n = 7 pairs) or a business-as-usual comparison condition (n = 4 pairs). All 22 teachers individually completed researcher developed pre- and posttests of teacher knowledge and skills and perceived effectiveness of their personal ability and their co-teachers' ability. At pre- and posttest, students (n = 216) completed three measures of reading comprehension. CALI teachers demonstrated significantly higher scores than comparison teachers at posttest on a measure of knowledge and skills (0.804, p < .001, Hedges' g = 2.42), perceived personal effectiveness (6.802, p = .078, Hedges' g = 0.89), and perceived co-teachers' effectiveness (12.774, p = .027, Hedges' g = 0.68). The average score for all CALI co-teaching pairs across all fidelity checks was 90.62%. Students in the CALI classrooms demonstrated significant gains on a researcher-developed measure of reading comprehension (0.042, p = .080, Hedges' g = 0.39). However, the CALI treatment effect was non-significant for the two standardized measures of reading comprehension (Hedges' g = 0.02; Hedges' g = -0.01). Overall, we believe the data are promising given the effects on both teacher and student outcomes, considering the difficulty of finding significant effects on student achievement at the secondary level and in other PD studies.

References: Arguelles, M. E., Hughes, M. T., & Schumm, J. S. (2000). Co-teaching: A different approach to inclusion. Principal, 79(4), 48, 50-51. Magiera, K., & Zigmond, N. (2005). Co-teaching in middle school classrooms under routine conditions: Does the instructional experience differ for students with disabilities in co-taught and solo-taught classes? Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20, 79-85. doi:10.1111/ j.1540-5826.2005.00123.x Murawski, W. W., & Swanson, H. L. (2001). A meta-analysis of co-teaching research: Where are the data? Remedial and Special Education, 22(5), 258 - 267. doi:10.1177/074193250102200501 Wexler, J., Kearns, D. M., Lemons, C. J., Mitchell, M., Clancy, E., Davidson, K., Sinclair, A. C., & Wei, Y. (2018). Reading comprehension and co-teaching practices in middle school English Language Arts classrooms. Exceptional Children, 84, 384-402.

Crowdsourcing Research in Special Education

First presenter: Sarah Emily Wilson, University of Virgnia (ses6ph@virginia.edu) Second presenter: Bryan Cook, University of Virginia (bc3qu@virginia.edu)

Additional authors: William Therrien (therrien@virginia.edu)

Poster Abstract: Research in the field of special education continues to experience challenges in the methodological rigor and design of many studies within its research base. Namely, issues regarding low powered randomized control trials (RCTs), a paucity of independent replications, and limited diversity in study samples and settings. As such, the field is limited in its ability to identify generalizable, evidence-based practices for a broad population of students with disabilities. One potential way to address these challenges is through crowdsourcing. In this poster session, we describe the development of the infrastructure for the Special Education Research Accelerator (SERA), a mechanism for crowdsourcing, and the initial pilot study.

The crowdsourcing approach is different than the traditional research paradigm, which involves a few individuals or small teams conducting many small studies (Makel et al., 2019). Under the crowdsourcing paradigm, researchers and institutions leverage the power of the scientific community and combine resources to conduct studies on a scale not otherwise possible (Makel et al., 2019; Uhlmann et al., 2018). In so doing, studies have the potential to be more highly powered, be replicated across diverse sites, and involve more representative samples. Ultimately, "Crowdsourcing flips research planning from 'what is the best we can do with the resources we have to investigate our question,' to 'what is the best way to investigate our question, so that we can decide what resources to recruit'" (Uhlmann et al., 2018, p. 7).

Other fields such as psychology (Klein et al., 2018), developmental psychology (Frank et al., 2017), and environmental sciences (IJzerman et al., 2018) have begun to efficiently use crowdsourcing through established infrastructure and procedures. To this end, SERA is being developed as a platform for increasing the field of special education's use of crowdsourcing by providing processes and infrastructure to facilitate many research teams collaboratively conducting high-quality, large-scale, and open replication studies with diverse samples.

In addition to presenting the initial development stages of SERA, we will present an in-progress crowdsourcing pilot study that utilizes the SERA crowdsourcing platform to conduct a replication of an RCT. Approximately 15 teams of special education researchers from different universities will be concurrently replicating the RCT, which targets improved learning outcomes in science, across approximately 250 students with high-functioning autism.

We will describe the process and planning of the initial pilot study under the new SERA platform. We will discuss the development of necessary infrastructure such as a data portal, response portal, and website. Additionally, we will present initial procedures and protocols for research partner and study participant recruitment, IRB, training, maintaining implementation fidelity, data collection, and multi-site collaboration.

References: Frank, M. C., Bergelson, E., Bergmann, C., Cristia, A., Floccia, C., Gervain, J., ... & LewWilliams, C. (2017). A collaborative approach to infant research: Promoting reproducibility, best practices, and theory-building. Infancy, 22, 421-435. doi: 10.1111/infa.12182 IJzerman, H., Lindenberg, S., Dalğar, İ., Weissgerber, S. S., Vergara, R. C., Cairo, A. H., ... & Hall, C. (2018). The Human Penguin Project: Climate, social integration, and core body temperature. Collabra: Psychology, 4(1), 37. doi: 10.1525/collabra.165 Klein, R. A., Ratliff, K. A., Vianello, M., Adams, R. B., Bahník, Š., Bernstein, M. J., ... Nosek, B. A. (2014). Investigating variation in replicability: A "many labs" replication project. Social Psychology, 45, 142-152. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000178 Makel, M. C., Smith, K. N., McBee, M., Peters, S. J., & Miller, E. M. (2019, March 26). Open science 2.0: Large-scale collaborative education research. Retrieved from psyarxiv.com/ypmjg Uhlmann, E. L., Chartier, C. R., Ebersole, C. R., Errington, T. M., Kidwell, M., Lai, C. K., ... Nosek, B. A. (2018, August 13). Scientific utopia: III. Crowdsourcing science. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/vg649

An ALE Meta-analysis of Construct, Development, and Material Domain in Executive Function

First presenter: Zheng Zhang, The University of Texas at Austin (zzhang86@utexas.edu) Poster Abstract: To explore the neural basis of executive function (EF), we conducted a meta-analysis with Activation Likelihood Estimation (ALE). A total of 287 independent fMRI studies administering inhibition, switching, updating, and working memory were included. A conjunction analysis demonstrated that neural activation common to the EF subcomponents was observed in the inferior frontal gyrus, the insula, and the inferior parietal gyrus. These frontoparietal regions seem to underpin common EF. The contrast analysis revealed unique activation specialized for each subcomponent. It may suggest that EF is both unitary and diverse. Further, results showed that the common activation in the frontoparietal regions was consistent in different age samples, though the inferior frontal gyrus was more associated with adults. When controlling for common EF, only updating-specific activity was identified in children/adolescents, whereas activation specific to each of the four subcomponents was identified in adults. It may suggest that EF is more unitary at an early age but becoming more separable with age of increases. Additionally, it highlighted a need for studying the effects of task materials (verbal, visuospatial, numerical), which captured material domains in the EF subcomponents. Inhibition and switching showed domain-generality that no activation was more specialized for each of them in a specific task material. Updating and working memory both showed domain-generality and domain-specificity that a common brain pattern undergirded each of them, but different brain regions were found to be more specialized for each of them in verbal and visuospatial materials, respectively. Overall, the present study provides evidence for the intersection of the construct, development, and material domains in EF.

Executive Function in Autistic Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-analysis of fMRI Studies

First presenter: Zheng Zhang, The University of Texas at Austin (zzhang86@utexas.edu) Poster Abstract: Executive dysfunction is one of the phenotypes in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the essentially neurobiological mechanisms of executive function (EF) underlying the abnormality of ASD remains unclear. The present meta-analysis included 33 fMRI studies of EF to examine the overall profile of EF (i.e., common EF, inhibition, switching, updating/working memory) and considered the age effect on the development of EF in ASD. Results showed the consistent engagement of the inferior frontal gyrus and the inferior parietal gyrus in common EF processes in ASD. This finding suggests that the core construct of the frontoparietal regions in typically developing (TD) individuals can also be applied to the ASD population. However, the relatively weaker activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and the greater activity in the inferior parietal gyrus indicated the abnormal functioning in ASD compared to TD controls. In addition, inhibition showed greater activity in the inferior frontal gyrus compared to TD controls, reflecting immaturities in inhibition processing in ASD. Overall, our study revealed the common and different brain regions in EF between ASD and TD controls, indicating functional integrity and abnormalities in ASD.