West Africa Regional Programmatic PERSUAP (P … · · 2015-03-19Business cell phone:...

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West Africa Regional Programmatic PERSUAP (P-PERSUAP)

Covering Nine Target Countries with USAID West Africa Programs

Sahel/Savannah zone (covered by CILSS/INSAH): Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali,

Niger and Sénégal

Humid/Tropical zone: Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Liberia

For: USAID West Africa Mission

On: Purchase Order AID-624-O-14-000003

By: Alan Schroeder, PhD, MBA

Environmental Assessment Professional

[email protected]

Director of E-NoeTec

Business cell phone: 703-859-1676

Skype VOIP: happywildwarthog

mailto:[email protected]

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Table of Contents

ACRONYMS .......................................................................................................................................... 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................ 6

APPROVAL OF 2014 WEST AFRICA REGIONAL P-PERSUAP &

RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 2

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................................................. 7

Crops/Livestock covered by P-PERSUAP ....................................................................................... 8

Primary P-PERSUAP Findings: Recommended Allowed Pesticide AIs ................................... 8

Primary Results of Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) 12-Factor Analyses .......................... 18

Update the Report Annually and Rewrite the Report in 5 Years ............................................. 22

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 23

1.1 Purpose, Scope & Orientation ................................................................................................ 23

1.2 USAID Environmental Regulations Development.............................................................. 24

1.3 Regulation 216 ............................................................................................................................ 24

1.4 The Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) ..................... 25

1.5 Integrated Pest Management—USAID Policy .................................................................... 25

1.6 West Africa P-PERSUAP Methodology ............................................................................... 26

SECTION 2: BACKGROUND......................................................................................................... 27

2.1 Countries Background ............................................................................................................ 28

2.2 USAID West Africa Projects Backgrounds ........................................................................ 33

2.3 West Africa member countries pesticide sector, risks and areas for improvement .... 34

SECTION 3: PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT ................................................................ 39

3.1 Factor A: USEPA Registration Status of the Proposed Pesticide.................................... 39

Table 4: 2014 WA P-PERSUAP rejected pesticides .................................................................... 40

3.2 Factor B: Basis for Selection of Pesticides ............................................................................ 45

3.3 Factor C: Extent to Which the Proposed Pesticide Use Is, Or Could Be, Part of an

IPM Program ....................................................................................................................................... 45

3.4 Factor D: Proposed Method or Methods of Application, Including the Availability of

Application and Safety Equipment.................................................................................................. 47

3.5 Factor E: Any Acute and Long-Term Toxicological Hazards, either Human or

Environmental, Associated With the Proposed Use, And Measures Available To Minimize

Such Hazards ....................................................................................................................................... 48

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3.6 Factor F: Effectiveness of the Requested Pesticide for the Proposed Use ..................... 49

3.7 Factor G: Compatibility of the Proposed Pesticide Use with Target and Non-Target

Ecosystems. ........................................................................................................................................... 51

3.8 Factor H: Conditions under Which the Pesticide Is To Be Used, Including Climate,

Geography, Hydrology, and Soils .................................................................................................... 53

3.9 Factor I: Availability of Other Pesticides or Non-Chemical Control Methods ............ 54

3.10 Factor J: Host Country’s Ability to Regulate or Control the Distribution, Storage,

Use, and Disposal of the Requested Pesticide ................................................................................ 55

3.11 Factor K: Provision for Training of Users and Applicators ........................................... 56

3.12 Factor L: Provision Made For Monitoring the Use and Effectiveness of Each

Pesticide ................................................................................................................................................. 56

SECTION 4: PESTICIDE SAFE USE ACTION PLAN (SUAP) OR EMMP ....................... 58

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 58

4.2 Allowed Pesticides ......................................................................................................................... 58

4.3 USAID field monitoring requirement ....................................................................................... 58

4.4 Summary of Compliance Requirements (Safer Use Measures) .......................................... 58

Annex 1: IPM Matrix of West Africa Crops with Primary Production and Storage

Constraints, Recommended Pest/Disease/Weed Prevention Tools and Tactics &

Recommended Curative Tools ......................................................................................................... 63

Annex 2: Guidelines for PMPs for West Africa Crops and Beneficiaries ............................ 118

Annex 3: Elements of an IPM Program ...................................................................................... 121

Annex 4: Botanical Active Ingredients in Pesticides, Repellents, and Baits Regulated by

USEPA ................................................................................................................................................ 124

Annex 5: Natural Pesticides That Have Been Commercialized .............................................. 126

Annex 6: Acute Toxicity of Pesticides: EPA and WHO Classifications................................ 127

Annex 7: PERSUAP Analyses of Active Ingredients in Pesticides Registered in West Africa

.............................................................................................................................................................. 129

Annex 8: Training Topics and Safe Pesticide Use Web Resources ........................................ 142

Annex 9: Field Monitoring Form for Farmer Best Practices including GAP and IPM

options................................................................................................................................................. 144

Annex 10: Farm and Project Record Keeping Associated with Pesticide Use .................... 146

Annex 11: PERSUAP References ................................................................................................. 149 ACRONYMS …………………………………………………………………………………………. 150

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This PERUAP team of local Implementation Partners operating in the 9 West Africa countries covered by

this study, as well as International Environmental Compliance Consultant Alan Schroeder would like to

warmly acknowledge the assistance of USAID West Africa Mission staff members for environmental

guidance and advice by way of the required Initial Environmental Examination recommendations and

meetings. USAID’s West Africa Mission Regional Environmental Advisor and Africa Bureau Environmental Officer are also acknowledged for reviewing the draft document and providing valuable

comments.

Various contributions of other individuals and institutions—too numerous to list— who availed

themselves for interviews and contributed to the accuracy and completeness of this study are

acknowledged.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction

22 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 216, or USAID’s Regulation 216, in section 216.3 (b)(1)(i),

asserts “When a project includes assistance for procurement or use, or both, of pesticides registered for

the same or similar uses by US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) without restriction, the Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) for the project shall include a separate section evaluating the

economic, social and environmental risks and benefits of the planned pesticide use to determine whether

the use may result in significant environmental impact.” That ‘separate section’ referred to above has evolved into a tool named a Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP).

The main purpose of this Programmatic Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) and Safe Use and Action Plan

(SUAP) is to bring USAID West Africa (WA) Regional Mission’s projects in nine target countries into

compliance with USAID’s environmental regulations (Title 22 CFR, part 216, or Regulation 216) on

pesticide use. Target countries include Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Mali, Niger, and Sénégal.

Beyond compliance, this document offers Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) and preventive Integrated

Pest Management (IPM) tools to ensure that projects use the best state of the art practices available while

reducing the risks of environmental and health impacts due to pesticide training, promotion or use.

USAID projects desiring to promote or use pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP analysis will need to

perform an Environmental Assessment (EA) on those chemicals and their use.

Background

To achieve their objectives, USAID agriculture and food security projects in West Africa may need to support the use of pesticides, as part of a GAP/IPM approach to crop and livestock value chain production

systems. IEEs have been produced that recommend the production of PERSUAP studies in order to analyze such pesticide use, within the West Africa countries pesticide systems and contexts.

Dry and Wet Ecological Zones, Crops, Pests and Pesticides

For this study, nine West and Central Africa agriculture focus countries generally lie in two large zones or

bands: the dry, semi-arid Sahel/savannah band comprising much of Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Niger and Sénégal; and the more humid, tropical coastal band comprising much of Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and

Liberia. Rainfall patterns, soils and the crops capable of being grown in each band are different, as are

the pests that attack them. The Sahel/savanna is characterized by mango and shea nut tree stands, as well as production of more drought tolerant food security crops such as millet, sorghum and cowpea. Where

there are year-round sources of irrigation water from barrages, rivers and occasionally wells, maize, rice and vegetables can be grown in the dryer zone.

Most of the high value cash crops, like cocoa, cashew, banana and vegetables (as well as sugar cane, rubber trees and oil palm) are grown in the more humid zone. Cash crops provide smallholder farmers

and plantation owners with sufficient income with which they can afford to buy pesticides. And, the

pesticide companies fill this niche. Since the highest diversity of cash crops is found in the more humid areas, so too are the highest diversity and quantities of pests and pesticides. Cotton is grown in the

savanna and drives demand for a significant quantity of pesticides, many of which are provided to

smallholder farmers on credit at the start of the season, and many of which are subsequently used on other, non-approved, crops.

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Crops/Livestock covered by Programmatic Pesticide Evaluation Report (P-PERSUAP)

This 2014 P-PERSUAP analyzes and compiles IPM tools and tactics (including pesticides) for the

following crops/commodities (* = highest priority for USAID/WA as determined by regional strategies

and program plans):

Rice* Maize/Sorghum*

Millet*

Wheat* Pod Seed Pulses & Legumes: Soybean

Pod Seed Pulses & Legumes: Cowpea, Pigeon Pea, Dolique Bean

Pod Seed Pulses & Legumes: Peanut/Groundnut, Bambara Nut

Roots/Tubers: Cassava, Tiger Nut

Roots/Tubers: Sweet potato, Yam

Solanaceous Crops: Tomatoes, Peppers, Eggplants Alliums: Onions, Garlic, Shallots, Leeks, Chives

Okra Cucurbits: Melons, Cucumbers, Squashes

Lettuce

Brassicas: Cabbage, Collards

Fiber & Oil Crop: Cotton

Seed & Oil Crop: Sesame

Bush Crop: Henna Bush (Niger) Bush Crop: Hibiscus (aka Bissap, Jamaican Sorrel, Roselle)

Shrub/Tree Crop: Moringa/Cabbage Tree (Niger)

Tree Cash Crop: Cocoa Tree Cash Crop: Cashew fruit & nut

Tree Cash Crop: Shea Nut Tree Fruit Crop: Mango

Tree Fruit Crop: Banana

Poultry/Fowl: Turkeys, Geese, Ducks, Chickens, Guinea Fowl, Pigeons Livestock: Camels, Cattle, Sheep & Goats for meat, milk & hides*

Primary P-PERSUAP Findings: Recommended Allowed Pesticide AIs

Synthesizing across the PER analysis, ONLY the below-listed pesticide AIs are permitted for support or use (assistance for the procurement or use) in USAID WA countries projects and for their sub-grantees.

Upon approval of this PERSUAP, the pesticide active ingredients (AIs) listed as “allowed” in the following table—and ONLY those AIs—may be supported by the USAID/WA projects and their sub-

grantees covered by this PERSUAP. Such support is subject to the safe use conditions summarized below and set out in detail in the SUAP, section 4 of this PERSUAP.

Allowed pesticides are those that passed the 12-factor analyses, particularly Factor A (EPA & WA countries Registration and Restricted Use Pesticide—(RUP) Status) & Factor E (Acute/Chronic

Toxicological Hazards), as analyzed and summarized in Annex 7. Synthesizing across the PER analysis,

ONLY the below-listed pesticide AIs—and with the implementation of specific noted conditions—are permitted for use/support in USAID/WA countries agriculture sector and value chain projects and their

sub-grantees.

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Fumigant AIs in products found in all WA countries, and recommended by this PERSUAP

for BEO approval for use in USAID projects (with strict conditions) If USAID supports any warehouse or food storage projects, including food assistance work, it

will need to ensure that it will follow the 2013 Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance

(DCHA) Fumigation Programmatic Environmental Assessment (PEA). Also, USAID/WA and

the projects it supports will ensure that a quality local system is in place to train, equip and certify a sufficient number of fumigators, or that USAID will support such training and certification in a

country that has such capacity.

aluminum phosphide for stored grain pests (for use only by trained and certified

applicators, not smallholder farmers; see 2013 USAID Fumigation PEA

magnesium phosphide for stored grain pests (for use only by trained and certified

applicators, not smallholder farmers; see 2013 USAID Fumigation PEA)

Sahelian and Savannah climate/ecosystems (Institut du Sahel, INSAH-harmonized registration)

covers target semi-arid countries as follow Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Niger, Senegal

Insecticide AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization, and recommended by this

PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in USAID Projects, with condition that label instructions be followed

azadirachtin/neem tree seed extract

Bacillus sphaericus

Bacillus thuringiensis/BT

flubendiamide

fludioxonil/fludioxonyl

indoxacarb, S isomer

lufenuron

malathion

Metarhizium flavoviride anisoplae

novaluron

permethrin

pirimiphos-methyl

spinetoram

spinosad

spirotetramat

Tagetes oil

tetramethrin

thyme oil


PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in USAID projects (with specific conditions)

abamectin (use formulations below 1.9%; most formulations below 1.9% are General Use

Products (GUP)1, and above 1.9% are RUP

acetamiprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not during flowering to

protect foraging honeybees)

1 GUP Pesticides for use by general public and non-certified farmers

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bifenthrin (use only 10% EC and 2.5% ULV formulations which are GUP, all other

formulations are RUP)

deltamethrin (GUP for all uses, except on cotton, which in USA are RUP)

diflubenzuron (use formulations less than 25%, most formulations below 25% are GUP,

and above 25% are RUP)

fenothrin/phenothrin (use care around water)

imidacloprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering) , not during

flowering to protect foraging honeybees)

lambda cyhalothrin (GUP formulations 10% and below, most formulations below 10%

are GUP, and above 10% are RUP)

thiamethoxam (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not during flowering to


zeta-cypermethrin (use only non-RUP products)

INSAH miticides/acaricides

Acaricide/Miticide AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization, and recommended

by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in USAID projects, with condition that label instructions be followed

amitraz


by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in USAID projects (with specific conditions)


Products (GUP)2, and above 1.9% are Restricted Use Products (RUP)

INSAH rodenticide

Rodenticide Fumigant AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization, and

recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in USAID projects (with strict

conditions)

brodifacoum (use in bait traps if available, not just bait)

INSAH fungicides

Fungicides AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization, and recommended by this

PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in USAID projects, with condition that label instructions

be followed

azoxystrobin

iprodione


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mancozeb

metalaxyl-M (mefenoxam)

myclobutanil

thiram/TMTD

Fungicides AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization, and recommended by this


copper sulfate (pentahydrate) (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

INSAH herbicides

Herbicide & Plant Growth Regulator (PGR) AIs in products registered by INSAH

harmonization, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in USAID

projects, with condition that label instructions be followed

2,4-D

2,4-D amine

bensulfuron

bensulfuron methyl

clethodim

clomazone

fluazifop-P-butyl

fluometuron

glyphosate

isoxaflutole

mesotrione

nicosulfuron

orthosulfamuron

oxadiazon

pendimethalin

penoxysulam/penoxsulam

prometryn

propanil

terbuthylazine

thiobencarbe/benthiocarb

triclopyr

trifloxysulfuron sodium

Herbicide & PGR AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization, and recommended

by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in USAID projects (with specific conditions)

acetochlor (use non-RUP formulations)

diuron (known water pollutant, use care around open water)

hexazinone (known water pollutant, use care around open water)

metolachlor (known water pollutant, use care around open water)

S-metolachlor (known water pollutant, use care around open water)

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Humid/Tropical Zone study target countries (Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia)

Benin Insecticides

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Benin, and recommended by this PERSUAP for

BEO approval for use in USAID Projects, with condition that label instructions be followed

flubendiamide

indoxacarb, S isomer

malathion

novaluron

pirimiphos-methyl

spinetoram

spinosad

spirotetramat


BEO approval for use in USAID projects (with specific conditions)

abamectin (use formulations below 1.9%; most formulations below 1.9% are General Use Products (GUP)3, and above 1.9% are Restricted Use Products (RUP)



beta cyfluthrin (use formulations 10% and below, most formulations below 10% are

GUP, and above 10% are RUP)

beta cypermethrin (use all but 2.5EC formulations)



cyfluthrin (use only acute toxicity Class III products; not Class II)


imidacloprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering) , not during

flowering to protect foraging honeybees)

lambda cyhalothrin (GUP formulations 10% and below, most formulations below 10% are GUP, and above 10% are RUP)

Benin fungicides

Fungicides AIs in products registered by Benin, and recommended by this PERSUAP for

BEO approval for use in USAID projects, with condition that label instructions be followed

mancozeb

thiram

Benin herbicides


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Herbicide & PGR AIs in products registered by Benin, and recommended by this PERSUAP

for BEO approval for use in USAID projects, with condition that label instructions be followed

clethodim

flumetralin

fluometuron

glyphosate

isoxaflutole

nicosulfuron

pendimethalin

prometryn/prometrine

propanil

pyraflufen-ethyl

triclopyr

Herbicide & PGR AIs in products registered by Benin, and recommended by this


2 4 D (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

2 4 D dimethylamine salt (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)


Côte d’Ivoire insecticides

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this PERSUAP

for BEO approval for use in USAID Projects, with condition that label instructions be followed

acephate


chlorantraniliprole/rynaxypyr

ethofenprox

malathion

permethrin

pyrimiphos methyl

propoxur

spinosad

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this







imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk

to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder)


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thiamethoxam (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not during flowering to protect foraging honeybees)

Côte d’Ivoire miticides/acaricides

Acaricide/Miticide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this


be followed

acequinocyl

dimethoate








are GUP, and above 10% are RUP).

Côte d’Ivoire rodenticides

Rodenticide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and Recommended by this


be followed

chlorophacinone

difethialone

Côte d’Ivoire molluscicides

Molluscicide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this


be followed

metaldehyde


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Côte d’Ivoire fungicides

Fungicide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this PERSUAP

for BEO approval for use in USAID projects, with condition that label instructions be followed

mancozeb

thiram/TMTD

Côte d’Ivoire herbicides

Herbicide & PGR AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this


be followed

ametryne/amethrin

amicarbazone

bentazon/bendioxide

bispyribac-sodium

clomazone

fluometuron

fluroxypyr

glyphosate

isoxaflutole

mesotrione

metsulfuron-methyl

nicosulfuron

oxadiazon

pendimethalin

penoxysulam

propanil

saflufenacil

terbuthylazine

thiobencarbe/benthiocarb

triclopyr

Herbicides AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this


2 4 D amine salt (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

2 4 D dimethylamine salt (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

2 4 D isooctyl ester (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

acetochlor (use non-RUP formulations)



S-metolachlor (known water pollutant, use care around open water)

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Ghana insecticides

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Ghana, and recommended by this PERSUAP for

BEO approval for use in USAID Projects, with condition that label instructions be followed

acephate

Bacillus sphaericus


dimethoate

malathion

Metarhizium anisopliae

novaluron

permethrin

pyrimiphos methyl

pyrethrum

sulfur/sulphur

tetramethrin





acetamiprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not during flowering to protect foraging honeybees)



imidacloprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering) , not during flowering to protect foraging honeybees)



thiamethoxam (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not during flowering to protect foraging honeybees)

Ghana fungicides

Fungicide AIs in products registered by Ghana, and recommended by this PERSUAP for

BEO approval for use in USAID projects, with condition that label instructions be followed

azoxystrobin

difenoconazole

fosetyl aluminum

mancozeb

metalaxyl

propiconazole

sulfur (sulphur, hydrogen sulfide)


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thiophanate methyl

Trichoderma asperellum



captan (known carcinogen at repeated high dose uses over time; PPE essential with

repeated use)

copper-fixed or tribasic copper sulfate (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products;

not Class I)

copper (cupric) oxide (CuO) (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

copper (cupric) hydroxide (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

cuprous oxide (Cu2O) (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

folpet (known carcinogen at repeated high dose uses over time; PPE essential with

repeated use)

triadimenol (EPA use on sorghum canceled—do not use on sorghum; other uses

permitted)

Ghana herbicides

Herbicide & PGR AIs in products registered by Ghana, and recommended by this


be followed

bensulfuron methyl

bentazon

bispyribac-sodium

fluazifop-P-butyl

gibberellic acid

glyphosate

imazapyr/imazapir

mesotrione

nicosulfuron

oxyfluorfen

pendimethalin

propanil

terbuthylazine

triclopyr

Herbicide & PGR AIs in products registered by Ghana, and recommended by this


2 4 D amine (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

2 4 D amine salt (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

bromacil (known water pollutant, use care around open water)


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Liberia Pesticides

Liberia still has no official list of registered pesticides for import and use in Liberia.

Microbiocides found available in West Africa

Microbicide AIs in products available in WA countries, and recommended by this


be followed

bromine

chlorine dioxide

phenol

Microbiocide AIs in products available in WA countries, and recommended by this


bromine chloride (use only acute toxicity Classes II & III products; not Class I)

calcium hypochlorite (use only acute toxicity Classes II & III products; not Class I)

copper (use only acute toxicity Classes II & III products; not Class I)

hydrogen peroxide (use only acute toxicity Classes II & III products; not Class I)

iodine (use only acute toxicity Classes II & III products; not Class I)

sodium bisulfate (use only acute toxicity Classes II & III products; not Class I)

sodium hypochlorite (use only acute toxicity Classes II & III products, not Class I)

Primary Results of Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) 12-Factor Analyses

Factor A (EPA &West Africa Registration and RUP Status) &

Factor E (Acute/Chronic Toxicological Hazards)

The primary outcomes of Factor A & E analyses are the allowed AIs listed above in the left-hand column. A key point from this analysis is that several dangerous chemicals that should be banned or restricted

are still encountered in the West Africa region and countries. These include the pesticide AIs:

organochlorine insecticide endosulfan (banned internationally on the Persistent Organic

Pollutants, or POPs treaty list in 2011);

organophosphate insecticides containing cadusafos, profenofos and triazophos (all Class I, highly

toxic and higher risk for small farmer use); and

herbicides containing known water pollutants alachlor and atrazine, as well as highly-toxic and

problematic paraquat (which has chronic human health issues).

Pesticides containing these AIs are generally found in small retail agro-dealer shops, and small-scale

farmers should be discouraged by USAID projects. Several safer alternatives to these older types of

chemicals now exist.

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Factor B (Pesticide Selection Basis): Farmers Select Pesticides by Agro-dealer Advice and Cost

Most West African farmers use relatively high quantities of pesticides, especially in the cash crop sectors.

Those that do use pesticides often do so based upon the advice of agrodealers or neighbors. And, they

will often select the lowest cost pesticides, which is not ideal as many of the low-cost generic products,

particularly from China and India, are also of low quality and not reliable.

Just the fact that a few farmers will already value or buy and use pesticides—even the cheapest low

quality pesticides—does provide a market entry point for name-brand products once their benefit for cost

value is realized. This PERSUAP makes pesticide selections based upon registration, safety and resistance management. And, it encourages USAID projects to promote name brand pesticides where

applicable.

Factor C (IPM): Limited use of IPM &

Factor I (Chemical and Non-Chemical Alternatives Available): Little use of Chemical and Non-

Chemical Alternatives

Other than some use of resistant varieties, most small-scale farmers use few preventive non-chemical IPM tools and tactics on food security cereal row crops, and even on root crops, vegetables and fruits.

Exceptions in the region include small-scale production of high-value crops cocoa, cotton, groundnuts,

sugarcane, soybeans, and some export fruit crops. Estate farms growing high-value crops like cacao,

coffee, and sugar have incentives to produce clean produce for export. They have access to high levels of

resources, education, information and training, and they actively use preventive IPM tools and tactics to

the maximum in order to reduce costs and pesticide residues.

This PERSUAP provides the beginnings of Pest Management Plans (PMPs) in Annex 5. This annex

contains numerous non-chemical preventive measures and curative chemical pesticide choices for crop-pest pairs likely to be encountered in West Africa Feed the Future (FTF) programs/projects and on crops

supported by USAID. Training on these elements will help further socialize and raise awareness of the importance and benefits of using an IPM approach to agricultural production, including pesticide rotation.

Factor D (Pesticide Application & Safety Equipment):

Knapsack Sprayers Leak onto Users. Hand-pump backpack sprayers, used by small- and

medium-scale farmers, among others, can and do eventually develop leaks at every junction

where sprayer parts meet (filler cap, pump handle entry, exit hose attachment, lance attachment to

the hose and at the lance handle) and these leaks soak into exposed skin. Moreover, clothing serves as a wick that holds these pesticides in constant contact with the skin. Unless the clothes

are washed immediately after use, other family members may also come in contact with pesticide

residues.

USAID/WA IPs, where applicable, could promote the development and use of professional spraying

and record-keeping services. These can be designed to be accessible by farmers at congregation places (farms stores, cooperatives/associations, produce consolidation and processing sites). Such

services will be encouraged to properly maintain spray equipment and use recommended PPE. In the

absence of such spray services, promote and teach proper sprayer maintenance and repair, and post-spraying hygiene during training.

Farmers and some Fumigators do not use Personal Protection Equipment. Very few small-

scale producers have access to, or can afford Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) when

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applying pesticides. Larger-scale certified estate farms have, and make their farm laborers use,

PPE. Many small village and even some city agrodealers in West Africa do not stock sufficient or appropriate PPE.

Provision of PPE and repeated training on pesticide risks and the use of appropriate (for the pesticide)

PPE are recommended for reducing risks to users.

USAID/WA IPs are recommended to encourage farmers to purchase pesticides only from reliable

companies and in the original bottles with labels containing essential safety information.

Females, Immune Compromised Pesticide Applicators and Children. Although pesticide use

on food security crops in West Africa is relatively low, there are risks, especially in households

that are headed by women. Some female farmers and immune compromised individuals will use

pesticides on their crops. Pesticides add additional stresses to the health of individuals who are

pregnant, lactating or immune-compromised. Furthermore, farmers often store pesticides in the

home. This practice increases the risks that children will get access and accidentally ingest them.

USAID/WA IPs are recommended to discourage pregnant and lactating female farmers, as well as

immune compromised (HIV, TB, malaria, etc.) individuals, from using pesticides. All pesticide applicators, including women, need to use recommended PPE. Project staff should train farmers on

the risks to children, and the need to secure pesticides from them.

No Proper Disposal of Empty Pesticide Bottles. Empty pesticide bottles are thrown in the field,

burned, buried or reused. There is a system being developed internationally for collecting empty

bottles for rinsing, disposal or recycling. Ideally, empty bottles would be collected, cleaned properly by triple rinsing and recycled into plastic objects like fence posts. In the absence of such

a collection and recycling system, the next best approach is to wash, puncture and bury empty

bottles. Burning them creates toxic and carcinogenic fumes.

Factor E (Acute/Chronic Toxicological Hazards) All Pesticide AIs Present Risks &

Factor G (Target and Non-Target Hazards) Pesticides Kill More Than Target Pests

In addition to acute and chronic human health hazards and water pollution risks of the proposed chemicals, almost all pesticide AIs present some degree of additional chronic risks to people including

potential carcinogenic, endocrine, developmental and reproductive risks. And, almost all pesticide AIs

present risks to some other organisms, including fish, honeybees, birds, amphibians, earthworms,

mollusks, crustaceans, aquatic insects and plankton. Moreover, “natural, botanical or biological”

pesticide AIs extracted from plants and microbes carry these risks as well.

For pesticides that possess chronic health risks for humans, pesticide users need to be encouraged to use

appropriate PPE. For pesticides highly or very highly toxic to honeybees, all spraying should be done late

in the day when the winds have calmed and bees are at the hive. For pesticides highly or very highly toxic to aquatic organisms, application should not be done within 30 meters of open water.

Factor F (Pesticide Effectiveness): Variable Product Quality, Development of Pesticide Resistance

This PERSUAP does not, and cannot, make pesticide brand or content quality determinations or distinctions; the bodies that can and should do this are West Africa Ministries of Agriculture (MOA) and

Ministries of Environment (MOE), when they test, accept, register, sample and control pesticide products

entering West African countries. In general, multinational companies like Arysta, Bayer, BASF, Dow, DuPont, FMC, Monsanto and Syngenta, as well as other companies from developed market countries that

21

produce generics have reputations to protect. Thus their products are more likely to be of a consistently

high quality. This is often reflected in higher pricing, or value, as well. Some generic pesticides from companies in Asia may or may not be as reliable.

Pesticide resistance can become a problem when the same chemicals are used over and over to control a

particular pest. After a period of time, the pest may develop resistance to a chemical so that the chemical

no longer effectively controls the pest at the same rate. Higher and higher rates or dosages and more frequent applications become necessary until eventually the chemical ceases to provide adequate control.

Farmers who use cheap unreliable generic pesticides can exacerbate the development of resistance.

USAID/WA IPs can encourage beneficiaries to use reliable name brand products and rotate pesticides

from one class or type of chemical to another to reduce the development of pesticide resistance.

Factor H (Climate, Flora, Fauna, Geography, Hydrology, and Soils Pesticide Use Conditions): The

Lack of Use of GAPs Can Lead to Damage of Natural Resources

USAID Foreign Assistance Act (parts 118/119) emphasis and studies on the Conservation of Tropical

Forests and Biodiversity in West Africa provide ample information on the natural resources at risk from multiple threats. Principal among them is agriculture, and especially the use of inputs like synthetic

fertilizers and pesticides.

Deforestation, soil erosion and loss of soil fertility, as well as loss of biodiversity, is due to both small-

scale producers and large-scale plantations. The vast majority of pesticide pollution comes from large-

scale commercial and estate farms. Clearly, USAID-funded projects have a major challenge to promote Good Agriculture Practice (GAPs) and preventive IPM tactics and tools in order to improve agricultural

production among small to medium scale farmers, so that natural resources are less threatened.

Factor J (Host Country Pesticide Management Abilities): A Lack of Resources Can Lead to

Increased Risks

Most emerging market countries, West African countries included, do not have sufficient resources to do

all that is needed to better manage pesticides and use. As noted above, some very toxic and banned pesticides are still found in West Africa, and the extension service cannot reach most farmers. The lack

of resources leads to increased risks.

Fortunately, projects from or funded by developed market countries (like the USA) help fill this resource

gap, often serving as de facto extension services. What this means is that donor projects also have a

responsibility to know about, understand and promote the best practices, IPM and recommendations available. For USAID projects, this PERSUAP, and the information in it, is meant to assist with this

challenge.

Factor K (Training): Limited IPM and Pesticide Safety Training of Implementers and Beneficiaries

Most West Africa farmers have had limited national and donor assistance with farmer IPM and pesticide

safety training. As a follow-up to this PERSUAP, such training should be performed by USAID projects

for select leader beneficiaries on all projects doing agriculture value chain and food security projects. USAID/WA IPs is expected to use the GAP/IPM information in Annex 5 as well as hot-linked pesticide

safety websites referred to in this PERSUAP to train beneficiaries.

Factor L (Monitoring): Small Scale Farmers do not Monitor or Keep Farm Records

22

West Africa small-scale farmers do not keep records of information on crops grown, production, pest

attack, pesticides used, if the pesticides worked well or not, and respect post-harvest intervals to reduce pesticide residues. Certified large-scale commercial and estate farms, on the other hand, all keep detailed

records. As small and medium scale farmers move further toward producing certified (Organic,

FairTrade, GlobalGAP, British Retail Consortium—BRC) export crops, they will need to be taught how

to do proper record keeping. USAID projects like can teach this during training to begin to prepare

ambitious farmers looking to get ahead.

USAID projects will keep records of crops supported, primary production constraints, as well as IPM,

pesticides and PPE used on supported farms.

How to Use this PERSUAP Efficiently

The best way to use this document is to focus on the parts that apply to the crops produced, the pests of

each and the preventive and curative tools and tactics, including pesticides. To do this efficiently, search

this document for the crops or pests (common or scientific name) using the Word computer program’s “Find” feature, which allows one to enter the word or phrase desired, and then takes one to the exact parts

of the report where the word or phrase is used. Specific pesticide active ingredients in Annexes 5 and 7 can be found using the same method.

Update the Report Annually and Rewrite the Report in 5 Years

New pesticides and EPA registrations change weekly. In addition, new human health and environmental data is produced continuously. For these reasons and others, this PERSUAP should be updated, amended

and rewritten after a time in order to remain current and accurate.

23

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose, Scope & Orientation

Purpose

In compliance with USAID’s Pesticide Procedures (22 CFR 216.3(b)), this 2014 Programmatic PERSUAP (P-PERSUAP) for the current and near future (2014-2016) USAID/WA Feed The Future

(FTF) and other agriculture project portfolios:

Establishes the subset of pesticides (of those registered by the 9 West Africa target

countries) for which support is authorized on USAID/WA programs, projects and activities.

Establishes requirements attendant to support for these pesticides to assure that pesticide

use/support (1) embodies the principles of safer pesticide use and, (2) per USAID policy, is

within an IPM framework.

These requirements come into effect upon approval of this PERSUAP.

Scope

Specifically, in addition to near future (2015-2016) programs unknown at this point in time, the following 2013/2014 programs/projects/activities and IPs are covered by this P-PERSUAP:

FTF

ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States)

UEMOA (West African Economic and Monetary Union)

CORAF/WECARD (Conseil ouest et centre africain pour la recherche et le développement

agricoles/West and Central African Council For Agricultural Research and Development)

CILSS (Comité permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel)

IFDC (International Fertilizer Development Center) Fertilizers & Cotton

Helen Keller International

ARZIKI (Support the Niger Food Security Project)

CLUSA (Collaborative League of the USA)

REGIS-ER (Resilience and Economic Growth in the Sahel-Enhanced Resilience)

ACTEI (African Competitiveness and Trade Expansion Initiative)

Orientation

In 2013, USAID/WA made the decision to draft a P-PERSUAP to address their agriculture programs,

projects and activities overseen by them in nine West and Central African countries as determined by

regional strategies and program plans. Most IEEs that cover pesticides recommend a Negative

Determination (meaning that a full Environmental Assessment—EA has not been recommended to be

done) with Conditions for any pesticide use. In addition to USAID’s regulatory obligations, USAID West

Africa’s environmental regulations must be understood and adhered to by all USAID programs, projects and activities.

Pesticide definition by EPA

24

For the purposes of this PERSUAP, the word pesticide is used, following EPA’s guidelines6, for the

following: fumigants, insecticides, miticides/acaricides, nematicides, molluscicides, fungicides, antimicrobials, bactericides/biocides, microbicides/antibiotics, herbicides, rodenticides, avicides,

algicides, ovicides (kill eggs), disinfectants/sanitizers and anti-fouling agents (chemicals that repel or kill

things like barnacles that attach to boats). Even biological agents such as biopesticides, microbial

pesticides, attractants/pheromones, repellents, defoliants, dessicants and insect growth regulators are

included as pesticides.

Support for pesticide “use”

Pesticide “use” by any USAID Feed the Future project was defined and agreed upon at the outset of this

PERSUAP study as including:

Promotion during project training,

Use on project demonstration farms,

Procurement directly by project for beneficiaries or spray services, or

Subsidization or financing by the project through sub-grantees, partners or financing agreements.

Pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP analysis cannot be ‘used’ for any of the above project activities, unless an Environmental Assessment (EA) is performed. That said, USAID’s manageable interests

cannot include control of the procurement—by beneficiaries with their own resources—and use by

beneficiaries of pesticides on their own farms (unless they are project demonstration farms), although USAID projects can and should make recommendations for the purchase and use of safer alternatives.

Modern Agriculture, Quality Control Standards and Market Access

USAID projects that aim to help beneficiaries capture pieces of quality foreign markets by use of volunteer Standards and Certification (S&C) systems, like GlobalGAP, Organic, FairTrade, or Scientific

and Certification (S&C) systems that audit and certify export crops in West African countries could limit

the pesticides permitted on participant farms, in order to meet those standards as a group or cooperative. And, these S&C systems, primarily GlobalGAP, provide quality farm standards, or “Good Housekeeping

for the Farm”, that should be adopted by USAID projects without other S&C systems.

1.2 USAID Environmental Regulations Development

From 1974 to 1976, over 2,800 Pakistan malaria spray personnel were poisoned (5 to death) by

insecticide mishaps on a USAID/WHO anti-malaria program7. In response to this and other incidents

arising from USAID programs, a lawsuit was brought by a coalition of environmental groups for USAID’s lack of environmental procedures for overseas projects. USAID, in response to the lawsuit,

drafted 22 CFR 216 (Reg. 216). This regulation, which was updated in 1979 to include extraterritorial affairs in response to changes in the scope of the application of the National Environmental Policy Act

(NEPA), now guides most USAID activities that could have potentially negative environmental impacts.

1.3 Regulation 216

According to Regulation 216, all USAID activities are subject to analysis and evaluation via – at

minimum – an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE), and – at maximum – an Environmental

6http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/types.htm 7http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/74508

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/types.htm

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/74508

25

Assessment (EA). IEEs have been written to cover West Africa activities. These IEEs recommended that

a PERSUAP be produced to deal with reducing risks with use of pesticides on these projects. This 2014 P-PERSUAP responds to those IEE recommendations.

A large part of Regulation 216 – part 216.3 – is devoted to pesticide use and safety. Part 216.3 requires

that if USAID is to provide support for the use of pesticides in a project, 12 pesticide factors must be

analyzed and recommendations be written to mitigate risks to human health and environmental resources. This plan must be followed up with appropriate training, monitoring and reporting for continuous

improvement on risk reduction and adoption of international best practices for crop production, protection

and pesticide use safety is strongly encouraged.

1.4 The Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP)

In the USA, the EPA can rely on the following safety-enhancing factors and features, not present to the

same degree in most emerging market countries—including West Africa countries:

An educated literate population of farmers and farm laborers

Quality IPM information and Pest Management Plans (PMPs)

A well-functioning research and extension system to extend IPM information to farmers

Certification systems for farmer training on restricted and other pesticides

Quality affordable PPE to reduce pesticide exposure

Quality pesticide labels and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) to guide farmer safety

Accurate information and training on pesticide use, transport, storage and disposal

Because of the differences in infrastructure and resource availability, USAID and US regulations require

location-specific analysis of pesticide use in emerging market countries, and development of procedures to ensure safe use.

In the late 1990s, USAID’s Bureau for Africa staff developed the Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe

Use Action Plan (PERSUAP)—a tool to analyze the pesticide system or sector in any given country or

territory. The PERSUAP tool—which was not envisioned and is not contained per se in Regulation 216’s language—focuses on the particular circumstances, crops, pests and IPM/pesticide choices of a project or

program. This “systems approach” analyzes the pesticide sector or system from registration to import

through use to disposal, and develops a location-specific pesticide risk profile based on the analysis.

A PERSUAP is generally recommended by and submitted as an amendment to the project IEE or an EA

(although most PERSUAPs are very similar to an EA in terms of breadth and detail). Although not actually an explicit goal of the PERSUAP, the application of PERSUAP recommendations has additional

benefits. It helps to prepare project participants to be able to more rapidly adopt Best Management Practices (BMPs) and meet the needs of Standards and Certification (S&C) Systems like GlobalGAP,

Organic, Fair Trade, Rainforest Alliance, British Retail Consortium and other S&C systems, as desired,

for future market access.

1.5 Integrated Pest Management—USAID Policy

In the early 1990s, USAID adopted the philosophy and practice of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as

official policy. IPM is also strongly promoted and required as part of Regulation 216.3. Since the early 2000s, IPM—which includes judicious use of ‘safer’ pesticides—has been an integral part of GAPs and is

26

increasingly considered to constitute best management practices in agriculture.

A good definition of IPM from OECD8 follows:

“Integrated pest management (IPM) is an approach to the management and control of agricultural

pests which relies on site- and condition-specific information to manage pest populations below a

level that causes economic injury and that minimizes risks to humans and the natural

environment. Although any among a wide range of pest control agents may be used (including chemical sprays), IPM generally stresses the use of alternatives, such as crop rotations,

mechanical cultivation, and biological agents, where such methods are deemed to be effective.”

Good soil characteristics are essential to plant health. For most crops, soils need to provide adequate

nutrients and moisture and be well drained. A healthy soil will have a greater capacity to moderate the

uptake of fertilizers and will allow a more balanced uptake of nutrients, creating a healthy plant that is

less attractive to some pests and more resistant to pest damage.

1.6 West Africa P-PERSUAP Methodology

The USAID West Africa Regional Mission requested that this 2014 PERSUAP be produced to respond to needs found in recent West Africa IEEs covering agriculture for nine focus countries as determined by

regional strategies and program plans. USAID/WA financed and implemented this work, and the mission

supported the study with IEEs, information and good advice.

West Africa IEEs and Environmental Threats and Opportunities Analyses (ETOAs) were analyzed while participating IP staff undertook data collection and provision of national registered pesticide lists. The

consultant used questionnaires for each country to collect needed information from projects staff and field

sites, as well as beneficiary farmers coordinated by select FTF projects.

The complexity of the tasks needed for this study required that the consultants provide wide-ranging and

cutting-edge IPM, agronomic, business, entomological, phytopathological, rodentological, weed and chemical advice, in addition to environmental compliance interpretation. This PERSUAP study uses

pesticide Active Ingredients (AIs) as the common denominator for analysis, and product brand names were avoided.

The strategy used for writing this PERSUAP is for it to contain as many links to websites with best practices as possible, both to make it easier to use (reduce the report’s length and thickness) and more up-

to-date or accurate (as websites are updated, but static information is not). So, instead of having

numerous Annexes containing pesticide safety equipment recommendations or safe pesticide use practices, hot-linked websites now take their place. However, if project participants do not have access to

the Internet, IPs should reproduce and distribute key information.

8http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1379

http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1379

27

SECTION 2: BACKGROUND

The area of responsibility for the USAID/West Africa Mission is made up of 21 countries— Benin,

Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia,

Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Sao Tome & Principe, Senegal,

Sierra Leone, and Togo. Its land area is about 5 million km2, and its population in 2010 was about 290

million. With the exception of Mauritania, these countries are members of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The bulk of the countries (16) are on the Atlantic Coast (Cape Verde,

Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana,

Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, and Sao Tome & Principe) while Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger and Chad are land locked (Fig.1). As noted above and in the Scope of Work for this study, this PERSUAP

covers nine focus countries for which IEEs have been written to cover agriculture projects and activities

as determined by regional strategies and program plans.

Figure 1: West Africa Map

The West Africa region has both wet and dry seasons resulting from the interaction of two migrating air masses. The first is the hot, dry tropical continental air mass of the northern high-pressure system, which

gives rise to the dry, dusty, Harmattan winds that blow from the Sahara over most of West Africa from

November to March. The second is the monsoon tropical maritime, which produces southwest winds. The maximum northern penetration of this wet air mass is in July between latitudes 18° and 21° N. Where

these two air masses meet is a belt of variable width and stability called the Inter-Tropical Convergence

28

Zone (ITCZ). The north and south migration of this ITCZ, controls the climate of the region. In the semi-

arid and sub-humid zones, the wet season generally begins in April with the gradual development of southwesterly winds associated with moisture coming in from the Atlantic.

The lowland climates of West and Central Africa (WCA) are characterized by uniformly high sunshine,

particularly the semi-arid and arid zone (2500 - 3000 hours of total annual sunshine duration) and high

temperatures throughout the year; mean annual temperatures are usually above 18 °C. Areas within 10° N and S of the equator have a mean annual temperature of about 26 °C with a range of 1.7 – 2.8 °C; the

diurnal range is 5.5 – 8.5 °C. Between latitudes 10°N and the southern part of the Sahara mean monthly

temperatures can rise up to 30 °C, but the annual range is 9 °C and diurnal range 14° to 17 °C.

In the semi arid zone, Lixisols and Arenosols are dominant followed by Vertisols. Lixisols form a belt in

West Africa between the Arenosols and Acrisols. Arenosols extend from northern Senegal, through

Mauritania, central Mali, and southern Niger to Chad. Niger and Chad have large areas of arid tropical

Vertisols, but Vertisols occur in several countries in the CORAF/WECARD Sahelian, West African

Coastal and Central African countries. Solonchaks and Solonetzs occur in patches in this zone especially in connection with poorly managed irrigation projects.

The most common soils in the subhumid zone are Ferralsols and Lixisols but Acrisols, Arenosols and

Nitosols also occur. Acrisols are found in southern Guinea, most of Cote d’Ivoire, southern Ghana, Togo,

Benin, and Nigeria. In the humid zone, Ferralsols and Acrisols are the most frequent while Arenosols,

Nitosols and Lixisols are less so. Ferralsols occur widely in Sierra Leone and Liberia in West Africa.

2.1 Countries Background

Benin9

Benin is situated between Togo on the west, Nigeria on the east, Burkina-Faso and Niger to the north, and

the Atlantic Ocean to the south. Benin’s boundary with Niger is defined by the Niger River, the most

important waterway in the region. Benin covers a land area of about 112,622 km2.

With the exception of a few isolated peaks, Benin is flat and lies below 600 meters. Its most prominent topographic feature, and origin of the Pendjari River, is the Atacora Highlands, which traverse the

northwestern portion of the country on a northeasterly direction. The highest peaks are also found in the

northwestern region near the border with Togo, the highest being Mount Sagabarao at 658 meters above sea level (MASL).

Benin has two rainy and two dry seasons per year. Average annual precipitation ranges from 1,300 mm in the extreme southeast and the relatively elevated areas between the 10° and 11° north parallels, to 900

mm in the extreme north of the country (Exhibit 1). Rainfall distribution, perhaps as important average

precipitation as a determinant of agricultural potential, changes as one moves north from the coast.

In the southern sixth of the country, precipitation is concentrated in two wet seasons: along one from March through July and a shorter one from September through November. These are separated by a short

(August) and long (December through March) dry season. Precipitation assumes a uni-modal distribution

pattern as one moves inland, becoming most evenly distributed throughout the year at about 8° latitude. North of this line, the wet season tends to get progressively concentrated between the months of May and

October, to the point where, in the northern third of the country, a protracted November to May dry

season limits crop production to those that have irrigation water.

9http://www.encapafrica.org/documents/biofor/Benin%20118%20119%20FINAL%20October%202007.pdf

29

The economy of Benin is dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Agriculture employs 75% of the population. Cotton accounts for 40 % of GDP. In addition to cotton,

agricultural crops and products include maize, cassava, yams, beans, palm oil, peanuts, cashews and

livestock.

Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso is a landlocked West African country, bordered by Mali in the north and west, Niger in the

East, and Benin, Togo, Ghana, and Côte d’Ivoire in the south. Burkina Faso covers a land area of

274,200 km2.

The majority of Burkina lies on a savanna plateau, 200-300 MASL, and is generally characterized by a

tropical climate of the Sudanese and Sahelian categories, with a long dry season from October to April,

and a short rainy season from May to September. The arid Sahelian zone covers the northern part of the

country, and has an annual rainfall that does not exceed 350-500 mm in most areas. The Sudanese zone is

less arid and covers the southern part of the country, receiving annual rainfall that varies from 700 mm to 1200 mm.

The majority of Burkinabè streams are seasonal, with only the Mouhoun, the Comoé, and the Pendjari

having perennial flows. Major seasonal streams include the Nazinon, the Nakambé, and the Sirba. Other

perennial bodies of water include Bam and Dem lakes, Mare aux Hippopotames, the Oursi Pond, and the

artificial lakes of Kompienga, Bagré, and Ziga. Since 2006, the latter has particularly been serving as a

major supplementary source of drinking water for Ouagadougou and its surrounding localities.

Burkina Faso’s economy is dominated by subsistence agriculture in which 90 % of the population

engages (accounting for 37 % of GDP). Principle crops include sorghum, millet, maize, rice, cowpea,

groundnuts, sesame, cassava, Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes. Cash crops include cotton, tobacco and sugarcane.

Chad10

Chad is not traditionally considered part of West Africa, however USAID/WA includes it in this study,

nonetheless. Chad's highest peak is the Emi Koussi in the Sahara, and N’Djamena, the capital, is the largest city. It is bordered on the north by Libya, east by Sudan, south by Central African Republic and

Cameroon, and on the west by Niger and a small piece of Nigeria, and it comprises 1,284,00 km2, with

24,800 km2 of that are comprised of water.

Each year the ITCZ crosses Chad from south to north, bringing a wet season that lasts from May to

October in the south, and from June to September in the Sahel. Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones. Chad is divided into multiple regions: The Sahara desert zone in the north, an

arid Sahelian belt in the center, and a more fertile Sudanese Savanna zone in the south. Precipitation in the Sahara rarely exceeds 50 mm per year, and the Sahelian zone varies from 300 to 600 mm per year. In

the Sahel, a steppe of thorny bushes (mostly acacias) gradually gives way to the south to Savanna zone,

where annual rainfall is over 900 mm.

Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the largest wetland in Chad and the second largest in

Africa. Several rivers flow from Central African and Cameroonian highlands into Lake Chad; these include the Chari on the border with Cameroon, and the Logone. Permanent streams do not exist in

northern or central Chad.

10 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad;

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad

30

Apart from oil, Chad’s economy is primarily agricultural, with a cotton cash crop as a major foreign

exchange earner. Eighty % of Chad’s workforce is involved in the agriculture sector. With only about 4% of its land arable, sorghum, millet, peanuts, rice, potatoes, cassava, cattle, sheep, goats, and camels are

important food security crops.

Cote d’Ivoire11

Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) is a sub-Saharan nation in southern West Africa and is shaped like a square. It is surrounded on the southern border by coastline on the Gulf of Guinea on the North Atlantic Ocean. On

the other three sides it borders five other African nations as follows: Liberia to the southwest, Guinea to

the northwest, Mali to the north-northwest, Burkina Faso to the north-northeast, and Ghana to the east. Ivory Coast comprises 322,460 km2.

The climate of Ivory Coast is generally warm and humid, ranging from equatorial in the southern coasts

to tropical in the middle and semiarid in the far north. There are three seasons: warm and dry (November

to March), hot and dry (March to May), and hot and wet (June to October). Temperatures average

between 25 and 32 °C and range from 10 to 40 °C.

Eight % of the country is arable land. Agriculture contributes 28% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and employs over 50% of the labor force. Ivory Coast is the world's largest producer of cocoa, a major

national cash crop. Other chief crops include coffee, cashews, bananas, and oil palm trees, which produce

palm oil and palm kernels.

Ghana Including inland water bodies, like the very large Volta Lake, Ghana covers 238,539 km2 and is located on the south central coast of West Africa. The country shares borders in the east with Togo; in the north

with Burkina Faso; and in the west with Cote d’Ivoire. Most of Ghana lies below 600 m; less than 10%

of the land is above 300 m, few places have elevations above 1000 m (http://www.fao.org/ag/agL/swlwpnr/reports/rc_codes.htm). The lowest areas are the middle Volta Basin

and along the coast.

Generally, rainfall decreases and temperature increases from the rain forest zone in the south to the

savanna zone in the north. By far the most important climatic factor influencing vegetation in Ghana is rainfall. The wet evergreen forest lies within the wettest part of the country and receives a mean annual

rainfall over 2,000 mm. The drier forest areas receive between 1,000 and 1,500 mm, whereas in the

northern savanna annual rainfall ranges between 800 and 1,000 mm. The amount of rainfall however, varies within the vegetation zones owing to the local effect of relief. The driest area of the country is the

coastal savanna, where the total annual rainfall ranges between 600 and 800 mm.

Over the whole country the mean monthly temperature is about 25oC. Although temperatures are

uniformly moderate, there are important variations over different parts of the country as a result of altitudinal variations in the landscape and distance from the sea. In the coastal areas, due to the

modifying influence of the sea, the annual difference between the maximum and the minimum monthly

temperature is about 5o-6oC. On the other hand, much farther inland, the difference is between 7o-9oC. Diurnal temperature ranges are more significant than the monthly ranges. In the forested zones of the

south the mean diurnal range is still moderate, but in the northern savannas the difference may be as much

as 14o-20oC, especially during the Harmattan season.

There are six broad physiographic regions: the coastal plains, the Buem-Togo ranges, the forest dissected

plateau, the southern Voltaian plateau, the savanna high plains, and the Gambaga escarpment.

11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Ivory_Coast

http://www.fao.org/ag/agL/swlwpnr/reports/rc_codes.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Ivory_Coast

31

Agriculture in Ghana accounts for about 25% of GDP and employs over 60% of the workforce. Primary crops include cocoa, rice, maize, cassava, peanuts, shea nuts, bananas and timber.

Liberia12

Liberia is situated between Sierra Leone and Guinea on the north and Ivory Coast on the east and south,

and contains a fragmented band of forest known as the “Upper Guinean Forest”. The climax vegetation over most of Liberia is forest, and forests cover about 45% (4.39M ha) of Liberia‘s total land area of

111,370 km2.

Rainfall in Liberia is among the highest in the world, at over 4,600mm.

The highest hills in Liberia support submontane (or montane) forest above about 800-1000m, though this

zone is of limited extent and poorly-differentiated from the contiguous lowland forests. An extensive zone

of degraded forest occurs near the coast and extends inland in central Liberia, separating the moist and

wet forest blocks. The degraded forest is mostly managed for shifting cultivation, and typically shows a mosaic of fields with scrubby and forested fallows.

More intensively farmed areas in this zone have plantations with little natural vegetation at all. Finally,

there is a coastal zone, often heavily impacted by settlements and agriculture, with a mosaic of sandy and

rocky shores, mangroves and fresh-water swamps, grass/shrub savannas on sand, and coastal forests.

Agriculture in Liberia accounts for 70% of GDP and employs over 85% of the workforce. Primary crops

and livestock include rubber, coffee, cocoa, rice, cassava, palm oil, sugarcane, bananas; sheep, goats, and timber.

Mali

Mali is a vast land-locked country with a land area of 1,241,000 km2. It is bordered by Burkina Faso and

Ghana to the south, Niger to the east, Senegal and Guinea to the west, and Mauritania and Algeria to the north. It is subdivided into four main bioclimatic zones presenting a wide range of agro-ecological

environments going from the Saharan arid climate in the North to the humid climate in the South. The

country is largely dependent on climatic conditions and more particularly the rainfall. The rainfall is irregular in space and time and varies from less than 100 mm in the North to more than 1,200 mm in the

South. The country is endowed with considerable natural resources. Two rivers cross it, the River Senegal

in the west, with a national basin of 155,000 km2 and the River Niger with a national basin of 300,000 km2.

Mali has 30 M Ha of arable lands and a potential of 185,000 irrigable ha; soils with a low level of average fertility with deficiency in phosphorus, potassium and sulfur, and a high sensitivity to wind and/or water

erosion which is more pronounced in the North.

The economy rests essentially on the agro-sylvo-pastoral sector that employs nearly 80% of the

population and accounts for more than 40% of GDP, and accounts for three fourths of exports. This natural resource-based sector will continue to play a role of driving force in the economic development of

the country and despite the low agricultural and animal productivities. Primary crops and livestock

include cotton, millet, rice, corn, vegetables, peanuts; camel, cattle, sheep, and goats.

Niger

12 2008 Liberia USAID ETOA Report

32

Niger is a land-locked country with a land area of 1,267,000 km2. Seven other countries surround it, with

Nigeria to the south, Chad to the east, Algeria to the north-northwest, and Mali to the west. Niger also has short borders in its far southwest frontier with Burkina Faso and Benin, and to the north-northeast Libya.

Niger's climate is largely hot and dry, with much desert area in the north. Niger receives most of its rain

between June and September, and rainfall totals of more than 500 mm during this season typically

provide enough water for crops and livestock. Only 15% of Niger’s land is arable, and that is mostly located along the southern border with Nigeria. In this extreme south, there is a sub-tropical climate

along the edges of the Niger River Basin. The terrain further north is predominantly desert plains and

sand dunes, with flat to rolling plains to the south and hills in the north.

Agricultural land in Niger is used as arable, especially near water sources, and as pasture. There are some

forests and woodland in the south and around desert wadis (oases). Recurring droughts are a challenge in

Niger. The 2012 Sahel drought, which led to failed crops, increases in insect plagues, high food prices

and conflicts still affects Niger, and has led to an acute food shortage.

Agriculture in Niger accounts for 40% of GDP and employs over 90% of the workforce. Primary crops

and livestock include cowpeas, cotton, peanuts, millet, sorghum, cassava, rice; cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys, horses, poultry.

Senegal13

Senegal is a coastal nation located 14 degrees north of the Equator and 14 ° west of the Prime Meridian.

The country's total area is 196,190 km² of which 192,000 km² is land and 4,190 km² is water. Senegal is

on the North Atlantic Ocean. The nation's longest border is with Mauritania to the north, along the Senegal River. To the east is Mali. To the south are Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, both borders running

along the Casamance River. Senegal has a near-enclave within its borders—the small nation of The

Gambia in the interior.

Most of Senegal lies within the drought-prone Sahel region, with irregular rainfall and generally poor soils. With only about 5 % of the land irrigated, Senegal continues to rely on rain-fed agriculture, which

occupies about 75 % of the workforce. Despite a relatively wide variety of agricultural production, the

majority of farmers produce for subsistence needs. Dakar's annual rainfall of about 600 mm occurs between June and October. Rainfall decreases to the north and increases substantially farther south,

exceeding 1,500 mm annually in some areas.

Production is subject to drought and threats of pests such as locusts, quelea birds, fruit flies and white

flies. Millet, rice, maize and sorghum are the primary food crops grown in Senegal. Senegal is a net food

importer, particularly for rice, which represents almost 75 % of cereal imports.

Peanuts, sugarcane and cotton are important cash crops, and a wide variety of fruits and vegetables are grown for local and export markets. In 2006 gum Arabic became the leading agricultural export. Green

beans, industrial tomato, cherry tomato, melons and mangos are Senegal's main vegetable cash crops. The

Casamance region, isolated from the rest of Senegal by Gambia, is an important agriculture producing area, but without the infrastructure or transportation links to improve its capacity.

13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Senegal; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Senegal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Senegal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Senegal

33

2.2 USAID West Africa Projects Backgrounds

The following is a list of current 2014 active USAID-supported initiatives with short descriptions of what

they do.

FTF: Support efforts in West Africa to refine and implement an African-led comprehensive food security

strategy to reduce hunger and increase economic growth through market-led agricultural development. These strategies will increase food security, improve nutrition and promote broad based economic growth

through agricultural development and are part of USAID/West Africa’s FTF program average annual

budget of U.S. $20 million.

ECOWAS and UEMOA strengthened to address regional challenges in food security, environment, and

trade and to engage national governments to harmonize related policies. Policy harmonization will

increase the ease of doing business across the region. In particular, U.S. foreign assistance to ECOWAS

and UEMOA through regional agriculture and trade program activities will support data collection,

monitoring, analysis, and evidence-based policy making, which will improve the efficiency of the transportation sector and reduce policy-related trade barriers. This will build on FY 2012 results, which

included significant increases in inter-regional trade for maize (95%), millet/sorghum (154%), and livestock (22%). (These are increases over the baseline.)

CORAF/WECARD implements FTF activities in: Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia,

Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sénégal, Sierra Leone and Togo and CORAF/WECARD-Implemented West Africa

Seed Project (WASP) activities in: Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal.

CILSS: Strengthen regional systems to promote resilience and food security by increasing the capacity of

CILSS.

IFDC: Increase the availability of high-quality agricultural inputs, particularly fertilizer (IFDC), in the

region through agricultural research, increased private sector production, improved access to finance, updated recommendations for fertilizer use, harmonized national regulations, and improved cross-border

trade.

IFDC: Support the cotton sectors in West Africa, particularly in Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad and Mali,

through improved agricultural practices and yields of smallholder cotton farmers, the efficiency of cotton

ginning, and the profitability of textile artisans.

Helen Keller International: Support the national harmonization of regional standards for essential

vitamin and mineral fortification of cooking oil and wheat flour. This effort includes providing technical assistance to industries for assuring quality control of food fortification and facilitating public awareness

and advocacy for fortified foods.

ARZIKI and CLUSA: to improve the lives of Nigerien farmers in targeted communities through the use

of climate smart agriculture, and influence the Government of Niger’s design of the 3N “Nigeriens feed Nigeriens” Initiative for Food Security and Sustainable Development. The project is due to be a model for

resiliency programming in the region.

REGIS-ER is a project to increase the resilience of chronically vulnerable people, households,

communities, and systems in targeted agricultural areas in Niger and Burkina Faso. Resilience will be

achieved through 1) increased and sustainable well-being, 2) strengthened institutions and governance, and 3) improved health and nutrition.

34

ACTEI: Increase both inter-regional trade in staple food commodities, such as cereals and livestock, and

trade in export products targeted under the which include cashew, shea, specialty foods, apparel, home décor and fashion accessories.

In addition to set projects, USAID/WA is also involved in supporting the following initiatives:

Improve the productivity, quality and competitiveness of West African products, facilitate market

linkages, expand access to financial services and market information, and promote improvements to trade policies. This will build on results from FY 2012, when $285 million dollars of exports

and $87 million dollars of investment were facilitated through U.S. foreign assistance in West

Africa.

Increase transparency and streamline the requirements at borders and ports, as well as reduce the

tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade, such as customs regulations and administrative

inefficiencies.

Strengthen producer and industry associations, such as the Africa Cashew Alliance, the

Borderless Alliance, the Global Shea Alliance, the West African Grains Network, and regional

livestock associations.

Increase sustainable agricultural productivity and improve food security through activities in

nutrition, farming, and natural resource management, focusing on ultra-poor populations and

women. Selected programs will engage with the Peace Corps to leverage results.

2.3 West Africa member countries pesticide sector, risks and areas for improvement

West Africa member countries international obligations

Pesticides

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutant (POPs) (most countries signatory since

2001, ratified by 2009);

Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous

Chemicals and Pesticides (most countries signatory by 1998, a few ratified by 2012);

Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their

Disposal (most countries accession by 1993); and

Montreal Protocol on Substances Depleting Ozone Layer (most countries ratified by1992).

Stockholm

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are chemicals that are toxic, persistent in the environment, and liable

to bioaccumulate. These chemicals are among the most dangerous and highly toxic pollutants released into the environment every year by human activity. Their effects on humans can include cancer, allergies

and hypersensitivity, damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, reproductive disorders, and

disruption of the immune system. Some POPs are also considered to be endocrine disrupters, which, by

altering the hormonal system, can damage the reproductive and immune systems of exposed individuals

as well as their offspring; they can also have developmental and carcinogenic effects.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was established to eliminate or restrict the

production and use of POPs. Through the World Bank’s Global Environment Fund (GEF), countries are creating sustainable capacity and ownership so as to meet their obligations under the Stockholm

Convention including preparation of POPs National Implementation Plans. A National Implementation

35

Plan describes how each country will meet its obligations under the Convention to phase-out POPs

sources and remediate POPs contaminated sites.

Rotterdam

The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals

and Pesticides in International Trade, more commonly known simply as the Rotterdam Convention, is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals.

The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to

use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the

treaty, and exporting countries are obliged make sure that producers within their jurisdiction comply.

Basel

The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, usually known as the Basel Convention, is an international treaty that was designed to reduce

the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries. It does not, however, address the movement of

radioactive waste. The Convention is also intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes

generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of

generation, and to assist Least Developed Coutries (LDC) in environmentally sound management of the

hazardous and other wastes they generate.

Montreal

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by

phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989,

followed by a first meeting in Helsinki in May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions. It is

believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to recover by 2050. Methyl bromide used for agricultural fumigation is one of the protocol chemicals being phased out

worldwide.

West Africa member countries Pesticide Sector

According to FAO, for most emerging market countries in West Africa, pesticides have been used for

more than four decades. Pesticides application has become one of the most important means in dealing with pest and disease control of either crops or any other fields such as household, quarantine, fishery,

wood preservative, pre-shipment, stored products and so on. Most row crop pesticide use in West Africa

is for cotton, which is heavily subsidized and pesticides are paid on credit.

When the use of pesticides was introduced for the first time, they were mostly intended to control pest on

important crops like cacao, coffee, sugarcane, and export mangoes. Unfortunately, little attention was given to how pesticide use would induce negative impacts to the environment as their use grew

substantially. In addition, most farmers have not been well trained yet to handle pesticides properly, and

consequently occupational death, environmental damage and severe injuries were imminent.

36

No sufficient regulation existed as the use of pesticides began in the early sixties and there were no

technical instruments as well as technical adviser available. Farmers learned how to use these products from their neighborhood and to some extent they asked field worker to make sure of the choice. As most

pesticides in West Africa were applied for agricultural practices, the governments of West Africa

assigned their Ministers of Agriculture to manage pesticides through Government regulations in the

1970s.

Across West Africa, only two countries—Liberia and Sierra Leone—are without lists of registered

pesticides, due to recent conflicts; however both countries have established Environmental Protection

Agencies that are putting in place frameworks for human and environmental protection. In the meantime there are pesticides being imported from surrounding countries and available in farm input stores in the

capital cities of these countries. Each of the remaining countries has environmental regulations, pesticide

registration laws and lists of currently registered pesticides that may be imported and used. Further, all

CILSS-INSAH countries have homologized pesticide registrations.

Pesticides application in USAID/WA member countries in West Africa

From the perspective of crop management, the use of pesticides will be only the last alternative as the concept of IPM has been socialized as well as implemented to most West African farmers, including

those working on estate crops. Backpack sprayers are used to apply most pesticides.

Table 3: Pesticide System Risks for West Africa Member Countries

The following Table 3 consolidates and prioritizes pesticide system risk in West Africa countries

Problems, constraints or risks in the West Africa country pesticide cycle of use

Recommendations for government MOAs, MOEs and donors

Priority

Banned POPs and PIC chemicals still

enter West Africa countries via informal

channels

Sensitize government officials about the

threats to West Africa countries’ trade

potential, and do training

High

Large quantities of obsolete pesticides, including POPs and PIC chemicals,

remain

Combine resources from private sector input supply groups and several donors

to implement disposal programs

Med

Lower quality, illegal & pirated Chinese AIs and pesticides present

Do repeated training on pesticide quality choices

Med

Funds for analyzing and monitoring

pesticides and residues is insufficient

Donors and produce exporters and

authorities combine resources

Med

Limited resources for pesticide

regulations enforcement

Taxes need to be levied from agriculture

sector

Low

Limited resources for extension Do demonstration farms and field days High

Lack of pesticide toxicity awareness by farmers

Do repeated training on pesticide choice and risks

Med

Limited farmer knowledge of pest

Identification (ID) & IPM tools

Increase knowledge, do repeated

training on IPM

High

Over- and under-applications of

pesticides

Do repeated training on calibration &

application

Med

Illiterate farmers cannot read pesticide labels

Do repeated training on pesticide cautions

High

Wrong pesticide applied for pest Do repeated training on pesticide choice High

37

Problems, constraints or risks in the West

Africa country pesticide cycle of use

Recommendations for government

MOAs, MOEs and donors

Priority

Proximity to major cotton, tobacco and

rice production & chemicals

Diversify production, knowledge &

input demand

High

Pesticide shops with limited safety

equipment (PPE) on hand

Train shop-keepers and farmers on

proper pesticide safety

Med

Pesticides subdivided into un-labeled containers, like empty water bottles, and

sold

Train shop-keepers and farmers on proper pesticide safety

Med

Pesticides stored in the home, often in un-labeled containers

Do repeated training on proper pesticide storage

High

Pesticide mixing with bare hands and

little use of PPE by pesticide appliers

Do training on proper mixing and PPE

to use; provide PPE

High

Pesticides applied at wrong time of day

and with winds too high, and rain

Do repeated training on application

times risks

Med

Back-pack sprayers leak onto spray

personnel

Do repeated training on sprayer

maintenance

High

Endosulfan available in bazaars and

stores, and used

Do repeated training on pesticide choice

& quality

High

Toxic aluminum phosphide present in

input stores

Do repeated training on pesticide choice

& quality

High

Proper unused pesticides & empty container disposal lacking

Do repeated training on proper disposal High

Target countries Pesticides Profile: Factors that reduce risks from pesticides

Reduced risk inherent in the cropping and input systems in West Africa

Many less toxic products are being registered and used by farmers in West Africa countries, than

compared with just 8 years ago when some highly toxic chemicals were still being registered and

promoted.

Many farm stores in developing countries are beginning to stock ever-increasing quantities of

green-label biological pesticides (like neem oil, BT, oils with copper and sulfur, and extracts of

garlic and chili pepper) made in India or West Africa for both organic and conventional markets.

Lower costs for biologically derived, highly effective and approved for Organic insecticide

products like spinosad, an extract from a soil bacterium are now a reality. Many newer nicotinoid

insecticides are also now available, as long as they are not used when crops are in flower.

The fact that West Africa will, in many cases, have to follow European standards systems in order

to reach European markets. Many farms oriented for export will be ever more organized

following S&C systems like GlobalGAP, Organic, Fair Trade and others, which inevitably

contain recommended IPM measures that work and reduced-risk pesticide products.

The increasing world-wide availability and use of small, single-use sachets and smaller bottles of

pesticides (as opposed to one and five liter bottles) with labels containing important and

potentially life-saving information (in local languages) that are marketed by the formal pesticide importer/distributor sector. These small quantities and labels help resolve on-farm pesticide

quantity storage, illegal subdividing and use issues.

38

The likely small scale of most USAID-supported beneficiary farms, combined with lack of

financial resources, will limit the quantities of synthetic pesticides used, and will promote the use of other cultural techniques to solve pest issues.

Conclusion: There still remain some issues with pesticides that can increase the risk for errors to occur,

and thus the risks that farmers, laborers, farm family members, and even international consumers may be

acutely or slowly poisoned and/or their environment may become polluted and damaged. Thus the

pesticide risk profile for West Africa countries is higher than might be encountered in some more developed as well as other developing countries, though it is rapidly changing for the better as S&C-GAP

systems are being implemented and EU rules for import tolerances are adopted. Extra care will be needed

with emphasizing and implementing mitigation measures that work.

39

SECTION 3: PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT

This part of the PERSUAP, the PER (Pesticide Evaluation Report), addresses pesticide choices based

upon environmental and human health issues, uses, alternate options, IPM, biodiversity, conservation,

training, PPE options, monitoring and mitigation recommendations according to the twelve Regulation

216.3(b)(1) Pesticide Procedures Factors, outlined and analyzed below.

Reg. 216.3(b)(1)(i) stipulates: “When a project includes assistance for procurement or use, or both, of

pesticides registered for the same or similar uses by USEPA without restriction, the Initial Environmental

Examination for the project shall include a separate section evaluating the economic, social and environmental risks and benefits of the

planned pesticide use to determine

whether the use may result in significant

environmental impact. Factors to be

considered in such an evaluation shall

include, but not be limited to the following:” (see Box 1, right)

The PERSUAP can recommend or

propose specific pesticides to replace

those highly used or desired pesticides

that are rejected, but the job of

recommending pesticides for specific

uses against specific pests is usually the mainstay of a ministry of agriculture’s

extension service, if they have such a

capability. In Annex 5, this PERSUAP proposes IPM choices available,

including proposed possible pesticides used for the same pests in the USA and

other developed countries that might be

used after all other options are exhausted. Usually, a PERSUAP should

not replace an extension service and the

expert advice that they can provide.

It would be ideal to find pesticides for

every need that are Class IV acute toxicity, have no chronic human health

issues, no water pollution issues and no aquatic ecotoxicity issues. Such

pesticides do not exist. Most pesticides,

including “natural” pesticides, have toxicity to at least one aquatic organism,

or bees, or birds.

3.1 Factor A: USEPA Registration Status of the Proposed Pesticide

USAID/WA project activities are effectively limited to promoting during training, recommending,

buying, subsidizing, financing or permitting on demonstration farms, pesticides containing active

Box 1: The 12 Pesticide FACTORS Factor A. USEPA Registration Status of the Proposed

Pesticides

Factor B. Basis for Selection of Pesticides

Factor C. Extent to which the proposed pesticide use is,

or could be, part of an IPM program

Factor D. Proposed method or methods of application, including the availability of application and safety

equipment

Factor E. Any acute and long-term toxicological hazards, either human or environmental, associated with the

proposed use, and measures available to minimize such

hazards

Factor F. Effectiveness of the requested pesticide for the

proposed use

Factor G. Compatibility of the proposed pesticide use with target and non-target ecosystems

Factor H. Conditions under which the pesticide is to be

used, including climate, geography, hydrology, and soils

Factor I. Availability of other pesticides or non-chemical control methods

Factor J. Host country’s ability to regulate or control the

distribution, storage, use, and disposal of the requested pesticide

Factor K. Provision for training of users and applicators.

Factor L. Provision made for monitoring the use and effectiveness of each pesticide

40

ingredients (AIs) in products registered in West Africa country MOAs or MOEs and in the US by the

EPA for the same or similar uses, without restriction. Emphasis is placed on “similar use” because often the crops and their pest species found overseas are not present in the US, and therefore pesticides may not

be registered for the exact same use, but often are registered for similar crops, pests, methods of

application, and pest situations.

The USEPA classifies pesticides according to actual toxicity of the formulated products, taking formulation types and concentrations into account, thus generally making the formulated product less

toxic than the active ingredients alone would be. This method of classifying acute toxicity is accurate and

representative of actual risks encountered in the field. By contrast, the WHO acute toxicity classification system is based on the active ingredient only. For a comparison of USEPA and WHO acute toxicity

classification systems, see Annex 6.

In the USA, only, some specific commercial pesticide products are labeled as Restricted Use Pesticides (RUPs) due to inordinate risks, usually under specific circumstances of use, such as formulation or crop.

However, for each AI, which may be present in a number of RUP products, there are generally additional

or other products, formulations and uses—with the exact same AI—that do not possess the same risks and are thus labeled or determined to be General Use Pesticides—that is—not RUP. Ergo, for each AI, there

may be RUP and non-RUP products depending upon risks they do or do not pose.

Analysis: Annex 7 provides EPA registration status analysis for each AI found in selected pesticides

currently registered (and proposed for imminent registration) for import, imported and used in the West

Africa. Annex 7, column number three, labeled “EPA Registered” has a “yes” if the AI is registered by

EPA in pesticides for same or similar uses. If column three has a “no” it is not registered by EPA and is thus one reason for shading the AI line with red—signifying that it is not approved by the PERSUAP

Annex 7 analysis. Pesticide AIs that pass this registration factor, and all following pertinent factor

analyses, are shaded with green.

Issue: Pesticide products analyzed and found containing active ingredients not EPA-registered or in

same or similar RUP pesticide products

The following is the result of the Factor A analysis, showing pesticide AIs in West African MOA-

registered products, imported and used by farmers, that are NOT in EPA registered products or are in

RUP products.

Table 4: 2014 WA P-PERSUAP rejected pesticides

Fumigant AI in products sometimes still found in WA countries, and recommended by this

PERSUAP for BEO rejection for use in USAID projects (with reason for rejection)

methyl bromide (Montreal Protocol Ban/Phase-Out, RUP, Class I, too toxic)

Semi-Arid Zone Countries

INSAH-registered insecticides



allethrin (not EPA registered)

alpha-cypermethrin (RUP)

41

bendiocarb/benthiocarb (not EPA registered)

cartap hydrochloride (not EPA registered)

chlorpyrifos-ethyl (not registered for agricultural spraying)

cyantraniliprole (not EPA registered)

cypermethrin (not EPA registered for agricultural use)

emamectin benzoate (not EPA registered for agricultural use)

fenitrothion (not registered by EPA for agricultural use)

profenofos (RUP)

teflubenzuron (not EPA registered)

INSAH-registered miticides/acaricides


by this PERSUAP for BEO rejection for use in USAID projects (with reason for rejection)

tetradifon (not EPA registered)

INSAH-registered fungicides

Fungicide AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization, and recommended by this


pencycuron (not EPA registered)

INSAH-registered herbicides

Herbicide AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization, and Recommended by this

PERSUAP for BEO rejection for use on USAID projects (with reason for rejection)

aclonifen (not EPA registered)

cycloxydim (not EPA registered)

haloxyfop-R-methyl (not EPA registered)

oxadiargyl (not EPA registered)

pretilachlor (not EPA registered)

propaquizafop (not EPA registered)

pyribenzoxime (not EPA registered)

terbutryne (not EPA registered)

Tropical Zone Countries:

Benin-registered insecticides


BEO rejection for use in USAID projects (with reason for rejection)


carbosulfan (not EPA registered)

chlorpyrifos-ethyl (not registered for agricultural spraying)

42

cypermethrin (registered USA for medical, veterinary and household use, not agriculture)

emamectin benzoate (EPA RUP for all horticultural products)


profenofos (RUP)

triazophos (not EPA registered)

Benin-registered fungicides

Fungicide AIs in products registered by Benin, and recommended by this PERSUAP for


pencycuron

Benin-registered herbicides

Herbicide AIs in products registered by Benin, and Recommended by this PERSUAP for

BEO rejection for use on USAID projects (with reason for rejection)



haloxyfop R methyl ester (not EPA registered)

oxadiargyl (not EPA registered)

prosuler (psoralen) (not EPA registered)


Côte d’Ivoire-registeredinsecticides

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this


allethrin/bio-allethrin (not EPA registered)


carbofuran (EPA has revoked tolerances; cancellation in progress)


chlorpyrifos-ethyl (not EPA registered for agricultural spraying)

cypermethrin (not EPA registered for agricultural spraying)


fipronil (not registered by EPA for agricultural use)

iodofenphos (not EPA registered)


Côte d’Ivoire-registeredmiticides/acaricides



acrinathrin (not EPA registered)


43



Côte d’Ivoire-registerednematicides

Nematicide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this


oxamyl (use only non-RUP Class II granular formulations)


ethoprophos (RUP)

Côte d’Ivoire-registeredrodenticides

Rodenticide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this


zinc phosphide (most concentrations found in West Africa are 50% or higher, which are

Class I and could be easily ingested by children or domestic animals)

Côte d’Ivoire-registeredmolluscicides

Molluscicide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this


thiodicarb (RUP)

Côte d’Ivoire-registeredfungicides

Fungicide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and recommended by this PERSUAP

for BEO rejection for use in USAID projects (with reason for rejection)

pencycuron (not EPA registered)

Côte d’Ivoire-registeredherbicides

Herbicide AIs in products registered by Côte d’Ivoire, and Recommended by this

PERSUAP for BEO rejection for use on USAID projects (with reason for rejection)


alachlor (all products RUP)

atrazine (known water pollutant)

cyanazine (not EPA registered)

cyclosulfuramon (not EPA registered)


piperofos (not EPA registered)

pretilachlor (not EPA registered)

propisochlor (not EPA registered)

pyrazosulfuron-ethyl (not EPA registered)

pyribenzoxime (not EPA registered)

44


Ghana insecticides



allethrin/bio-allethrin (not EPA registered)


cadusafos (not EPA registered)



chlorpyrifos-ethyl (not EPA registered for agricultural spraying)


diazinon (not registered for agricultural spraying)

emamectin benzoate (EPA RUP for all horticultural products)


fenvalerate (not EPA registered)

fipronil (not registered by EPA for agricultural use)

oxamyl (RUP)

profenofos (RUP)

temephos (no EPA registered crop uses; cancellation in progress)

thiocyclam hydrogen oxalate (not EPA registered)

Ghana fungicides



carbendazim (EPA registered uses are not for food crops)

dichlofluanid (not EPA registered)

fenpropimorph (not EPA registered)

maneb (registrations cancelled by EPA)

Ghana herbicides

Herbicide AIs in products registered by Ghana, and Recommended by this PERSUAP for

BEO rejection for use on USAID projects (with reason for rejection)

2 4 D isobutylate (not EPA registered)

butachlor (not EPA registered)

cycloxydim (not EPA registered)

ethephon (Class I, too toxic)

haloxyfop (not EPA registered)

paraquat (dichloride) (RUP)

propaquizafop (not EPA registered)

45

Microbiocides found available in West Africa

Microbicide AI in products available in WA countries, and recommended by this


formaldehyde (Class I, known carcinogen)

quaternary ammonium (not EPA registered)

potassium permanganate (not EPA registered)

sulfuric acid (RUP, Class I, too toxic)

Compliance Requirements

USAID/WA projects will only promote, finance and use on demonstration farms, pesticides

registered by EPA for same or similar use and not classified by EPA as RUP products.

If any USAID/WA project wishes to authorize the support of any non-EPA registered or RUP

product in a USAID project, including promotion or use on any demonstration farm, then a full

Environmental Assessment (EA) must be done and approved by the Bureau for Africa BEO.

USAID/WA agriculture sector and value chain project/sub-grantees shall obtain and retain copies

of the MSDS for each pesticide that their beneficiary farmers use frequently.

3.2 Factor B: Basis for Selection of Pesticides

This procedure generally refers to the practical, economic and/or environmental rationales for choosing a

particular pesticide. In general, best practices and USAID – which promote IPM as policy – dictate that

the least toxic pesticide that is effective is selected. Fortunately, as a general but important trend, the more toxic pesticides (Class I) are decreasing in number worldwide and the number of least toxic

pesticides (Class IV) is increasing. Thus, farmers may be able to choose products of lower toxicity (Class

III and IV/U pesticides), especially if PPE is not available or used.

Farmers most often choose pesticides based upon price, availability, proven efficacy (known to control

the pests) and recommendations from neighbors or agrodealers. This PERSUAP, however, uses

additional criteria for selection of pesticides based upon safety and acute toxicity ratings, chronic toxicity issues, groundwater safety and relative ecotoxicological safety. It is important to recall that almost every

pesticide known, including almost every “natural” pesticide has toxicity to at least one aquatic organism,

or bees, or birds. Most also have some human chronic health issues. Mitigation measures allow us to use these pesticides with reduced risks to human health and the environment.

Safer Use Actions/Risk Mitigation

Farmers require training from USAID/WA-supported projects/sub-grantees on how to choose the

correct pesticide, instead of relying solely upon the advice of agrodealers and neighbors.

Use training to encourage farmers to use products with lower human and ecological toxicities (see

Annex 7) if there is a choice.

3.3 Factor C: Extent to Which the Proposed Pesticide Use Is, Or Could Be, Part of an IPM

Program

46

USAID promotes training in and the development and use of integrated approaches to pest management

tools and tactics whenever possible. This section emphasizes how any of the approved pesticides can be incorporated into an overall IPM strategy, as the ultimate pest control tools, following exhaustion of all

preventive tools and tactics.

Certainly, some of the approved pesticides are more useful and gentler on the environment than others; Annex 7 shows relative toxicities of each pesticide AI. In general, most of the natural products and

extracts are less disruptive to the ecosystem. However, agricultural production cannot rely solely on the

use of natural pesticides, unless they are certified as Organic.

Good crop management practices can strongly affect the success of IPM, and good agronomic or cultural

practices are the most basic and often the most important prerequisites for an effective IPM program. A

healthy and vigorous crop optimizes both capacity to prevent or tolerate pest damage while maintaining

or increasing yield potential.

In the USA, the USDA supports several programs aimed at investigating and developing IPM tools and tactics. These include the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA15) and the National

Sustainable Agriculture Information Service of the National Center for Appropriate Technology14

(NCAT). West Africa countries have a cadre of experts who recognize the importance of these tools and techniques, and are ready to implement them in crop-specific PMPs.

According to USAID experts in the crop protection sector, the requested pesticides are fitted into overall

GAPs and IPM programs, and their use is reduced when in combination with other preventive tools, as

follow:

o Soil quality and nutrition testing

o Resistant varieties o Certified seed

o Seed treatment

o Soil solarization (heating under plastic with direct sun heat) o Raised-bed production

o Use of plastic and organic mulches o Proper seeding/thinning rate

o Soil moisture testing

o Organic fertilizers/compost o Synthetic fertilizers

o Crop rotation

o Green manures o Manipulate plant/harvest time

o Trap crops

o Pruning o Farmscaping15

o Correct pest/disease ID o Weekly monitoring

o Baited traps

o Sticky traps o Pheromone traps

o Pheromone inundation

14http://www.attra.ncat.org/ 15https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/farmscape.html

http://www.attra.ncat.org/

https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/farmscape.html

47

o Crop residue destruction

o Artisanal (home made) pesticides o Conservation practices

o Mechanical weeding

o Spot pesticide treatments

o Production of natural microbial pesticides

To further put IPM tools and tactics into practice, Annex 5 contains a detailed Crop-Pest-IPM-Pesticide

matrix for each crop to be grown by USAID/WA project-assisted farmers, noting most major pests of

each crop, a list of preventive tools and tactics recommended for the same pests in countries with significant commercial production and a list of natural and synthetic chemical alternatives recommended

by leading state extension services in the USA.

IPM philosophy includes the use of synthetic pesticides as part and parcel of an overall harmonized and

coordinated approach to pest management. The principles of IPM were initially developed by

entomologists for farmers and users of insecticides, miticides, nematicides and molluscicides—because all of these chemicals impact animal biochemical pathways and are thus capable of harming other animals

and beneficial animals if used unwisely or over-used. Thus, the most intense focus of traditional IPM is on these types of organisms and chemicals.

Safer Use Actions/Mitigation

Preventive IPM tools and tactics for each crop-pest combination should be used before and

combined with the use of synthetic pesticides.

West African countries need national PMPs with preventive tools and tactics to help reduce pests of major crops. World Bank assists many countries to produce these PMPs, and could be

requested, if desired. Annex 1 of this PERSUAP provides IPM information for most West

African crop-pest combinations. Annex 3 provides guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM.

USAID/WA projects and grantees are responsible for developing these IPM and PMP plans.

Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and natural pesticides that may be made artisanally and

used in place of synthetic pesticides.

3.4 Factor D: Proposed Method or Methods of Application, Including the Availability of

Application and Safety Equipment

This section examines how the pesticides are to be applied, to understand specific risks with different

application equipment available and application methodologies, and the measures to be taken to ensure safe use for each application type. Pesticides can and do enter the body on the hands, skin or eyes when

mixing and from splashes, on back, arms and hands from leaky backpack sprayers when spraying,

through the nose and mouth as vapors while spraying and from spray drift, and by mouth from ingestion on food or cigarettes.

Findings from a survey show that all of the following types of equipment or methods are used to apply

pesticides to field crops in West Africa countries:

hand-pump backpack (most resource-limited smallholder farmers)

motorized backpack (especially for tree crops and commercial plantations)

granular (for soil applications of systemic chemicals)

48

Issue: Leaky backpack sprayers. Hand-pump backpack sprayers, used by small- and medium-scale

farmers, among others, can and do eventually develop leaks at almost every parts junction (filler cap, pump handle entry, exit hose attachment, lance attachment to the hose and at the lance handle) and these

leaks soak into exposed skin. Moreover, clothing serves as a wick that holds these pesticides in constant

contact with the skin. Unless the clothes are washed immediately after use, other family members may

also come in contact with pesticide residuals.

Issue: Pesticide granules and powders applied by hand. Many farmers that use pesticides formulated

as granules or powders apply these by hand, without protection of gloves. Gloves must be used for these applications.

Issue: Farmers do not use PPE. Most West Africa farmers do not use PPE. However, pesticide labels

provide guidance on appropriate PPE to use, and EPA has such guidance on a dedicated website16.

Safer Use Actions/ Mitigation

Train farmers on proper use of PPE as well as sprayer calibration, use, maintenance and empty

container disposal by rinsing, puncturing and burial.

Promote the concept of spray service providers.

3.5 Factor E: Any Acute and Long-Term Toxicological Hazards, either Human or

Environmental, Associated With the Proposed Use, And Measures Available To Minimize Such

Hazards

This section of the PERSUAP examines the acute and chronic toxicological risks associated with the proposed pesticides. Information on specific risks to environmental resources and how to mitigate or

minimize such risks are detailed below under Factor G.

Pesticides are poisons, and nearly all of them—including natural ones—present acute and/or long-term toxicological hazards, especially if they are used incorrectly. The pesticide AI analysis matrix in Annex 7

contains information on acute and chronic human and environmental toxicological risks for each AI in

products registered for use in West Africa countries.

During the entire PERSUAP study, there were no documented instances of pesticide poisoning of people

or environmental resources, other than uses of pesticides for suicide. There were no recorded fish or

wildlife kills.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Rotterdam Convention’s Prior

Informed Consent (PIC) procedure which list banned and highly regulated toxic chemicals, respectively,

were not known when Regulation 216 was written, so there is no language directly governing their use on USAID projects. Nevertheless, they present high risks to users and the environment, due to persistence

and toxicity. It is thus prudent that they be discussed. The following websites contain current lists of all

POPs and PIC chemicals: http://www.pops.int; http://www.pic.int.

With the exception of chlordane, endosulfan and monocrotophos, none of the chemicals contained on the 2011 POPs or PIC lists were found to be present in the project countries in West Africa and they will be

increasingly unlikely to be found in the future as world-wide production of most of these chemicals has

ceased or is ceasing. Further, there are numerous less-toxic replacements for all of these chemicals.

16http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/workers/equip.htm

http://www.pops.int/

http://www.pic.int/

http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/workers/equip.htm

49

These newer chemicals are rapidly replacing the older, more dangerous chemicals. Pesticides containing

chlordane, endosulfan and monocrotophos should not be used on USAID projects.


Train farmers on how to read safety precautions and first aid measures on pesticide labels and

encourage them to use PPE.

The pesticide safe use training required by this PERSUAP should include basic first aid for

pesticide overexposure, availability and use of antidotes, and training on following

recommendations found on pesticide labels and MSDSs for commonly used pesticides.

3.6 Factor F: Effectiveness of the Requested Pesticide for the Proposed Use

This section of the PERSUAP requires information similar to that provided previously, but more specific

to the actual conditions of application and product quality. This section considers the use of low-quality generic products (such as some of those imported from China and India, from where most generic

pesticides originate) as well as the development of pest resistance to proposed pesticides, both of which will decrease effectiveness (efficacy).

Pesticides are important pest management tools. Many pesticides gradually lose their effectiveness—

especially if overused and not rotated with other classes of pesticides—due to the development of

resistance by pests. Pest resistance is a heritable and significant decrease in the sensitivity of a pest

population to a pesticide that is shown to reduce the field performance of those specific pesticides.

The management of the development of pesticide resistance is an important part of sustainable pest

management and this, in conjunction with alternative pest management strategies and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs, can make significant contributions to reducing risks to humans and the

environment. Annex 7 serves as one tool for managing resistance by providing the class of each pesticide AI, so that project field managers and farmers can rotate pesticides among classes.

Pests that are known to have developed significant pesticide resistance (especially to older-generation organophosphate, carbamate and synthetic pyrethroid insecticides, strobin fungicides and azine

herbicides) globally:

Whiteflies

Aphids

Spider mites

Thrips

Mealybugs

Scales

Psyllids

Colorado Potato Beetle

Corn Earworm

Powdery mildew

Downy mildew

Pesticides with known global resistance by certain pests or diseases (use with care—do careful

calculations of dose—and rotate with other classes or families of pesticides)

50

Most of the older and more toxic pesticides no longer registered by EPA, already rejected

Many of the synthetic pyrethroids already rejected due to RUPs

Permethrin

Strobin fungicides

Glyphosate herbicide

Azine herbicides

Issue: Lack of knowledge and information on reduced pesticide effectiveness and resistance. At some point, project field staff and farmers may begin to note that some products no longer work well to

control pests in their field, and will likely begin to blame pesticide manufacturers for a weaker product.

This could be due to the use of cheap generic products, improper dosing, or the development of resistance. Farmers should be trained to understand the development of resistance, and project

implementers should be on the lookout for it during their field visits.

A resistance management strategy should also consider cross-resistance between pesticides with different

modes/target sites of action. Pests may develop cross-resistance to pesticides based on mode/target site of

action. Annex 5 shows IPM tools that are currently effective against specific pests of USAID crops. It also contains, where relevant, comments about rotating pesticides or any resistance issues of importance

that are known for that pest and type of pesticide.

The website http://www.pesticideresistance.com/ can be used to search for specific known resistance

issues in countries with certain pest or disease resistance to specific pesticide AIs with the resources to buy and use large quantities of pesticides. Fungicide resistance and rotation recommendations are found

on the Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC) website http://www.frac.info/frac/index.htm.

If pesticide use is warranted and a risk of pesticide resistance development is identified, a Resistance Risk

Management approach should be followed. The following section details points of concern for both

application equipment and pesticide applications.

Ways to address and manage or mitigate pest resistance:

Use IPM to minimize pesticide use: Minimizing pesticide use is fundamental to pesticide resistance

management. IPM programs incorporating pest monitoring in USA states of California, New York,

Maryland and Canada have demonstrated 25 to 50% reduction in pesticide use with an increase in crop quality. IPM programs will help determine the best application timing for pesticides (when they

will do the most good), thus helping to reduce the number of applications.

The use of nonchemical strategies, such as pest exclusion (e.g., screening, microtunnels,

greenhouses), host-free periods, crop rotation, biological control, and weed control may reduce the need to use chemicals and consequently slow the development of pesticide resistance.

Avoid Knapsack Mixes: Never combine two pesticides with the same mode of action in a tank mix

(e.g., two organophophate insecticides or two azine herbicides). Such a 'super dose' often increases

the chances of selection for resistant individuals. In some cases, mixing pesticides from two different

classes provides superior control. However, long-term use of these two-class pesticide mixes can also give rise to pesticide resistance, if resistance mechanisms to both pesticides arise together in some

individuals. Continued use of the mixture will select for these multiple-pesticide-resistant pests.

Avoid Persistent Chemicals: Insects with resistant genes will be selected over susceptible ones

whenever insecticide concentrations kill only the susceptible pests. An ideal pesticide quickly

http://www.pesticideresistance.com/

http://www.frac.info/frac/index.htm

51

disappears from the environment so that persistence of a 'selecting dose' does not occur. When

persistent chemicals must be used, consider where they can be used in a rotation scheme to provide the control needed and with a minimum length of exposure.

Use Long-term Rotations: Resistance management strategies for insects, weeds, and fungal

pathogens all include rotating classes of pesticides. Pesticides with the same modes of action have

been assigned the same group number by their respective pesticide resistance action committees,

Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC), Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC), and Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC). These group numbers have been included in

the treatment tables of this guideline to help clarify when rotating pesticides, which ones can be

rotated.

However, the strategies used in rotations differ. For example, with fungicides, it is suggested that

classes be rotated every application. With insecticides, a single chemical class should be used for a

single generation of the target pest followed by a rotation to a new class of insecticide that will affect

the next generation and any survivors from the first generation. Longer use of a single chemical class will enhance the chance of resistance since the survivors of the first generation and the next will most

likely be tolerant to that class. Rotating through many chemical classes in successive generations will

help maintain efficacy.


Train and encourage farmers to value and buy higher quality products from name brand companies

and that come with technical support.

Train farmers on the ways to reduce the development of resistance, as follow:

o Use IPM to minimize pesticide use o Avoid Knapsack Mixes

o Avoid Persistent Chemicals

o Use Long-term Pesticide Rotations

3.7 Factor G: Compatibility of the Proposed Pesticide Use with Target and Non-Target

Ecosystems.

This section examines the potential effect of the pesticides on organisms other than the target pest. Non-

target ecosystems include protected areas, species and water resources. Non-target species of concern

include fish, honeybees, birds, earthworms, aquatic organisms and beneficial insects.

Issue: Pesticides can impact biodiversity and protected areas

Annex 7 compiles the known risks to the different types of terrestrial and aquatic organisms referred to

above for each pesticide active ingredient found in pesticide products registered for use in West Africa CORAF/WECARD and covered by this PERSUAP, so that informed product choices can be made if a

pesticide is to be used in or near sensitive areas or resources.

Issue: Pesticides can persist in the environment after application

The effect of each pesticide on non-target ecosystems will depend on how long it stays in the

environment, that is its rate of breakdown, or half-life. Half-life is defined as the time (in days, weeks or years) required for half of the pesticide present after an application to break down into degradation

52

products. The rate of pesticide breakdown depends on a variety of factors including temperature, soil pH,

soil microbe content and whether or not the pesticide is exposed to light, water, and oxygen.

Many pesticide breakdown products are themselves toxic, and each may also have a significant half-life.

Since pesticides break down with exposure to soil microbes and natural chemicals, sunlight and water,

there are half-lives for exposure to each of these factors. Fortunately, most of the very persistent pesticides AIs, like chlorinated hydrocarbons, are no longer available or used in modern agriculture.

Pesticides with a long residual period (that are labeled persistent and may last for years) include atrazine

herbicide and organochlorine pesticides. Many if not most of the newer carbamate, organophosphate, neonicotinoid, synthetic pyrethroid, natural botanical and microbial extracts, mineral and vegetable oils,

soap fatty acids and growth regulator insecticides and most fungicides recommended in Annex 5 break

down much more quickly in the environment, generally within weeks.

Issue: Pesticides can adsorb (stick to) to soil, leach and contaminate groundwater resources

Each pesticide has physical and chemical characteristics, such as solubility in water, ability to bind to soil

particles and be held there (adsorbed) and their natural breakdown rate in nature. If they are strongly held

by soil they do not enter the soil water layers and the ground water table as easily. A listing of these properties for at least some of the pesticides in use in West Africa can be found by checking at this

website: http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/footprint/en/index.htm.

In general, pesticides with water solubility greater than 3 mg/liter have the potential to contaminate groundwater; and pesticides with a soil adsorption coefficient of less than 1,900 have the potential to

contaminate groundwater. In addition, pesticides with an aerobic soil half-life greater than 690 days or an

anaerobic soil half-life greater than 9 days have the potential to contaminate groundwater. Moreover, pesticides with a hydrolysis half-life greater than 14 days have potential to contaminate groundwater.

The potential for pesticides to enter groundwater resources depends, as indicated above, on the electrical

charge contained on a pesticide molecule and its ability and propensity to adhere to soil particles, but this also depends on the nature and charge of the soil particles dominant in the agriculture production area.

Sand, clay and organic matter, and different combinations of all of these, have different charges and

adhesion potential for organic and inorganic molecules. Sandy soil often has less charge capacity than clay or organic matter, and will thus not interact significantly with and hold charged pesticide molecules.

So, in areas with sandy soil, the leaching potential for pesticides is increased, as is the velocity with which water and the pesticide migrate.

A pesticide’s ability to enter groundwater resources also depends on how quickly and by what means it is

broken down and the distance (and thus time) it has to travel to the groundwater. If the groundwater table

is high, the risk that the pesticide will reach it before being broken down is increased. Thus, a sandy soil with a high water table is the most risky situation for groundwater contamination by pesticides.

Groundwater contamination potential for each pesticide active ingredient available in West Africa is provided in Annex 7.

Issue: Pesticides can damage environmental resources/non-target organisms

Improperly used pesticides can and do damage the following natural resource/non-target organisms:

honeybees—needed for pollinating two-thirds of all crops

fish—needed for aquifer health and human food

birds—needed to control insect pests

http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/footprint/en/index.htm

53

predators and parasitoids—needed to control insect pests

earthworms—needed for soil health

mollusks and crustaceans—needed for aquifer health and human food

clean water—needed for drinking, irrigating and washing

biodiversity and rare species—needed for ecosystem functioning


Where a project has direct control over pesticide use, assure the following. Where a project is supporting

or recommending pesticide use, but has less than complete control, take all practicable measures to assure

the following:

Train farmers about ecotoxicity and on how to read ecotoxicity precautions on pesticide labels

and encourage farmers to use PPE.

Train farmers on applying pesticides the proper distance (30 meters) from open bodies of fresh

water, and not to wash their sprayers out in ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, or wetlands, or where rinse water may run off into these aquatic resources.

Minimize chemical spray drift by using low-pressure sprays and nozzles that produce large

droplets, properly calibrating and maintaining spray equipment, and use of a drift-control agent.

Warn beekeepers of upcoming spray events so that they may move or protect their hives.

Train farmers not to spray when honeybees are active and foraging.

3.8 Factor H: Conditions under Which the Pesticide Is To Be Used, Including Climate,

Geography, Hydrology, and Soils

In general, in addition to covering biodiversity and protected areas under Factor G above, this

requirement attempts to protect natural resources from the dangers of pesticide misuse and contamination,

especially of groundwater resources.

Climate

Most of the USAID/WA-supported projects operate within the Sahel and Savannah zone as well as Tropical (coastal) zone. The climate is characterized by alternating rainy season (May – October) and dry

season (November – April) with varying lengths depending on the latitude. In general, rainfall decreases

from the coastal areas towards the Sahel, northwards.

Geography The geography characteristics of target countries are discussed, above, in Section 2.1.

Hydrology The average rainfall in the Sahel ranges from 10 cm in to 50 cm in per year, depending on country.

Coastal rainfalls are much higher, with Liberia and Sierra Leone receiving up to 500 cm. Major river

systems include the Niger and Volta Rivers. The relatively small amounts of pesticides likely to be used

on USAID/WA project demonstration farms will have almost no impact on these resources. However,

best practices, such as those listed above, should be followed.

Soils

See soil maps (http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/Esdb_Archive/EuDASM/Africa/index.htm) for each of the target countries. Many of the soils in the Sahel and savanna zones are sandy and hardpan, meaning that

pesticide leaching could be an issue for especially mobile pesticides (see Annex 7 for pesticide

http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/Esdb_Archive/EuDASM/Africa/index.htm

54

groundwater pollution potential) like herbicides. Most of the soils in the tropical zone are humitic and

have a higher content of organic matter, in addition to sand and clay.


Where a project has direct control over pesticide use, assure the following. Where a project is

supporting or recommending pesticide use but has less than complete control, take all practicable

measures to assure the following:

Hydrology: Do not spray or rinse pesticide equipment in or within 30 meters of rivers, ponds,

irrigation and drainage ditches, and other surface waters, including wetlands.

Do not spray pesticides with high toxicities to aquatic organisms before an impending rainstorm,

as they can be washed into waterways before breaking down.

Soils: Do not use or recommend for use herbicides or other pesticides with high leaching and

groundwater pollution potential (see Annex 7) near drinking water sources, on highly sandy soils

or soils with water tables close (2-3 meters) to the surface.

Soils: Since transport of soil particles with pesticides adsorbed to them is a likely transportation route to waterways, employ techniques to reduce farm soil erosion whenever erosion is likely.

Such techniques include vegetated buffer strips, green manure, mulching, terracing, employing

wind breaks, employing ground covers between rows, planting rows perpendicular to the slope, and using drip irrigation.

3.9 Factor I: Availability of Other Pesticides or Non-Chemical Control Methods

This section identifies less toxic synthetic, as well as non-synthetic or ‘natural’ (extracts of naturally-occurring plants, spices, oils, fatty acids, induced resistance elicitors, minerals, microbes or microbial

extracts) pesticide options for control of pests, and their relative advantages and disadvantages. Many of

these ‘natural’ pesticides can be toxic to humans, and several are even classified as RUPs due to environmental risks; thus safe pesticide use practices extend to these natural as well as synthetic

(produced in laboratories or factories) pesticides.

Annex 5—the heart of this PERSUAP—contains numerous non-chemical control methods for every major pest of every USAID-supported crop in West Africa programs. It is the intent of this PERSUAP

that USAID projects dealing with agriculture use this valuable resource, which compiles all known IPM

tools and tactics for each pest of each crop. It can be considered as a pullout, stand-alone section that can be reproduced as necessary, and should be considered for translation into local languages, lamination, and

distribution to farm input supply companies to help advise farmers at point-of-purchase.

Issue: Natural pest controls availability

Natural chemicals: Many non-synthetic chemical IPM tools and technologies are listed in Annexes 3 and

4. The list of natural pesticides likely entering West Africa is not very extensive compared with other emerging market countries.

In general, most synthetic nematicides and soil pesticides/fumigants are very highly toxic. However,

there are some companies producing next-generation natural chemicals in the USA: Bio Huma Netics, http://www.bhn.namefor natural nematicides and Agra Quest, http://www.agraquest.com for bioactive

essential oils.

http://www.bhn.name/

http://www.agraquest.com/

55

For commercial operations, especially greenhouses, biological controls and beneficial organisms are

available commercially from two large international companies, Koppert of Holland and Biobest of Belgium. Koppert provides many biological controls against spider mites, beetles, leaf miners, mealy

bugs, thrips, aphids, whiteflies, and moth and butterfly larvae. Koppert also provides the Koppert Side

Effects List, a list of the side effects of pesticides on biological organisms, at http://www.koppert.com.

Biobest of Belgium provides many of the same or similar biological controls as Koppert, and includes a

control against leafhoppers. Their website is: http://www.biobest.be. These are especially useful for

greenhouse and seedling production systems. Both companies also sell live bumblebees for greenhouse pollination assistance.

Safer use Measures/Mitigation

Preventive and natural IPM tools and tactics for each crop-pest combination (Annex 1) should be

used before the choice is made to purchase and use synthetic pesticides. Annex 3 provides guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM. Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and

natural pesticides that may be made artisanally and used in place of synthetic pesticides.

3.10 Factor J: Host Country’s Ability to Regulate or Control the Distribution, Storage, Use, and

Disposal of the Requested Pesticide

This section examines the host country’s existing infrastructure and human resources for managing the

use of the proposed pesticides. If the host country’s ability to regulate pesticides is inadequate, the proposed action – use of pesticides – could result in greater risk to human health and the environment.

The Ministries of Agriculture in each of the target countries have research, extension and enforcement

services; however all are lacking sufficient funds to operate well.

Issue: Limited resources to control pesticides

Most target countries do have systems for the registration and regulation of the import, sale and use of

pesticides. However, their ability to cover the country and eliminate banned or highly toxic chemicals is limited due to limited resources. The lists of registered pesticides contain some very highly toxic

chemicals that should not be handled by illiterate, untrained, unprotected and often unaware smallholder

farmers like those found throughout target countries. Most farmers do not have access to and cannot

afford PPE in order to follow GAPs.

Issue: Illegal Products from Neighboring Countries

“Leaky” target country border crossings could be likely sources of pesticides that are not registered in

target countries. Some PIC chemicals have been found in formal and informal markets in the region, as have some POPs chemicals.

Issue: Disposal of Pesticide Containers

Most West African farmers retain old empty and partially full plastic pesticide containers. Before

disposal, the standard practice has been to triple-rinse the containers, puncture them to discourage re-use, and bury or burn them. Burning plastic bottles and single-use pesticide sachets can lead to the formation

of toxic furans and dioxins, and is not recommended. GlobalGAP and other S&C systems require that empty pesticide containers are triple rinsed over a pesticide soak pit with layered soil, lime and carbon, or

http://www.koppert.com/

http://www.biobest.be/

56

a bioactive pit, and then properly stored in plastic drums in the field or storage shed, to await disposal or

recycling. West Africa has no pesticide container recycling activities. The website http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/labeling/lrm/chap-13.htm provides pesticide disposal options.

Safer Use/Mitigation Actions

Absolutely no POP or PIC chemicals will be used or supported on USAID/WA projects.

Where alternatives (Classes III and IV/U) exist, do not recommend or use EPA and WHO Acute

Toxicity Class II pesticide products on USAID projects, unless the USAID project can verify that producers and laborers (pesticide applicators) properly and consistently utilize PPE as

recommended by the pesticide label and MSDS.

If a regional pesticide container recycling facility is ever begun in the future, USAID should

encourage its use.

Train farmers to purchase inputs from suppliers that provide quality technical backup support,

and to purchase and use PPE, or contract private pesticide spray services.

3.11 Factor K: Provision for Training of Users and Applicators

USAID recognizes that, in addition to the use of PPE, safety training is an essential component in

programs involving the use of pesticides. The need for thorough training is particularly acute in emerging

market countries, where the level of education of applicators may typically be lower than in developed

countries.

Issue: Farmers need intensive and repeated training

Training in Safe Pesticide Use and GAP/IPM are of paramount importance for USAID project beneficiary farmers and farm laborers using pesticides. Donors have been providing such training. Additional and

refresher trainings are superb means for effecting beneficiary farmer behavioral change, now especially, as they expand their agricultural opportunities, and before risky behaviors become set.

Safer Use/Mitigation Actions

Farmers require training and refresher training on how to choose the correct pesticide, do

knapsack sprayer calibration and record keeping, as well as proper pest identification and IPM.

Annex 8 Training Topics provides significant discussion of safe pesticide use training elements.

3.12 Factor L: Provision Made For Monitoring the Use and Effectiveness of Each Pesticide

Evaluating the risks, impacts and benefits of pesticide use should be an ongoing, dynamic process. Pest resistance is one of the risks for which this element is intended, as well as human health and safety and

environmental effects.

Record keeping should track quantities and types of pesticides used, where they were used and what they were used for with notes on efficacy. Records of training received are also important to keep, if

GlobalGAP standardization or certification will be sought. Notes on effectiveness of individual

pesticides and pest numbers will help develop a more sustainable pesticide use plan for USAID beneficiary producer. Records of farmers will need to make note of any reductions in pesticide efficacy

experienced, which is the first indication that resistance may be developing, and then a strategy needs to

http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/labeling/lrm/chap-13.htm

57

be in place to determine a shift to a different pesticide class, and rotation among classes, to overcome

resistance development.

The following aspects should be included in the record keeping system, for a USAID-funded program:

Annex 9 provides formats and ideas for collecting farm-monitoring information.

Local regulatory compliance: A list of country laws related to the use of agrochemicals for plant

protection, short notes on the relevance of the law, dates the laws come into or exit force and

MRLs for each crop-pesticide combination.

A pesticide checklist: This list allows project agronomists to ensure that the pesticides they are

using are registered. It should also provide notes on special safety requirements.

GAPs/IPM measures tried/used (see Annex 1): USAID-funded project agronomists should try to

incorporate a minimum of at least ten new IPM measures per annum and document their success

or failure.

PPE: Lists of the types of equipment made available to applicators, number of pieces, prices and

contact details of suppliers, dates when equipment needs to be washed, maintained or replaced. PPE should be numbered or personally assigned to applicators to ensure that it is not taken into

the home where (as a contaminated material) it could pose a risk to family members.

Monitoring/recording pests: Agronomists should incorporate into their records regular field pest monitoring and identification. This could be done by the USAID/WA agriculture sector and value

chain project agronomists themselves, or if properly trained, by farmers.

Environmental conditions: Field conditions should be incorporated into the record keeping

system (for example; precipitation, soil analyses and moisture, soil pH, temperatures and so on).

Information should be transmitted at least annually and projects should report to USAID on this

progress in pesticide safety and GAP/IPM use in annual reports.

58

SECTION 4: PESTICIDE SAFE USE ACTION PLAN (SUAP) OR EMMP

4.1 Introduction

This Safe Use Action Plan, which is the same as an EMMP, is the definitive statement of IP pesticide compliance requirements and is synthesized from the PER analysis:

Section 4.2, immediately below, lists allowed (as well as rejected) pesticides.

Section 4.3 establishes USAID’s and IP’s field monitoring requirements for compliance with

safer use conditions

Section 4.4 summarizes the safer use conditions attendant to use/support of these pesticides.

These conditions are then detailed in the attached mandatory template (Annex 12) for assigning

responsibilities and timelines for implementation of these requirements, and for tracking

compliance.

Definition of Pesticide “Use”

Pesticide “use” by any USAID West Africa project was defined and agreed upon at the outset of this

PERSUAP study as including:

Promotion during project training,

Use on project demonstration farms,

Procurement directly by project for beneficiaries or spray services, or

Subsidization or financing by the project through sub-grantees or credit agreements.

Each project subject to this P-PERSUAP must submit a completed SUAP/EMMP template (Annex

12) to its AOR/COR by September 30, 2014 and provide an annual update thereafter.

4.2 Allowed Pesticides

Synthesizing across the PER analysis, ONLY the pesticides active ingredients listed in tables in the Executive Summary are permitted for use/support in USAID/West Africa projects. And, for reference on

what not to use on USAID/WA-supported projects, the PER, under Section 3.1, Factor A contains the pesticide AIs rejected by this P-PERSUAP.

[USAID/WA-supported projects that will use this SUAP will insert here (from the Executive Summary) the tables of permitted pesticide AIs for the region/s or country/ies in which they have activities]

4.3 USAID field monitoring requirement

For subject value chain projects or projects otherwise supporting field crop production, the AOR/COR,

MEO and/or REA must at least two times annually, make inspection visits to several randomly selected farms receiving project assistance to check for compliance with the safer use measures summarized in

Section 4.4 below, and detailed in the mandatory compliance tracking and reporting template, in Annex 12.

4.4 Summary of Compliance Requirements (Safer Use Measures)

The above-listed allowed pesticide AIs can only be used in compliance with the safe use measures and

restrictions specified in the PER. These can be summarized as follows:

59

A. Only pesticides approved by this PERSUAP may be supported with USAID/WA funds. These

pesticides are listed, with conditions, in section 4.2, above.

Pesticide “support” = any of the following: use of USAID funds to: purchase pesticides; directly fund

the application of pesticides; recommend pesticides for use; facilitate or enable the application or purchase of pesticides via provision of application equipment, credit support, or other means by the

PI, their sub-grantees and partners.

B. If pesticide use is supported, appropriate project staff, sub-grantees & beneficiaries must be trained in

IPM (Annex 1), safe pesticide use & pesticide first aid;

C. To the greatest degree practicable, if pesticide use is supported by USAID/WA projects or their sub-

grantees they must require use & assure maintenance of appropriate PPE—as well as safe pesticide

purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices.

Compilation of Compliance Requirements from PER analysis, by Factors A-L

Factor A

USAID/WA projects will only promote, finance and use on demonstration farms, pesticides

registered by EPA for same or similar use and not classified by EPA as RUP products.

If any USAID/WA project wishes to authorize the support of any non-EPA registered or RUP

product in a USAID project, including promotion or use on any demonstration farm, then a full Environmental Assessment (EA) must be done and approved by the Bureau for Africa BEO.

USAID/WA agriculture sector and value chain project/sub-grantees shall obtain and retain copies

of the MSDS for each pesticide that their beneficiary farmers use frequently.

Factor B

Farmers require training from USAID/WA-supported projects/sub-grantees on how to choose the

correct pesticide, instead of relying solely upon the advice of agrodealers and neighbors.

Use training to encourage farmers to use products with lower human and ecological toxicities (see

Annex 7) if there is a choice.

Factor C

Preventive IPM tools and tactics for each crop-pest combination should be used before and

combined with the use of synthetic pesticides.

West African countries need national PMPs with preventive tools and tactics to help reduce pests

of major crops. World Bank assists many countries to produce these PMPs, and could be

requested, if desired. Annex 1 of this PERSUAP provides IPM information for most West

African crop-pest combinations. Annex 3 provides guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM.

USAID/WA projects and grantees are responsible for developing these IPM and PMP plans.

Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and natural pesticides that may be made artisanally and

used in place of synthetic pesticides.

Factor D

Train farmers on proper use of PPE as well as sprayer calibration, use, maintenance and empty

container disposal by rinsing, puncturing and burial.

Promote the concept of spray service providers.

Factor E

60

Train farmers on how to read safety precautions and first aid measures on pesticide labels and

encourage them to use PPE.

The pesticide safe use training required by this PERSUAP should include basic first aid for

pesticide overexposure, availability and use of antidotes, and training on following

recommendations found on pesticide labels and MSDSs for commonly used pesticides.

Factor F

Train and encourage farmers to value and buy higher quality products from name brand companies

and that come with technical support.

Train farmers on the ways to reduce the development of resistance, as follow:

o Use IPM to minimize pesticide use

o Avoid Knapsack Mixes

o Avoid Persistent Chemicals

o Use Long-term Pesticide Rotations

Factor G

Train farmers about ecotoxicity and on how to read ecotoxicity precautions on pesticide labels

and encourage farmers to use PPE.

Train farmers on applying pesticides the proper distance (30 meters) from open bodies of fresh water, and not to wash their sprayers out in ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, or wetlands, or where

rinse water may run off into these aquatic resources.

Minimize chemical spray drift by using low-pressure sprays and nozzles that produce large

droplets, properly calibrating and maintaining spray equipment, and use of a drift-control agent.

Warn beekeepers of upcoming spray events so that they may move or protect their hives.

Train farmers not to spray when honeybees are active and foraging.

Factor H

Hydrology: Do not spray or rinse pesticide equipment in or within 30 meters of rivers, ponds,

irrigation and drainage ditches, and other surface waters, including wetlands.

Do not spray pesticides with high toxicities to aquatic organisms before an impending rainstorm,

as they can be washed into waterways before breaking down.

Soils: Do not use or recommend for use herbicides or other pesticides with high leaching and

groundwater pollution potential (see Annex 7) near drinking water sources, on highly sandy soils

or soils with water tables close (2-3 meters) to the surface.

Soils: Since transport of soil particles with pesticides adsorbed to them is a likely transportation

route to waterways, employ techniques to reduce farm soil erosion whenever erosion is likely.

Such techniques include vegetated buffer strips, green manure, mulching, terracing, employing wind breaks, employing ground covers between rows, planting rows perpendicular to the slope,

and using drip irrigation.

Factor I

Preventive and natural IPM tools and tactics for each crop-pest combination (Annex 1) should be

used before the choice is made to purchase and use synthetic pesticides. Annex 3 provides

guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM. Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and

natural pesticides that may be made artisanally and used in place of synthetic pesticides.

Factor J

Absolutely no POP or PIC chemicals will be used or supported on USAID/WA projects.

Where alternatives (Classes III and IV/U) exist, do not recommend or use EPA and WHO Acute

Toxicity Class II pesticide products on USAID projects, unless the USAID project can verify that

61

producers and laborers (pesticide applicators) properly and consistently utilize PPE as

recommended by the pesticide label and MSDS.

If a regional pesticide container recycling facility is ever begun in the future, USAID should

encourage its use.

Train farmers to purchase inputs from suppliers that provide quality technical backup support,

and to purchase and use PPE, or contract private pesticide spray services.

Factor K

Farmers require training and refresher training on how to choose the correct pesticide, do knapsack sprayer calibration and record keeping, as well as proper pest identification and IPM.

Annex 8 Training Topics provides significant discussion of safe pesticide use training elements.

Factor L

Annex 9 provides formats and ideas for collecting farm-monitoring information.

Local regulatory compliance: A list of country laws related to the use of agrochemicals for plant

protection, short notes on the relevance of the law, dates the laws come into or exit force and

MRLs for each crop-pesticide combination.

A pesticide checklist: This list allows project agronomists to ensure that the pesticides they are

using are registered. It should also provide notes on special safety requirements.

GAPs/IPM measures tried/used (see Annex 1): USAID-funded project agronomists should try to

incorporate a minimum of at least ten new IPM measures per annum and document their success or failure.

PPE: Lists of the types of equipment made available to applicators, number of pieces, prices and

contact details of suppliers, dates when equipment needs to be washed, maintained or replaced. PPE should be numbered or personally assigned to applicators to ensure that it is not taken into

the home where (as a contaminated material) it could pose a risk to family members.

Monitoring/recording pests: Agronomists should incorporate into their records regular field pest monitoring and identification. This could be done by the USAID/WA agriculture sector and value

chain project agronomists themselves, or if properly trained, by farmers.

Environmental conditions: Field conditions should be incorporated into the record keeping

system (for example; precipitation, soil analyses and moisture, soil pH, temperatures and so on).

Information should be transmitted at least annually and projects should report to USAID on this

progress in pesticide safety and GAP/IPM use in annual reports.

The PER and the annexes provide substantial resources to support compliance with these requirements, as

detailed in the table below.

IPM/Safe Use Requirement Key Resources Provided

Pesticide recommendations

and use must be governed by

a set of crop- and pest-

specific IPM-based pest

management plans.

(USAID/WA projects and

sub-grantees are responsible

for developing these plans.)

Annex 1 sets out in table format crop-by-crop, pest-by-pest

chemical and non-chemical management methods recommended

by this PERSUAP. This is intended to serve as the basis for a

crop-specific pest management plan.

Annexes 2 and 3 provide guidelines for making PMPs and using

IPM.

Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and natural pesticides

that may be made artisanally and used in place of synthetic

62

pesticides. Annex 7 provides toxicology information for each approved

active ingredient, including human acute toxicities and chronic

health issues, water pollution potential, as well as potential

ecotoxicities to important non-target organisms like fish,

honeybee pollinators, birds and several aquatic organisms.

If pesticide use is supported,

appropriate USAID/WA

projects staff/sub-grantees &

beneficiaries must be trained

in safe pesticide use &

pesticide first aid

Annex 8 Training Topics provides significant discussion of safe

use training elements.


farm compliance monitoring

forms should be used

Annex 9 provides ideas for farm monitoring information to

collect, and a format to collect it


USAID/WA projects and

sub-grantees must be

systematic in their pesticide-

related record-keeping and

monitoring

Annexes 10 provides record-keeping templates/aids

63

Annex 1: IPM Matrix of West Africa Crops with Primary Production and Storage Constraints, Recommended Pest/Disease/Weed Prevention Tools and

Tactics & Recommended Curative Tools

Grains: Rice*

Primary Pests, Diseases,

Weeds

Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate Recommended Chemical Controls, when

needed

Rice gall midges

(Orseolia oryzivora, Cricotopus sylvestris,

Paralauterborniella

subcincta, Paratanytarsus spp.)

Use early planting/sowing.

Use resistant varieties.

Sanitation: Plow under ratoon from previous crop.

Remove off-season alternate host plants like wild rice.

Draining fields for 3-4 days controls the midge.

Seeding synchronously as soon as possible after flooding.

Seed parts of the field in sequence as they fill with water.

Avoid over-doses of fertilizer.

In general, insecticide treatment for rice

gall midge is ineffective.

Rice stem borers

(Chilo zacconius,

Coniesta ingnefusalis, Orseola oryzicola,

Maliarpha

separatella); Pink borer (Sesamia

calamistis)

Use resistant and early-maturing varieties. Improved semi-dwarf varieties are

generally more resistant to stem borers than the tall traditional ones.

Transplant & grow healthy rice seedlings and plants.

Harvest at the very base of the plants, or plow stubble under and flood.

Early/synchronized planting & water management.

Use natural extracts of neem and chili

peppers.

Rice leaf miners

(Hydrellia griseola) (Trichispa species)

Several parasitic wasps attack the rice leaf miner. Normally a combination of

parasites, predators, and high temperatures cause leaf miner populations to drop rapidly.

Level the field as accurately as possible.

Manage water levels in the field to encourage the rice to emerge quickly and

grow erect.


Use crop rotation.

Keep bunds and surroundings free from grass weeds.

Destroy stubble and avoid ratooning.

Ensure balanced nutrition (avoid excessive nitrogen application).

The synthetic insecticides containing

deltamethrin or lambda-cyhalothrin may be used.

64

Removing weedy vegetation on the levees in spring near the time of seeding.

Diopsid (stalk-eyed)

fly (Diopsis

longicornis, Diopsis thoracica, Diopsis

spp.)


Remove and dispose of dead-heart plants.

Farmers spray with insecticides

containing pyrethroids like lambda-

cyhalothrin or deltamethrin and neem-

based materials.

Rice Caseworm

(Nymphula

depunctalis)


Ensure balanced nutrition (avoid excessive nitrogen application).

Remove weedy vegetation on the levees in spring near the time of seeding.

Many predators control caseworm naturally.

Use wider spacing and earlier planting.

Insecticides are not commonly used

against caseworm.

June and May beetles

and white soil-inhabiting larvae

called white “C-shaped” grubs

(Phyllophaga species)

Use seed treated with systemic insecticide.

Soil solarization and tillage.

Light trapping of adults.

Ensure good soil drainage.

Inter-planting with alliums (onions, garlic).

Do crop rotation with a pulse, mustard or chiocory.

Sanitation: Remove crop residues after harvest.

A preventive seed treatment with

thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering

due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid

(but only when plants are in vegetative

state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse

disorder).

At least 45 days post-emergence from treated seed, broadcast a spray with

thiamethoxam (but only when plants are

in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee

colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid

(but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to

pollinators and honeybee colony collapse

disorder).

Termites

(Macrotermes species,

Microtermes species, and

Odontotermes species)

Destroy termite mounds in and near fields.

Excavation of mound tops and burning of straw to suffocate and kill the

colony.

Dig out and remove the queen (the one with really fat abdomen).

Use baits: wood stakes treated with borates.

Seed treated with systemic insecticide.



due to risk to pollinators and honeybee

colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative

65

Use composted instead of fresh mulch.

state, not when flowering due to risk to

pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

At least 45 days post-emergence from

treated seed, rotate sprays with synthetic

insecticides containing thiamethoxam


state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse

disorder), permethrin or imidacloprid




disorder).

If available, registered in Malawi and

desired by MOAFS, insecticides

containing the microbe Metarhizium anisopliae or synthetic chemicals called

Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) could

be used.

Rice thrips

(Stenchaetothrips

biformis)

Predatory thrips, Coccinellid beetles, Anthocorid bugs, and Staphylinid

beetles are biological control agents that feed on both the larvae and adults.

Use resistant cultivars.

Flooding to submerge the infested field for 2 days as a cultural control

practice is very effective against the rice thrips.

Use a preventive seed treatment with


in vegetative state, not when flowering






treated seed, rotate among insecticides containing thiamethoxam (but only when

plants are in vegetative state, not when

flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder),

spinosad, permethrin or imidacloprid

(but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to


disorder).

66

Rice yellow mottle

virus (RYMV)

transmitted by Flea

Beetles (Chaetocnema varicornis) and other

beetles

Use resistant cultivars as they are developed, such as SSD-1, SSD-3, SSD-5,

SSD-7, SSD-35.

Use certified disease-free treated (for diseases and flea beetles) seed.

Many predators control the flea beetle vectors of RYMV, so avoid over-

spraying for insect vectors

Manage the vectors of RYMV by using synthetic pyrethroid pesticides (get

RUP training and avoid getting pyrethroids into the water)

Control the flea beetles that transmit the

virus.








disorder).


treated seed, broadcast a spray with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are



colony collapse disorder), spinosad,

imidacloprid (but only when plants are in

vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee

colony collapse disorder) or

deltamethrin.

False smut on rice

(Ustilaginoidea virens,

Entyloma oryzae)

Some hybrids and varieties are more resistant than others.

Avoid mechanical injuries to plants and maintain well-balanced soil fertility.

Rotate to another crop, the longer the better.

Use of disease-free seeds that are selected from healthy mother plants.

Split nitrogen applications.

Removal and proper disposal of infected plant debris.

Avoid field activities when the plants are wet.

Fungicides are generally not used for

most smuts.

Brown leaf spot

(Bipolaris oryzae)


Careful use of fertilizer can do much to prevent the disease

Burn or feed stubbles after harvest

Hot water treatment of seeds

Seed treatment with captan, thiram 3or

mancozeb.

Rice blast (Pyricularia oryzae)

Use of resistant cultivars.

Destruction of infested residue.

Use application of synthetic fungicides containing metalaxyl.

67

Use of certified clean or non-infested seed.

Water seeding (not drill seeding).

Continuous flooding.

Avoid using excess nitrogen.

Do not plant too early or too late.

Avoid close planting in nurseries.

Rice weeds Use an integrated weed management scheme:

Perform thorough land preparation (soil tillage, fertilizer, and water

management).

Narrow row spacing makes the crop more competitive than the weeds, use

intercropping.

Place the fertilizer in such a way that the crop has access to it but the weeds

do not. This allows the crop to be more competitive with weeds.

Keep the surroundings of farm free of weeds, unless they are maintained and

intended as habitats for natural enemies of crop pests.

Regularly clean farm tools.

Use green manure, which chokes out weeds.

Use intercropping.

Hand weeding, hoeing and composting (do not compost weeds that have

flowered and set).

Minimizing weed competition during the early stages of the crop, before it has

formed a closed leaf canopy, is particularly important. In upland rice this

critical period is approximately 15-40 days after seeding, while in transplanted rice, the crop can form a canopy more rapidly. Where a crop is

exposed to prolonged weed competition during this critical period it is not

usually able to recover sufficiently to give a good yield.

Pre-emergence: use an herbicide containing pendimethalin plus hand

weeding/hoeing.

Rice Storage Weevils:

Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae)

Do routine monitoring. Ensure good pest identification; understand pest

biology, ecology, and behavior.

Use good sanitation and good grain storage practices, as follows:

All grain stored off the floor on palates, with space between palates, well

ventilated/aerated and lighted, dispose of old containers.

In empty shipping containers, thoroughly sweep or brush down walls,

ceilings, ledges, braces, and handling equipment, and remove all spilled

debris.

Brush, sweep out and/or vacuum the truck beds, augers, and loading buckets

to remove insect-infested grain and debris.

Remove all debris from fans, exhausts, and aeration ducts (also from beneath

If needed, can use synthetic pyrethroid

insecticides containing permethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin for surface, crack

and crevice spraying.

68

slotted floors, when possible).

Remove all debris and vegetation growing within ten feet of the warehouses

(preferably the whole storage area).

Examine area to determine if rodent bait stations are required, and use if

needed. Be sure to follow all label directions.

Spray cleaned area around bins with a residual herbicide to remove all

undesirable weedy plants.

Remove all debris from the storage site and dispose of it properly.

Frequent rotation of the stocks, "FIFO" (First In - First Out) rule applies.

Use sticky traps to monitor for presence and quantity.

Grains: Maize/Sorghum*


Weeds


needed

Maize stalk borers

(Busseola fusca, and

others)

Natural enemies of larvae include parasitoids Braconid family of parasitic

wasps, wasps of the genus Cotesia, and Tachinid fly larvae. Trichogramma

parasitoids attack eggs of stalk borers. Predators include ground beetles, lacewing larvae and adults, praying mantis and weaver ants.

Use borer-resistant varieties.

Use crop rotation and intercrop maize with cowpea or groundnut.

Plant early at the beginning of rains or within 2 weeks.

Sanitation: Remove and destroy stalks by burning, feeding to cattle or composting.

Apply imidacloprid or thiamethoxam to

seed or growing plant, or apply

acetamiprid to the plant (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when

flowering due to risk to pollinators and

honeybee colony collapse disorder).

If they become registered, use natural

pesticides containing BT toxin or

spinosad (both extracts from soil microbes) between the egg stage and

leaf-feeding stage (before they bore into

the stem).

Can use synthetic insecticides containing

lambda-cyhalothrin.

Corn earworm

(Helicoverpa zea)


Many predators and parasites attack corn earworm eggs, including several

species of Trichogramma. General predators include lacewings, minute pirate

bugs, and damsel bugs eat corn earworm eggs and small larvae.

Monitor fields regularly.

Two weeks before planting, remove weeds and grasses to destroy earworm

larvae and adults harboring in those weeds and grasses.

Practice crop rotation. Avoid planting crops successively that are hosts to

Use of organic botanical insecticides like

neem seed extract.

Use of organic biopesticides or microbial

controls consisting of Bacillus thuringiensis/BT and spinosad.

69

cotton bollworm like corn, sorghum, tobacco, soybean, and tomato.

Sanitation: After harvest, remove cotton stubble and destroy by burning,

feeding to cows or composting.

Armyworms

(Spodoptera exempta)

Natural enemies include parasitoid Braconid and Cotesia wasps and Tachinid

flies as well as damsel bugs, ground beetles, lacewings and weaver ants.

Remove weeds from bordering fields and on field borders.

Sanitation: Remove all plant debris after harvesting.

Pheromone traps placed along the edges of fields may be used to monitor

adult moths. This is a particularly good technique for detecting large emergences or migrations occurring on weather fronts.

Start monitoring before seedlings emerge by checking for egg masses and

young larvae in surrounding weeds.

Botanical and homemade water extracts

include chili, garlic, and neem seed.

Use sprays of BT, if and when they

become registered and available.

To reduce development of resistance, regularly rotate chemicals to different

chemical families.


lambda-cyhalothrin.

Cutworm species

(Agrotis ipsilon, Agrotis segetum)

Natural enemies include Braconid wasps (Cotesia spp. and others) and

Tachinid fly larvae. Predators include ground beetles, lacewings, praying manits and weaver ants.

Removal of weeds in and around fields two weeks before planting.

Use pheromone traps.

Use crop rotation--plant alfalfa or beans after maize.

Interplant main crops with onion, garlic, peppermint, coriander, or garlic

every 10-20 rows to repel cutworms. Sunflowers and cosmos can also be

planted as a trap crop in or around fields.

Botanical and homemade extracts

include neem.



Find ‘hot-spots’ (places of high

infestation) and treat only those hot spots with permethrin.


lambda-cyhalothrin.

Termites

Baits: wood stakes treated with borates

Insecticide seed treatment.

Use composted instead of fresh mulch.

Hand dig out nest to kill queen, synthetic pyrethroid insecticides poured into

nest.

Can spray imidacloprid (but only when


flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

Maize Leafhoppers (Cicadulina spp.

Especially Cicadulina

mbila (transmits MSV)

Maize Streak Virus (MSV)

Plant early and maintain a maize-free period over the winter months.

Practice proper field sanitation. Many cereal crops and wild grasses serve as

reservoirs of the virus and the vectors. Free area of weeds and remove all

plant debris after harvest to remove the possible breeding sites of adults.

Prepare a healthy soil to grow healthy plants. Healthy plants can withstand leafhoppers' feeding damage.

Practice crop rotation: do not plant maize after maize. Remove all volunteer

maize plants that grow in new plantings of rotation crops.

Properly rotate crops that are not susceptible to leafhoppers.

Try botanical and homemade water extracts of garlic and neem.

No synthetic insecticides are

recommended or cost-effective, however

synthetic insecticides containing imidacloprid could be used (but only

when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators

and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

70

Use reflective mulches

Grasshoppers (various

species)

Send kids to handpick.

Natural predators control most grasshoppers.

Control weeds around and in field.

Can use insecticides containing lambda-

cyhalothrin or deltamethrin.

Soil Pests

False Wireworms (larvae of click

beetles)

White grub/Fat John

(Phyllophaga spp, and

Heteronychus spp)

Do scouting and monitoring to determine pest presence, quantity and damage.

Do weed control in and around field.

Do crop rotation.

Cultivation, flooding, and dry fallowing can help reduce populations.

Avoid fields with a history of wireworm damage

Summer fallow will reduce wireworm numbers by drying the soil.

Low-lying, sandy fields tend to have the most problems, and click beetles

seem to return to the same fields to lay eggs.

Use synthetic seed treatment or spray

systemic insecticides containing

imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due

to risk to pollinators and honeybee

colony collapse disorder).


lambda-cyhalothrin.

Maize black flea

beetles (Chaetocnema species)

Natural parasites include Braconid wasps. Natural predators include crickets

and lacewings.

Remove and destroy or compost all plant residues.

Plant the barrier crop along the edges of the field ahead of the main crop.

Radish and Chinese mustard are good trap crops.

Keep fields weed-free, particularly of field bindweed and mustard, which are preferred hosts of flea beetles. Heavily damaged fields should be replanted.

White or yellow sticky traps placed in every 5-10 m on the rows.

Thick mulch in isolated planting interferes the larva's feeding activities.


of neem may provide effective control.

Apply imidacloprid or thiamethoxam to

seed or growing plant, or apply acetamiprid to the plant (but only when


flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

Leaf Blight

(Helminthosporium

turcicum)

Use resistant or tolerant varieties or hybrids.

Maintain soil and plant health (test these with lab tests).

Sanitation: destroy infected crop residues.

Rotate maize with other crops.

No fungicides are recommended.

Smuts (Ustilago

maydis and Sphacelotheca

reiliana)

Although no maize variety is immune, some hybrids and varieties are more

resistant than others.

Avoid mechanical injuries to plants.

Maintain well-balanced soil fertility.

Rotate to another crop, the longer the better.

Use of disease-free seeds that are selected from healthy mother plants

Split nitrogen applications

Removal and proper disposal of infected plant debris.

Fungicides are generally not used for

most smuts.

71

Avoid field activities when the plants are wet.

Control insect pests that may transmit smut.

Gray leaf spot,

Cercospora zeae-

maydis

Select moderately resistant hybrids.

Do not plant maize too late.

Control weeds. This will help to increase airflow and dry the canopy faster,

thereby reducing the environment favorable for infection.

Sanitation: Remove and destroy or compost maize stalk/leaf residues.

Continuous maize and no-till or reduced-tillage systems are at high risk for

disease development because of the amount of residue they leave on the soil

surface.

A one-year rotation away from maize, followed by tillage is recommended to

prevent disease development in the subsequent maize crop.

In no-till or reduced-till fields with a history of gray leaf spot, a two-year

rotation out of maize may be needed to reduce the amount of disease in the following maize crop.

Can use synthetic fungicides containing

propiconazole.

Diplodia ear rots

(Gibberella zeae,

Fusarium graminearum, G.

fujikuroi)

Use resistant hybrids.

Reduce ear and kernel damage from insects and birds.


Leaf Blight

(Helminthosporium

turcicum)

Use resistant or tolerant varieties or hybrids.

Maintain soil and plant health (test these with lab tests).

Sanitation: destroy infected crop residues.

Rotate maize with other crops.


Rust (Puccinia sorghi)

Use resistant hybrids

Have proper plant spacing by following the recommended planting distances.

This enables light penetration and air flow

Have a healthy and well-balanced soil

Always practice proper field sanitation (remove and compost crop stubble)

Control weeds

Practice crop rotation by alternating crops of non-related family groups during

every cropping season

Sanitation: Remove heavily infected plants and post-harvest residues and

compost or burry.

If needed, and registered, pesticides

containing mancozeb, propiconazole can

be used.

72

Annual & Perennial

Grass Weeds, Broad

Leaf Weeds

Use an integrated weed management scheme:


management).


intercropping.







Use intercropping.

Hand weeding, hoeing, rototiller and composting (do not compost weeds that

have flowered and set).

Before planting, use non-selective

herbicides containing glyphosate.

At planting or after planting, use

synthetic herbicides containing glyphosate or pendimethalin.

Maize Storage weevils

and grain borers




All grain stored off the floor on palates, with space between palates, well ventilated/aerated and lighted, dispose of old containers.



debris.



Remove all debris from fans, exhausts, and aeration ducts (also from beneath

slotted floors, when possible).



Examine area to determine if rodent bait stations are required, and use if needed. Be sure to follow all label directions.






If needed, can use synthetic insecticide

powders or dusts containing pirimiphos-

methyl and permethrin.

73

Grains: Millet*


Weeds Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate Recommended Chemical Controls, when

needed

Millet Stem Borer

(Acigona ignefusalis) and other stem borers

Use early planting to ensure maximum pest escape.


Intercropping sorghum with pulses in alternate rows may reduce stem borer

incidence by 20-30%.

Sanitation: in dry season cut and destroy stalks.

Same as for maize, above.

Sorghum Shoot fly

(Atherigona soccata)

Practice early planting to escape the shoot borer.

Plant resistant varieties.

Remove and destroy or compost dead plants with shoot fly larvae.

If needed, replant where dead plants were removed.

No additional methods.

Aphids (various spp) Natural enemies include Braconid parasitoids, ground beetles, spiders, rove

beetles, ladybird beetles, lacewings, damsel bugs, aphid midges and hoverfly larvae.

To monitor aphid populations, examine the undersides of the leaves and the

bud areas for groups or colonies of aphids. Prompt control is necessary as aphids can multiply rapidly.

Management and cultural practices

Grow different crops or grow crops in rotation every cropping season. This

practice provides food, shelter, and it increases the number of natural enemies that prey on aphids. At the same time, it disrupts the aphids' lifecycle and

maintains its population below the economic threshold level

Plant trap crops such as lupine, nasturtiums, and timothy grass near the crop

to be protected. Anise, chives, garlic, onions, and radish are good companion crops.

Control and kill ants (see above).

Avoid using heavy doses of highly soluble nitrogen fertilizers. Instead apply

fertilizer into 3 phases: during seeding, vegetative, and reproductive stages of

plant growth.

Botanical and homemade water extracts of chili, ginger, neem, Andographis

(see above), turmeric, tomato leaf and Yam Bean. Soap spray (caution: may injure foliage)

Water traps: Half-fill yellow pan or basin with soapy water.

Biological control and oil (Narrow range

agriculture oil) and soap sprays are acceptable for use on organically grown

crops.

If registered, can apply dimethoate or narrow range oils to aphids.

74

Use yellow sticky board traps placed in field (spread used motor oil on yellow

painted plastic, thick cardboard or wood).

Army worms


Early warning mechanism i.e use of pheromone traps to detect adult flight can

prevent a major damage

Use pesticides e.g pyrethroids to control invading caterpillars to avoid their

spread to other farms


Greater Grain Weevils

(Stitophilus oryzae, S.

zeamais)

Storage hygiene must be observed.

Divide produce for long term (3>months) and short-term (<3months) storage;

treat only long-term storage.

Harvest early to reduce storage infestation.


Seed rot, Seedling

blight and Root rot (Pythium spp)

Use resistant hybrids

Optimal cultural practices (balanced fertility, good water management, crop

rotation, plowing crop residues under, etc.) will help to prevent or reduce the impact of these diseases.

Early plantings usually escape serious injury.

Eliminate low areas in the field and improve drainage.

Crop rotation to non-host crops, such as small grains, can also help reduce the disease potential.

For charcoal rot, Good water management to avoid stressing plants is

important in managing this disease, particularly as the crop approaches the flowering stage.

Use clean high quality seeds, because poor quality, low vigor seeds are most

susceptible.

Avoid injury to seed pericarp

Ensure good cultural practices – proper planting depths and seed bed

preparation

Avoid waterlogged areas and ensure optimum water management.

Remove heavily infected plants and compost or burry.

Generally, corn fungicides are not widely

used in West Africa.

Downy mildew

(Sclerospora sorghii)

Use improved varieties

Rogue diseased plants

If heavy attack is experienced in unfavorable condition, use recommended

fungicides

No additional methods.

Striga weed Farmers use manure mixed with mineral fertilizers.

Farmers elevate the plants before flowering.

Can try herbicides containing imazapyr, along with crop varieties resistant to

75

Use resistant cowpea varieties.

Use early application of nitrogen.

imidazolinones. Also, 2, 4-D or

metsulfuron methyl could be used along with resistant crop varieties.

Grains: Wheat*



needed

Aphids (various

species)

A number of coccinellid and syrphid predators, parasites and fungal diseases

usually keep aphid populations below damaging levels.

Maintain adequate soil moisture and fertilization (Plants stressed for water or

nutrients are more susceptible to and suffer greater damage from aphids).

Use regular monitoring, yellow sticky traps.

Use resistant varieties. Sanitation: Field disking and destruction of crop residues are important

for control of aphid pests of leafy vegetables to reduce their migration into nearby crops.

Avoid early planting.

Avoid excessively high soil nitrogen levels.

Treatments with natural chemicals, if

needed, can include narrow range oils,

pyrethrin.

For high levels of aphids, use systemic synthetic insecticide seed treatments

containing thiamethoxam or

imidacloprid.

No synthetic pesticides are

recommended for spraying.

Wheat thrips

(Haplothrips tritici)

Predatory thrips, Aelothrips species, as well as other predators such as bugs,

ladybirds, lacewing larvae, ground beetles, Staphilinid beetles and robber flies are capable lowering thrip numbers.

Use early wheat sowing and early two-phase harvesting.

Early deep plowing.

Use crop rotation.

Growing of early-ripening wheat cultivars.

Synthetic pesticides are not

recommended to control wheat thrips.

Cereal Leaf Beetle

(CLB) (Oulema melanopus)

Natural controls include lady beetles and larvae, some wasp larvae parasites

of CLB eggs (Anaphes flavipes) and larvae (Tatrastichus julis, Diaparrsis carinifer) and Lemophagus curtus) and a Tachinid fly larvae (Hyalomyodes

triangulifer) that attacks CLB larvae.

Assure a thick, well tillered, healthy crop (planting on time, good seed bed preparation, using high quality seed, correct drill calibration, and being sure to

get good soil-seed contact at the proper seeding depth).

In spring, before the boot stage and before the flag leaf emerges, monitor for

eggs and larvae on 10 plants in 5 field locations, and spray if 3 or more

Use, at early head-fill stage, synthetic

insecticides containing spinosad, malathion, or beta-cyfluthrin or lambda-

cyhalothrin (but do not use near open

water).

76

eggs/larvae are found per plant; after flag leaf emergence, spray after 1 or

more larvae are discovered per plant.

Sunn Pest (Eurygaster

species)


Rotate crops.

Monitor for presence of natural enemies.

Destroy alternate host plants near fields.

Might use synthetic pesticides containing

pyrethroids lambda-cyhalothrin or deltamethrin (but do not use either near

open water).

Smuts (Wheat

covered smut and loose smut)

Tilletia caries and

Tilletia foetida,

Ustilago hordei

Ustilago tritici ,

Ustilago nuda, Ustilago nigra

Use certified smut-free seed.

Hot water treatment can eliminate smut fungi from contaminated seed, but it must be used carefully to avoid reducing seed vitality.

For covered smut, which is on the outside of the seed, treatment of seed with

contact-type fungicides will control covered smut.

For loose smut, which resides inside the seed, seed treatment with systemic fungicides is necessary.

For seed treatment, use synthetic

pesticides containing thiram.

Wheat rusts (leaf,

stem, yellow)

Use certified disease-free resistant hybrid seed.

Resistant cultivars of barley and wheat are available.

If new races of the fungus render current

sources of resistance obsolete, fungicides

such as propiconazole can be applied to

control disease outbreaks. To protect the

flag leaf, applications should be made

between tillering and heading.

Weeds: Deploy integrated weed management.

Adequate drainage is necessary for fields planted to small grains. Excessive

moisture in low areas creates and aggravates problems such as stand loss, loss

of soil nutrients, reduced oxygen supply, and root diseases. Chiseling the soil

before seedbed preparation increases drainage and root development.

Use pre-irrigation or first rain to germinate weed seeds and remove them by

tilling before planting or by applying postemergent herbicides, land

preparation.

Under dryland conditions, after the first autumn rainfall, primary fall tillage

with a disk, chisel plow, or moldboard plow usually follows to eliminate

germinating winter weed seedlings.

For fallow period, use synthetic herbicides containing glyphosate,

pyraflufen-ethyl.

Preplant: use synthetic herbicides

containing glyphosate.

Post-plant, wheat, before weeds emerge,

use synthetic herbicides containing

pendimethalin.

77

Pod Seed Pulses & Legumes: Soybean


Weeds


needed

Armyworms


Natural enemies include parasitoid Braconid and Cotesia wasps and Tachinid

flies as well as damsel bugs, ground beetles, lacewings and weaver ants.

Remove weeds from bordering fields and on field borders.

Sanitation: Remove all plant debris after harvesting.

Pheromone traps placed along the edges of fields may be used to monitor

adult moths. This is a particularly good technique for detecting large

emergences or migrations occurring on weather fronts.

Start monitoring before seedlings emerge by checking for egg masses and young larvae in surrounding weeds.


include chili, garlic, and neem seed.



To reduce development of resistance,

regularly rotate chemicals to different

chemical families.


lambda-cyhalothrin.

Flower thrips that

cause flower drop

Use of soil mulches.

Control weeds around fields.

Sampling for thrips by examining early flower clusters.

Remove weed and crop residues at end of season.

Use yellow and blue traps to monitor or for mass trapping.

Use of neem seed extract.

Can use insecticides containing

dimethoate, lambda-cyhalothrin and

provide great reduction in thrips

emergence.

Green stinkbugs (Nezara viridula)

Use resistant varieties

Many parasitoids control GSB eggs and larvae, so do not use broad-spectrum

insecticides; monitor for parasitism levels and make treatment decision

accordingly

Destroy weeds (legumes, thistles, mustards, and mallows) that are good overwintering hosts for adult stinkbugs around fields.

Use homemade neem seed extract plus soapy water.

Can use insecticides containing

deltamethrin, imidacloprid or

thiamethoxam.

Pre-Emergence Weeds Use an integrated weed management scheme:


management).

Narrow row spacing makes the crop more competitive than the weeds.







Use herbicides containing glyphosate, 2,4-D-amine, bentazon.

78

Use intercropping.

Hand weeding, hoeing, rototiller and composting (do not compost weeds that

have flowered and set).

Soybean Storage

weevils




All grain stored off the floor on palates, with space between palates, well

ventilated/aerated and lighted, dispose of old containers.



debris.



Remove all debris from fans, exhausts, and aeration ducts (also from beneath slotted floors, when possible).



Examine area to determine if rodent bait stations are required, and use if needed. Be sure to follow all label directions.






If needed, can use natural insecticide

powders or dusts containing BT or

diatomaceous earth, if it becomes available.

Pod Seed Pulses & Legumes: Cowpea, Pigeon Pea, Dolique Bean



needed

Aphids (Aphis

craccivora)

Plant resistant varieties and use crop rotation

Observe build up aphid populations and natural enemies (predators like lady

bird beetles, hover flies, lacewings, parasitic wasps like Aphidius spp)

Natural enemies include Braconid parasitoids, ground beetles, spiders, rove

beetles, ladybird beetles, lacewings, damsel bugs, aphid midges and hoverfly larvae.

Examine the undersides of the leaves and control aphid colonies promptly

Use extracts of neem, tobacco, fire ashes

and chili peppers.

If needed, and registered for use,

insecticides containing malathion may be applied.

79

Plant trap crops such as lupine, nasturtiums, timothy grass, anise, chives,

garlic, onions, and radish near the crop to be protected.

Botanical and homemade water extracts of chili, tomato leaf extracts, neem,

Indian Chiretta (King of Bitters, Andrographis paniculata) or Siam Weed (Eupatorium odoratum) mixed with cow urine and chili. Soap spray can also

be used, but too much may injure foliage.

Water traps: Half-fill yellow pan or basin with soapy water.

Use yellow sticky board traps placed in field (spread used motor oil on yellow

painted plastic, thick cardboard or wood).

Flower thrips

(Megalurothrips

sjostedji)


Limited control in nature by parasitoids e.g Ceranisus menes and predators

Orius sp.

Predators include minute pirate bugs and lacewings.

Control local weed populations.

Do not rotate or interplant with garlic or onions.

Keep plants well irrigated.

Use bright yellow or blue sticky board traps placed in field (spread used

motor oil on plastic, thick cardboard or wood painted yellow).

Prune off and remove heavily infested plant parts.

Botanical and homemade extracts of

garlic, neem and soap sprays are

effective.

Pod borers (Mauruca vitrata)

Use trap crops e.g Crotalaria juncea and destroy once infested

Parasitoids include wasps in the Braconid family and tiny egg parasitic

Trichogramma wasps. Predators include spiders and praying mantis.

Intercropping sorghum with cowpea reduces the incidence of pod borer.

Use resistant cowpea cultivars

Practice crop rotation. Planting non-leguminous crops every cropping season breaks the life cycle of bean pod borers

Spray with neem extracts from flowering

stage.

Use of BT spray and homemade water

extracts of neem.

Sucking Bugs

(Anoplocnemis curvipes, Clavigrallaa

tomentosicolis, C. shadabi, Aspavia sp,

Nezara viridula)

Limited control occurs in nature by Trissolus basalis, a biological control

agent and Assassin bug (Reduviids)

Control weeds to destroy roosting sites

Spray with malathion if registered.

Variegated

Grasshopper (Zonocerus variegates)

Scout for breeding sites to detect outbreaks

Hand pick early in the morning when hoppers are less active, fry with chili

and garlic and consume

Spray with Metharrizium when nymphs

are seen on weeds or the crop.

80

Naturally controlled by nematodes

White fly (Bemisia

tabaci)

Controlled in nature by hymenopteran parasitoids (Encarsia sp), parasitic

wasps, lady beetles and minute pirate bugs

Use soil mulches

Frequent scouting and establishing a sampling plan based on a threshold of 2

adults/leaf

Yellow sticky traps may reduce populations but cannot prevent the spread

Spray solution of local soap (2%) if

infestation is heavy.

Chemicals suggested are: azadirachtin

(neem seed extract), imidacloprid, acetimiprid, insecticidal soap and

horticultural oil.

Leaf miner (Liriomyza

sp.)

Simple cultural practice – rogueing (removal and destruction) of heavily

infested leaves

Use regular monitoring and irrigation

Use sanitation—destroy crop residue

Biological control is often adequate to control leaf miners, so evaluate levels of parasitism before making treatment decisions and use pesticides with care.

Monitor crop and apply selective insecticide if the average is 0.7 larvae per

plant (0-2 true leaves) or 0.7 larvae per 3 terminal leaflets (>2 leaves per plant).

Can use Neemoil, abamectin.

Spider mites

(Tetranychus urticae,

T. cinnabarinus, T. evansi)

Do weed control

Spider mites have many natural enemies that often limit populations; Predacious mites and some insect feeds on spider mites, eg (Phytoseiulus

persimilis and Amblyseius andersoni); the major predator mites commercially available for purchase and release are the western predatory mite and Phytoseiulus.

Adequate irrigation is important because water-stressed plants are most likely to be damaged. Broad-spectrum insecticide treatments for other pests frequently cause mite outbreaks, so avoid these when possible.

Use an insecticidal soap or oil can be used for management. Oils and soaps must contact mites to kill them so excellent coverage, especially on the undersides of leaves, is essential and repeat applications may be required.

Use of Malathion, Neemoil, agricultural oil, abamectin.

Cowpea storage weevil

(Callosobruchus

maculatus)

Observe sanitation in storage

Use triple bagging technology

Solar disinfestations by heating grain between black and transparent plastic

sheets

Divide crops into batch for short-term storage (<3months), and long term

(>3months). Treat only long term storage batch.

Store small quantities with wood ash, groundnut oil, neem oil, black pepper

powder etc.

Apply recommended storage pesticides

containing pirimiphos-methyl and permethrin.

Root Knot nematodes (Meloidogyne

Management of nematodes in cowpea requires a careful integration of several cultural practices, including choice of cultivar, crop rotation, sanitation, and

No nematicides are recommended.

81

incognita) fallow/green manure.

Practice long rotation with non-susceptible crops e.g cereals

Plant Tagetes spp. (marigold) for one season on heavily infested fields

Wilts (Fusarium

oxysporum)

Pathogen is soil borne and probably seed transmitted


Practice long rotations with non-host crops eg, cereals, cassava

If resistant plants are infected with root knot nematodes, then they may

become susceptible.

No additional control methods are

recommended.

Anthranose

(Collectotrichum

lindemuthianum)

Use clean seeds

Grow resistant varieties

Use sanitation—plow under crop residue immediately after harvest.

Practice rotation.

Burn crop residues

Apply appropriate fungicides, like

mancozeb or others on foliage when

disease symptom appears

Web Blight (Corticum

solani)

Destroy crop residue and weed hosts

Use clean seeds

Ensure good cultural practices e.g avoid dense planting and plan sowing to

avoid peak rainfall periods.

Practice long rotation with non-susceptible crops like cereal

No additional control methods are

recommended.

Cercospora leaf spot

(Cercospora spp)

Use clean resistant seed

Use seed treatments with metalaxyl and

mefenoxam

Pod Seed Pulses & Legumes: Peanut/Groundnut, Bambara Nut


Weeds


needed

Wireworms,

Conoderus spp

Avoid fields with a history of wireworm damage

Low-lying, sandy fields tend to have the most problems, and click beetles

seem to return to the same fields to lay eggs.

Soil-applied insecticides can be effective if applied in a timely manner

Preventative applications tend to be more

successful than rescue treatments.

Use synthetic insecticides containing




82



Thrips, Frankliniella

spp

Remove weeds in and around field.

Use yellow and blue sticky traps to monitor and/or for mass trapping.

Use soil mulches.

Sanitation: Remove and destroy all crop residues immediately after harvest.

Rotate among synthetic insecticides

containing Malathion, spinosad,



colony collapse disorder) or acephate.

Peanut leaf spots:

Early Leaf Spot,

Cercospora

arachidicola;

Late Leaf Spot,

Cercosporidiuum

personatum

Crop rotations out of legumes for three or four years are recommended.

Select varieties with partial resistance and/or reduced susceptibility to disease (Perry for early leaf spot and web blotch).

Phytotoxicity (chemical toxicity), caused by systemic insecticides applied at

planting, is often confused with leaf spot. Symptoms usually occur around the

margins of the leaflets on the lower-most leaves. In general, spots found

before mid-June are phytotoxicity.

Rotate fungicides containing copper and

propiconazole.

Peanut rosette disease

(Arachis Hypogaea)

Use clean seed

Plant early


Use sanitation—destroy old plant residues

Use early-maturing varieties

Farmers use insecticides containing

deltamethrin, and lambda-cyhalothrin

(do not allow into enter open water, get RUP training) to control aphid vectors

Peanut Cercospora

(Cercospora arachidicola)


Do not irrigate during cool weather

Do not injure plants when hoeing

Rotate crops

Soil pH should range from 5.8-6.2 with the optimum at 6.0

Sanitation—plow deep to burry plant residues

Can spray copper and sulfur containing

compounds

Roots/Tubers: Cassava, Tiger Nut


Weeds


needed

Mealy bug Introduced wasps and predatory mites generally control most outbreaks of May use synthetic insecticides

83

(Phenacoccus herreni,

Phenacoccus manihoti)

mealy bug.

containing thiamethoxam (but only when

plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and

honeybee colony collapse disorder) or

imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due

to risk to pollinators and honeybee


Green Spider mite Do weekly monitoring and sampling.

Several cultural methods, such as adjusting planting time for the crop to

escape severe damage at young age, mixing varieties to avoid genetic

uniformity, and removing infested tips.

Use of predatory mites, if available.

Use of entomopatogenic fungi,

insecticidal soap or horticultural oils can be used for management. Oils and soaps must contact mites to kill them so excellent coverage, especially on the undersides of leaves, is essential and repeat applications may be required.

Can use synthetic insecticides and miticides containing dimethoate,

acetamiprid (but only when plants are in


colony collapse disorder), lambda-

cyhalothrin or deltamethrin.

Grasshopper (Zonocerus

variegatus)

Naturally controlled by entomopathic nematodes.

Have children handpick early in the morning when hoppers are less active, fry

with chili and garlic, and consume as a convenient and tasty protein source.

Scout for breeding sites to detect outbreaks

If it becomes available, spray with

natural microbial insecticide

Metharrizium when nymphs are seen on weeds or the crop.

Long horn beetle

(Lagocheirus

araneiformis)

Use of healthy uninfested planting material.

Monitor the edges of fields weekly.

Remove and burn affected plants.

No insecticides are economical or useful.

Thrips (Frankliniella

williamsi, Corynotrips stenopterus)

Use tolerant or resistant varieties. Do regular monitoring with blue and yellow sticky traps.

Use crop rotation.

Most insecticides must be applied at least two times, 5 to 7 days apart, for efficacy against flower thrips.

84

Keep production areas free of weeds, which can serve as hosts for thrips populations.

Rotate among the following insecticides: neem seed extract, acetamiprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder), imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder), insecticidal soap and spinosad.

Bacterial rots and

blights (Xanthomonas campestris p.v.

manihotis)

Pruning and cleaning

Use of healthy material

Good soil preparation

Disinfect the cutting tools used to make propagation materials.

Usage of resistant material

Use of healthy plant material

Rotation

For control, use copper hydroxide.

Weeds Hand or hoe weeding. Pre-emergence: use herbicide products

containing pendimethalin or acetochlor.

Roots/Tubers: Sweet potato, Yam


Weeds


needed

Grasshoppers (various

species)

Hand pick early in the morning when hoppers are less active, fry with garlic

and chili and consume

Use fireplace ashes, neem and red chili

extract

Sweet potato weevil

(Cylas formicarius)

Use short-cycle varieties and planting material from healthy plantations.

Follow proper harvesting time

Do 2 ridgings per cycle, with the first after the first weed cleaning and second 75 days later.

Use of attractive barrier varieties as trap

crops.

Hawkmoth larvae Do weed control around and in field Use of biological control Basillus

85

(Agrius cingulatus) Do Crop rotation

Many natural enemies control hawkmoth larvae

thuringiensis /BT

Use of lambda-cyhalothrin.

Armyworm

(Spodoptera eridania)

Do weed control around and in field

Removal of crop residue

Use biological control Bacillus

thuringiensis

Use of a bait composed of bran, molasses

and

Use of baits, deltamethrin, and with RUP

training, not permitting the pesticides to

enter open water, can use lambda-cyhalothrin, pyrethrum and permethrin.

White rust (Albugo

ipomoea)


Select fields with heavier soils that are not especially subject to drought. Early

season irrigation may prevent infection of the fibrous roots, reduce disease

incidence, and increase yields.

Prevent spread of the pathogen into new fields by using only certified disease-

free storage roots to produce disease-free plants.

Do crop Rotation

Can try fungicides containing fosetyl-aluminum, mefoxonam, neem, iprodione, propiconazole, and potassium bicarbonate.

Solanaceous Crops: Tomatoes, Peppers, Eggplants


Weeds


needed

Leaf miners, Tomato

plant borer, Tuta absoluta; Liriomyza

species


Do rotation with non-solanaceous crops.

Use proper recommended fertilizer and irrigation to keep plants strong.

Sanitation: Plowing under or destruction of infested plants and of post-harvest plant debris.

Can use natural insecticides containing

permethrin.


spinosad, imidacloprid (but only when


flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or

deltamethrin.

White flies (Bemisia

tabaci, Trialeurodes vaporariorum)

Controlled in nature by hymenopteran parasitoids (Encarsia species), lady

beetles and minute pirate bugs.

Yellow sticky traps may be used to reduce populations but cannot prevent the

spread, once established.

Spray natural solution of local soap (2%)

or horticultural oil if infestation is heavy.

At crop initiation, seed or soil

application of a synthetic systemic

86

Frequent crop monitoring. neonicotinoid insecticide (imidacloprid,

acetamiprid).

Selective synthetic chemicals as:

azadirachtin (neem seed extract), or

Neemoil, abamectin.

Aphids (various

species) Many types of natural enemies and pathogens may control these aphids

under low insecticide input situations. However, these aphids reproduce quickly and move into protected areas of the plants, thereby greatly reducing the potential impact of their predators and parasitoids in older stage plants.

Use resistant varieties. Use regular monitoring with yellow sticky traps.

Field disking and destruction of crop residues are important for control of aphid pests of leafy vegetables to reduce their migration into nearby crops.

If control is needed, treat when aphids are found to be reproducing, particularly when second and later generation wingless females have started reproduction. Aphid populations are easier to control before the plants begin to cup.

Insecticides containing systemic synthetic insecticides imidacloprid, acetamiprid.

Thrips (Thrips tabaci) Rotation: Alternating crops with bean, corn or other crop.

Blue sticky traps for monitoring.

Good irrigation, drainage and fertilization.

Natural extracts of neem or garlic can be

used.

Mites

(Tetranychus urticae; Polyphagotarsonemus

latus; Aculops lycopersici

Spider mites have many natural enemies that often limit populations; predacious mites and some insect feeds on spider mites, eg (Phytoseiulus

persimilis and Amblyseius andersoni); the major predator mites commercially available for purchase and release are the western predatory mite and Phytoseiulus.


Adequate irrigation is important because water-stressed trees are most likely to be damaged.

Broad-spectrum insecticide treatments for other pests frequently cause mite outbreaks, so avoid these when possible.

Natural insecticidal soaps or agricultural oils and neem extracts can be used for management (apply especially on the undersides of leaves).

Use of synthetic insecticides containing

malathion or abamectin.

Tomato Fruit worm

(Helicoverpa armigera)

Avoid planting crops successively that are hosts to tomato fruit worm like

corn, cotton, sorghum, tobacco and soybean.



Practice crop rotation.

Plow, disc and harrow fields at least 2 times before sowing seeds. This

Insecticidal control of tomato fruit worm

is difficult and depends on proper timing and thorough coverage. Once larvae

enter the tomato, control with

insecticides is difficult.


87

exposes pupae of tomato fruit worm (pupates in the soil) to chickens, birds,

ants and other predators.

Make and use pheromone or light traps.

Begin sampling soon after fruit development. Eggs hatch in 5 to 7 days

following egg laying.

include neem and ginger.

Trichogramma wasps from the

biolaboratory provide some control of tomato fruit worm eggs.

Direct insecticidal control towards young

larvae that are feeding on the fruit,

before entering it.

Natural sprays of Bacillus thuringiensis

(BT) and the Entrust formulation of

spinosad.

Cutworm species (Agrotis segetum)

Natural enemies include larvae of parasitic Braconid wasps and Tachinid flies. Predators include ground beetles, lacewings, praying mantis and weaver

ants.

Use crop rotation--plant alfalfa or beans after tomato.

Removal of weeds in and around fields will reduce egg-laying sites and will help in the prevention of cutworm infestation. Do this at least 2-3 weeks

before planting to reduce the incidence of cutworm larvae transferring to

newly planted crops.


every 10-20 rows to repel cutworms.

Sunflowers and cosmos can also be planted as a trap crop in or around fields.

Plow and harrow fields properly before planting. This will destroy eggs and

expose larvae to chicken, ants, birds, and other predators.

Botanical and homemade extracts include neem.




Find ‘hot-spots’ (places of high

infestation) and treat only those hot

spots. If registered, can treat with synthetic insecticides containing a bait

with permethrin (do not allow synthetic

pyrethroids into enter open water, get RUP training).

Nematodes, various

species

Use certified nematode-free planting material.

Clean soil from equipment before moving between fields.

If irrigating, keep irrigation water in a holding pond so that any nematodes

present can settle out and pumping water from near the surface of the pond

Prevent/reduce animal movement from infested to uninfested fields.

Use composted manure to kill any nematodes that might be present before applying it to fields.

Crop rotation can be useful in reducing nematode populations.

Nematodes are difficult to control

without use of Class I chemicals (the

most toxic), however some new natural

chemicals have been developed recently.

Blights/Mildews:

Early blight,

Alternaria solani

Late blight,

Do scouting and use spot treatments.

Blights can be minimized by maintaining optimum growing conditions,

including proper fertilization, irrigation, and management of other pests.

Grow later maturing, longer season varieties.

Fungicide application is justified only

when the disease is initiated early

enough to cause economic loss.

When justified, apply fungicides as soon

as symptoms appear; continued

88

Phytophthora infestans protection requires application at 7- to

10-day intervals.

Fusarium blight,

Fusarium oxysporum

Use tolerant varieties and raised-bed production

Sufficiently drain the growing field and monitor soil moisture

Farmers use sticks and lines to raise plants and fruit into the air to airate the

plant and raise the leaves and fruit away from the soil

Use copper sulfate and fungicides

containing metalaxyl, mancozeb to manage the disease.

Verticillium wilt

(Verticillium species)

Use of certified disease-free propagation material.

Use resistant cultivars against race 1.

Need positive identification of Verticillium (to avoid confusion with Fusarium

wilt)

Sanitation—clean equipment to prevent transfer of vectors and inoculum.

Rotate to small grains and maize.

Use green manure plants.

Inoculate soil with Trichoderma species.

No synthetic fungicides are

recommended (many farmers tolerate some damage by Verticillium wilt).

Bacterial (black) wilt

and canker (Erwinia

carotovora,

Clavibacter michiganensis)

Bacterial: Leaf Blight

(Ralstonia solanacearum); Leaf

Spot (Xanthomonas

campestris)


Do weed control.

Use resistant or tolerant varieties.

Plant in well-drained soils and avoid over-irrigation.

Use deep well water for irrigation.

Remove and destroy diseased plants.

Spray with copper-containing

compounds.

Sclerotinia white mold

(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)

Root Rot (Sclerotium

rolfsii)

Use certified clean seed that is treated.

Use crop rotation with cereals or non-susceptible crops following peppers on a 3-4 year cycle.

Do proper agronomic practices: seedbed preparation, weed control, seed

handling, date of planting, proper row spacing.

Use soil solar or steam sterilization.

Use synthetic fungicide seed treatment of

mefenoxam, thiram, fludioxonil and mefenoxam.


mancozeb, or azoxystrobin.

Anthracnose

(Colletotrichum spp.)

Use certified disease-free seed and transplants of resistant varieties.

Seed can be disinfested with a 30-minute soak at 52°C.

Sanitize seedling flats if reusing them.

Rotate out of infested fields to other crops for 3 years. Avoid potato, soybean,

tomato, eggplant, and cucurbits as rotation crops.

At flowering, can use synthetic

fungicides containing mancozeb or metiram.

89

If using overhead sprinkler irrigation, apply in early morning so plants can dry

before night-fall.

Use mulch to reduce water splash onto leaves and fruit, and weed regularly

without damaging fruit.

Harvest fruit as soon as it is ripe.

Sanitation: Remove and dispose of diseased plants throughout season and

after harvest.

Weeds Herbicide expenses make farmers use hand weeding, hoeing or cultivation.

At end of the harvest, manual removal of weeds.

Clean weeds along irrigation canals that can transmit weeds to the field.

Use crop rotation.

Use transplants which can out-compete weeds quicker.

Use soil solarization.

Use soil mulches and pruning.

Continue hoe and hand weeding.

Can use drip irrigation to regulate water in the crop and avoid weed emergence.

Tomato

In fall beds, before weeds emerge, use

synthetic herbicides containing,

oxyfluorfen.

After weeds emerge, use glyphosate.

Pre-plant before weeds emerge, use

synthetic herbicides containing

metolachlor, pendimethalin.

Post-plant before weeds emerge, use

synthetic herbicides containing,

metolachlor.

Post-plant after weeds emerge, use synthetic herbicides containing

clethodim.

Eggplant/Pepper

On preformed beds, use synthetic

herbicides containing glyphosate.

Post-plant, use synthetic herbicides

containing clethodim.

Alliums: Onions, Garlic, Shallots, Leeks, Chives


Weeds


needed

Thrips (Thrips tabaci,

Frankliniella occidentalis)

Biological controls with beneficial organisms include pink lady beetles, green

lacewing larvae, minute pirate bugs, predatory mites and ladybugs.

Crop rotation: Alternating crops with bean, corn or other crop.

Blue sticky traps for monitoring.

Natural extracts of neem, garlic,

spinosad, pyrethrins and insecticidal soaps are alternatives to other

insecticides.

90

Good irrigation, drainage and fertilization.

Use a thrips-resistant cultivar such as Grano or Sweet Spanish.

Grow onions during the rainy season and use overhead irrigation.

Use synthetic insecticide containing

spinetoram.

Onion fly (Delia

antique)

Control soil moisture.

Floating row covers exclude onion fly.

During the growing season, minimize damage to bulbs caused by insects and

diseases.

Provide for quick drying following topping, especially if temperatures are

high.

Rotate 3 to 4 years out of onions, garlic, and leeks.

Control other soil insects and foliage diseases that cause wounds entered by onion fly larvae.

Harvest only after onion tops are well matured, cure onions properly before

storage and store onions at cool temperatures since infection is favored by

warm conditions.

Sanitation: Clean up all cull and volunteer onions out of fields before

planting.

Use fall plowing to destroy pupae.

Use synthetic pesticides containing

malathion, if needed.

Leek moth

(Acrolepiopsis assectella)

Natural parasites and predators exert a lot of control to leek moth larvae.

If economical and available, use pheromone traps to monitor.

Row covers provide an alternative strategy and these are used to cover crops during the adult flight periods, preventing gravid females from laying eggs.


spinosad.

Tulip bulb mite

(Aceria tulipae)

Use certified clean propagation material/bulbs.

Hot water treatment before planting may reduce mite infestation.

Avoid planting successive and rapid onion, leek or garlic crops.

Sanitation: Plow under crop residues especially decaying cole crops like

cauliflower, which may harbor very high bulb mite populations.

Practice fallow fields to allow complete decomposition of organic matter; this reduces field populations of the mite.

Flood irrigation or heavy rains during the winter may reduce mite levels in the

soil.

Fumigate soil only as a last resort if

prevention does not work.

Cutworm, Agrotis

subterranea


Weed control

If needed, use insecticides containing

deltamethrin or lambda-cyhalothrin with RUP training and no use near bodies of

water.

91

Armyworm,

Spodoptera exigua


Use of biological insecticides as B.

Thuringensis/BT.

Onion stem nematode

(Ditylenchus dipsaci)

There are currently no resistant cultivars available.

Use certified clean propagation material.

Treat bulbs with hot water to eradicate nematodes from garlic cloves.

Rotate or alternate alliums with nonhost crops such as carrots and lettuce for several years.

Sanitation: Avoid infesting new fields by cleaning machinery and equipment

with water, and preventing movement of infested soil.

Fumigate soil only as a last resort if

prevention does not work.

Botrytis rot, Botrytis

alli and Pythium rot,

Pythium sp.

Harvest cleaning and desinfection

Good drain and crop rotation after 2 years

Usage of fungicides containing

mancozeb.

Fusarium spp. Resistant varieties

Soil sterilization

Eliminate infested plants

Promote soil solarization

Maintain pH at 7.5

Use antagonist fungi like Trichoderma

lognorum.

Downy mildew

(Peronospora

destructor)

Plastic mulch covering to avoid plant contact with soil and minimize weeds

that enhance microclimate conditions favorable to disease dispersion.

Heat treatment of bulbs at 35 to 40 °C for 4 to 8h reduces the disease

significantly.

Eliminate crop residues, plant during dry season, avoid irrigation during heat

of the day.

Use crop rotation.

Use certified seed and good drainage.

Bulb dipping with a synthetic fungicide

containing metalaxyl.

Use synthetic pesticide as soil drench

and spray applications containing of

thiophannate methyl, metalaxyl + mancozeb followed by copper

oxychloride.

White rot (Sclerotium

cepivorum)

Use sanitation—removal of infected seed bulbs.

Plant only disease-free bulbs.

Do not move cull bulbs, soil and litter from infested to non-infested fields.

Always clean equipment before moving from one field to another.

Use crop rotation away from Allium crops for a few seasons.

Onion seed is not likely to carry sclerotia, but transplants and sets can.

On garlic, the disease is commonly introduced into the field on seed cloves;

dip seed garlic in 46-49 degrees C hot water (but not 50 degrees or more

which will kill garlic).


iprodione provide some control.

92

Manage irrigation closely, and stop if disease is spreading fast.

Alternaria, Alternaria

porri

Use sanitation, removal of crop residues, composting

If needed, use mancozeb.

Weeds

Use the most weed-free field possible.

To avoid buildup of weed seed in the soil, cultivate weeds before they set seed

in rotation crops.

Clean cultivate the field or plant a green manure crop to limit weed infestations after onion harvest.

Irrigate the field before planting to germinate weed seeds and afterwards

cultivate the soil killing the weeds.

After pre-irrigation, cultivate shallow so that weed seed is not brought up

from deeper soil layers. Maintaining deep furrows keeps the bed tops from

becoming overly wet while maintaining adequate soil moisture for the crop

(by keeping the bed tops drier, fewer weeds are likely to germinate in the soil surface).

To avoid excessive competition with the onions and to make removal easier,

cultivate when weeds are small. Hand weeding is a very efficient method for weed control.

Use soil solarization.

At pre-plant, use synthetic herbicide


At post-plant before weeds and crop

emerge, use a synthetic herbicide containing pendimethalin, oxyfluorfen,

fluazifop-P-butyl, clethodim.

Okra


Weeds


needed

Flea Beetles

(Podagrica sp.)

Ensure good cultural practices to allow okra to outgrow damage (fertilization,

water, soil management)

Stir around plants to expose eggs and grubs in the soil to predators e.g, ants

No additional methods are

recommended.

Cotton aphid (Aphis

gossypii) Many types of natural enemies and pathogens may control these aphids

under low insecticide input situations. However, these aphids reproduce quickly and move into protected areas of the plants, thereby greatly reducing the potential impact of their predators and parasitoids in older stage plants.

Use resistant varieties. Use regular monitoring with yellow sticky traps.

If control is needed, treat when aphids are found to be reproducing, particularly when second and later generation wingless females have started reproduction. Aphid populations are easier to control before the plants begin to cup.

93

Field disking and destruction of crop residues are important for control of aphid pests of leafy vegetables to reduce their migration into nearby crops.

Insecticides containing systemic synthetic insecticides imidacloprid, acetamiprid.

American bollworm

(Helicoverpa armigera)

Avoid planting crops successively that are hosts to bollworm like corn, cotton,

sorghum, tobacco and soybean.




Plow, disc and harrow fields at least 2 times before sowing seeds. This exposes pupae of bollworm, which pupates in the soil, to chickens, birds, ants

and other predators.

Make and use pheromone or light traps.

Begin sampling soon after fruit development. Eggs hatch in 5 to 7 days following egg laying.

Insecticidal control of tomato bollworm

is difficult and depends on proper timing and thorough coverage. Once larvae

enter the tomato, control with insecticides is difficult.


include neem and ginger.

Trichogramma wasps from the biolaboratory provide some control of

tomato fruit worm eggs.

Direct insecticidal control towards young

larvae that are feeding on the fruit, before entering it.

Natural sprays of Bacillus thuringiensis

(BT) and the Entrust formulation of spinosad.

Noctuid moths

(Chasima amilla)

Plant plants with bright flowers eg, sunflower to attract parasitoids

Collect curled leaves and destroy

Avoid use of pesticide if possible as larvae are usually controlled by

parasitoids.


recommended.

White fly (Bemisia

species)

Controlled in nature by hymenopteran parasitoids (Encarsia species), lady

beetles and minute pirate bugs.

Yellow sticky traps may be used to reduce populations but cannot prevent the

spread, once established.

Frequent crop monitoring.

Spray natural solution of local soap (2%)

neem oil or horticultural oil if infestation

is heavy.

At crop initiation, seed or soil

application of a synthetic systemic

neonicotinoid insecticide (imidacloprid, acetamiprid).

Selective synthetic chemicals as:

azadirachtin, abamectin.

Root Knot nematodes

(Meloidogyne arenaria, M.

incognita, M.

Use certified nematode-free planting material.

Clean soil from equipment before moving between fields.

If irrigating, keep irrigation water in a holding pond so that any nematodes present can settle out and pumping water from near the surface of the pond

Nematodes are difficult to control

without use of Class I chemicals (the most toxic), however some new natural

chemicals have been developed recently.

94

javanica) Prevent/reduce animal movement from infested to un-infested fields.

Use composted manure to kill any nematodes that might be present before

applying it to fields.

Crop rotation can be useful in reducing nematode populations.

Leaf Curl Virus and

Mosaic Virus

Practice crop rotation

Destroy infected plants especially before flowering and fruit set.

Re solanaceous weeds

Control root-knot nematodes

Remove possible source of primary inoculums (infected seeds, weeds,

tobacco products)

Use seed that has been treated to

eliminate seed-borne inoculum.

Extreme sanitation is needed.

Blossom blight

(Choanephora cucurbibatrum)

Rotate crops

Grow plants on well-drained soils

Remove infected flowers and fruits as soon as noticed and destroy.


recommended.

Cucurbits: Melons, Cucumbers, Squashes



needed

Tobacco white fly

(Bemisia tabaci)

Controlled in nature by hymenopteran parasitoids (Encarsia and Eretmocerus

species), lady beetles and minute pirate bugs.

Monitoring crops and establishment of a pesticide program after finding 1

white fly per 10 plants, spraying may be used.

Yellow sticky traps may reduce populations but cannot prevent the spread.

Soil drench with imidacloprid or

thiamethoxam.

Spray natural solutions of insecticidal

soap, horticultural oil, abamectin, neem

oil and azadirachtin.

Spray with synthetic insecticides

containing acetamiprid.

Downy Mildew

(Pseudonospora

cubensis)

Resistant varieties are available for control.

Use only clean, disease-free planting material.

Make sure that soil is well drained.

Avoid overhead irrigation.

Apply a fungicide when disease symptoms first occur and repeat if symptoms worsen.

Prune off heavily diseased old parts.

Use synthetic pesticide containing

mancozeb + metalaxyl, propamocarb,

mancozeb, mefenoxam, azoxystrobin, cymoxanil + mancozeb.

Powdery Mildew Control irrigation water. Use natural fungicide containing

95

(Sphaerotheca

fuliginea)

Resistant varieties are available for control.

Use crop rotation.

Sanitation: Remove and destroy dead plants.

Control weeds in and around field.

Increase light intensity by planting at proper recommended intervals.

potassium bicarbonate or micronized

sulfur.

Use synthetic fungicides containing

azoxystrobin.

Before new seedlings are produced,

clean nursery greenhouses with

azoxystrobin.

Thrips (Thrips tabaci

and Thrips palmi)

Use crop rotation with with bean, corn or other crop.

Disc under flowering weeds before flower (do not disk after crop flowering as

thrips will move to crop).

Plant “living borders” or tall plants or bamboo on the windward side of the

field to stop thrips movement and entry.

Use blue sticky traps for monitoring.

Use good irrigation, drainage and fertilization.

Natural extracts of neem, garlic or

spinosad can be used.

If needed, spray synthetic insecticides

containing thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, permethrin, acetamiprid.

Anthracnosis

(Colletotrichum

gloesporoides)

Use resistant varieties available.

Use only certified disease-free clean planting material.

Monitor plants continuously and carefully for disease symptoms.


azoxystrobin, metiram, mancozeb.

Red spider mite

(Tetranychus species)

Natural predators and parasitoids control large proportions of spider mite

populations.

Apply water to reduce dust on roads in the vineyard. Maintain resident

vegetation or other cover in the vineyard middles to further reduce dust.


Irrigate in a manner that will avoid plant stress. Overhead watering has been shown to reduce mite problems, but it can increase some diseases.


narrow range oils, neem oil and insecticidal soap.


spinosad or abamectin.

Root-knot nematodes

(Meloidogyne species)


Remove and destroy heavily damaged plants.

Disinfect cultivation equipment regularly and especially between fields.

Apply fire ash near newly planted cucumbers.

No nematocides are recommended.

Fusarium wilt

(Fusarium species)

Use resistant varieties available.

Clean the greenhouse nursery well between plantings.

Use only certified disease-free clean planting material.

Do regular monitoring.

Use synthetic fungicides containing

metalaxyl or iprodione.

96

Lettuce



needed

Aphids (Aulacorthum

solani, Afido rojo and Uroleucon ambrosiae)

Use yellow and blue sticky traps for monitoring and trapping.

Weed management to eliminate alternative food plants for aphids.

Use of garlic-oil based repellents.

Use of natural mineral oil sprayings.

Avoid the broad-spectrum insecticides to minimize the destruction of natural

enemies.

Use of thiamethoxam

Leaf miners,

Lyriomyza sp.

Use regular monitoring

Biological control is often adequate to control leaf miners, so evaluate levels of parasitism before making treatment decisions and use pesticides with care.

Good field sanitation can also greatly reduce the numbers of this pest. Cutting forage crops and deep plowing after harvesting crops aid greatly

in reducing leaf miner numbers. Row covers applied at planting and removed at first bloom exclude leaf

miners. Plants that are not stressed for moisture can better tolerate this pest.

Can use products containing abamectin.

Whitefly, Bemisia

tabaci

In addition to causing direct damage to the plant, whitefly is a vector of

viruses.

Whitefly can also be monitored using bright yellow sticky traps.

Crop rotation

Destroy weeds and host crops.

Integrated crop management.

Host freed periods conserve natural enemies.

Plant away the other whitefly host plants like cucurbits.

Use pesticides only when it necessary after a monitoring program.

Use pesticides only when it necessary. If

needed, use products containing

thiamethoxam.

Green semi-looper

(Plusia signata)

Crop rotation

Intercrop with repellant plant such as tomato

Spray with neem seed extracts.

Flower thrips,

Frankliniella insularis

Use regular monitoring, blue and yellow sticky traps

Use resistant varieties Use rotation

The following insecticides may control thrips: abamectin, neem extract, acetamiprid, imidacloprid, soap and spinosad.

97

Keep production areas free of weeds, which can serve as hosts for thrips populations.

Monitor and trap flower thrips using blue sticky cards. Most insecticides must be applied at least two times, 5 to 7 days apart, for

efficacy against flower thrips.

Armyworms,

Spodoptera

frugiperda, Spodoptera exigua,

Spodoptera spp.


Use resistant varieties Use rotation Disc fields immediately following harvest to kill larvae and pupae. Destroy weeds along field borders. Start monitoring before seedlings emerge by checking for egg masses and

young larvae in surrounding weeds.

Organically Acceptable Methods:

Sprays of Bacillus thuringiensis and the Entrust formulation of spinosad are acceptable for use on organically certified crops

Leafhoppers, Empoasca spp.


Use resistant varieties Natural enemies include general predators such as lady beetles,

lacewings, ants spiders and Nabid bugs, but they will not provide adequate control of leafhoppers.

Provide adequate moisture through timely irrigation. Row covers can prevent leafhoppers from feeding on crops.

To minimize spraying, choose insecticides with a long residual period of effectiveness such as systemic materials, if available. Potential controls include products containing thiamethoxam, imidacloprid and deltamethrin.

Wilts: Fusarium and Verticillium

(Fusarium species and

Verticilium species)

Use of resistant seed.

Transplanting health plants.

Use raised-bed soil.

Cleaning and disinfecting machinery and tools.

Sanitation: Removal and disposal of infected plants during the cropping

season and after harvest.

Use pesticides only when it necessary after a monitoring program.


propiconazole, mancozeb and iprodione.

Downy mildew

(Bremia lactucae)

Transplanting healthy and resistant plants.

Rotate away from highly infected fields

Field well-drained

Use of resistant seed.

Avoid overhead irrigation. Apply a treatment when disease symptoms first

occur and repeat if symptoms reappear.

Use synthetic fungicides by soil drench

and spray applications of metalaxyl + mancozeb or methyl thiophanate.

Damping off (Pythium

species)

Use regular monitoring,

Use resistant varieties If needed, can use products containing

thiram or mancozeb, metalaxyl,

98

Use sanitation Provide adequate field drainage and prevent excessive seepage from irrigation

canals. Most importantly avoid over-irrigating, especially during periods of

high temperatures.

In soils where drainage is a problem, plant in raised beds, use sprinkler

irrigation

Rotate to non-susceptible crops to reduce inoculum potential. Carefully adjust cultivating and thinning equipment to reduce mechanical injury to feeder roots.

Use clean, hot water treated seed.

Use subsoil for nursery seedbed. Also apply solarization

Sterilize soil for seed boxes. Drain off excess water.

copper. Use products with mancozeb,

metalaxyl Drench soil with copper fungicide.

Lettuce Anthracnose,

Microdochium

panattonianum

Use resistant varieties and transplant only healthy plants.

Transplant trays with infected plants should be removed immediately from

production sites.

Workers should disinfest their hands after contact with infected plants.

If needed, can use products containing

azoxystrobin, propiconazole.

Bacterial leaf

spot, Xanthomonas campestris

The use of pathogen-free seed is the first step in disease management.

However, reliable seed assays and established threshold levels are not yet available.

When possible, avoid sprinkler irrigation.

Avoid planting back-to-back lettuce crops if the first crop was severely

diseased and infected lettuce residue is present.

Copper fungicides can be used, but are

not very effective; they must be applied before infection occurs.

Brassicas: Cabbage, Collards



needed

Aphids: Cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne

brassicae)

Use of “habitat plantings” (flowering perennial plants that attract aphid parasites and predators.

Carefully manage nitrogen levels so that they are neither too high (which

significantly attracts aphids) nor too low (which impedes plant growth).

Natural enemies that can be attracted to fields with habitat plantings include aphid and syrphid flies, lacewings, and the predaceous midge, minute pirate

bugs, bigeyed bugs, lady beetles, soldier beetles, and parasitic wasps like

Organically accepted insecticides include those containing insecticidal soap, neem

seed extract and pyrethrum/pyrethrins.


acephate, acetamiprid, spirotetramat.

99

Diaeretiella rapae.

In some humid areas there are outbreaks of naturally existing fungi that cause

epidemics among aphid colonies.

When plants are young and leaf cupping has not yet occurred, high-pressure

overhead sprinkler irrigation dislodges aphids.

Inter-planting with clover (as a “living mulch”) reduces aphid populations.

Use trap crops: Plant mustards or collards on field margins or inter-planted

and destroy these plants once heavily infested.

Caterpillar pests:

Diamondback moth

(Plutella xylostella)

Imported cabbage

worm (Pieris rapae,

Pieris brassicae)

Armyworm (Mamestra

brasicae)

Caterpillar natural enemies (keep populations down) include predators like

ground beetles, spiders, damsel bugs, minute pirate bugs, assassin bugs,

bigeyed bugs, and lacewing larvae. Parasitic wasps of Trichogramma species,

Copidosoma species, Apanteles species, Diadegma, and Hyposoter species sting and parasitize eggs and larvae (some of these organisms are available

commercially).

Use of nocturnal overhead sprinkler irrigation to dislodge and repel pests.

Use of pheromone misters and emitters to disrupt mating.

Use of floating row screen or mesh covers to exclude egg-laying moths.

Use of organic herbal repellents like

those extracted from garlic, red chili

peppers or neem oil.

Use of natural pesticides consisting of Bacillus thuringiensis/BT, spinosad,

plant extracts neem, pyrethrin and

pyrethrin combined with diatomaceous earth.

Use of synthetic pesticides containing

indoxacarb, spinetoram, chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide.

Spring cabbage

fly/maggot (Delia

radicum)

Summer cabbage fly,

(Delia floralis)

Natural predators include ground and rove beetles, spiders, harvestmen

(daddy longlegs), and ants.

Use compost and straw mulches to reduce maggot populations by hiding

predators and excluding egg-laying flies.

Intercrop with clovers or other legumes to reduce open soil available for egg-

laying flies.

Use of floating row screen or mesh covers to exclude egg-laying flies.

A solution of crushed rhubarb leaves or a

vinegar solution sprayed periodically

around cole crop plants may deter and

manage the cabbage maggot.

Commercial formulations of maggot-

eating nematodes are effective agents for

controlling flea beetle larvae, and are available commercially from several

companies, including by mail order from

GrowQuest (http://www.growquest.com) and Arbico, Biocontrol Network

(http://www.biconet.com) in the USA.

They are applied to the soil, the

nematodes attack the beetle's larval

stage, reducing root feeding and helping to prevent emergence of the next cycle of

adults.

http://www.growquest.com/

http://www.biconet.com/

100

Cabbage bacterial rot

(Erwinia carotovora,

Erwinia aroideae)


Do weed control.

Use resistant or tolerant varieties.

Plant in well-drained soils, avoid over-irrigation.

Use deep well water for irrigation.

Remove and destroy diseased plants.

Spray with copper-containing

compounds.

Black leg (Phoma lingam)

Clean, certified or hot water treated seed.

Good soil drainage.

Rotation with non-brassica type crops.

Control of brassica-type weeds.

Deep incorporation of cole crop residues.

Planting resistant varieties.

Use synthetic pesticide containing iprodione.

Downy mildew

(Peronospora

brassicae)

Promoting good drainage.

Increasing spacing for better aeration.

Controlling brassica-type weeds.

Using resistant varieties.

Rotating with non-cole crops.

Sanitation: After harvest, deep plow or destroy plant debris.

Avoid the use of overhead irrigation.

Use of mineral copper for organic

production.

Use synthetic pesticide containing mefenoxam or fosetyl aluminum.

Weeds Monitor and identify weed species present.

Use fallow practices.

Sanitation: To reduce seed production, disc or mow harvested fields before

weeds flower and produce seeds. Cultivation equipment and irrigation water

must also be kept free of weed seeds and vegetative propagules to avoid spreading weed populations. Cultivate areas around the field such as field

edges, fence lines, roadsides, and irrigation ditches regularly to prevent weed

seed production. To reduce seed production, disc or mow harvested fields before weeds flower and produce seeds.

Preplant plowing, followed by irrigation and one or two discings before bed

formation, will destroy many weeds.

Proper bed preparation is important for successful weed cultivation after the

crop is planted.



Use intercropping.

During fallow, use synthetic herbicides


101

Hand weeding during their earlier growing period. Do not let the weeds

flower (do not compost weeds that have flowered and set seed).

Hoeing, mowing, and cutting.

Fiber & Oil Crop: Cotton


Weeds


needed

Cotton bollworm/Corn

earworm (Helicoverpa armigera)

Natural enemies include parasitoids in the Braconid wasp and Tachinid fly

families and Trichogramma egg parasitoids. Predators include damselflies, hoverflies, lacewings, ladybird beetles and larvae, minute pirate bugs, praying

mantis and spiders.


Practice crop rotation. Avoid planting crops successively that are hosts to cotton bollworm like corn, sorghum, tobacco, soybean, and tomato.



Plant Marigold and Sunflowers as trap crops to pull bollworm away from cotton; once heavily infested, plow these under or spray them.

Plow and harrow fields at least 2 times before sowing seeds. This will expose

pupae of corn earworm to chicken, birds, ants and other predators. Corn

earworm pupates in the soil.



Use organic natural insecticides

containing BT Kurstaki (various products).


flubendiamide.

Spider mites

(Tetranychus urticae)

Preserve natural enemies of mites by avoiding early season, broad-spectrum

insecticide applications. The most important predator early in the season is the western flower thrips. Later, bigeyed bugs, minute pirate bugs, predaceous

mites, and other predators are also important.

Use continuous scouting and monitoring to locate “hot spots” where mite

infestations are heavy; treat hot spots.

Keep crop properly irrigated.

Sprinkler irrigation suppresses mites.

Pima cotton is less susceptible to spider mites than upland cotton varieties.

Use sprays of natural chemicals

containing insecticidal soap, some oils (Narrow range oil), and sulfur dust are

acceptable on organic cotton.

Some mite resistance exists to

abamectin. Rotation of abamectin or other recently registered miticides with

the older miticides may help to reduce resistance to any one of them and slow

the development of resistance in areas

where it is not yet a problem.

102

Cotton aphids (Aphis

gossypii)

Many natural enemies include damsel bugs, big-eyed bugs, green lacewings,

minute pirate bugs and numerous parasitic wasps.


Early planting avoids many severe aphid problems.

Use seed treatments with synthetic

systemic insecticides containing

imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.

Use natural insecticides containing

insecticidal soap, oils and

azadirachtin/neem seed extract.


acetamiprid, imidacloprid,

thiamethoxam, pymetrozone.

Cutworms (Agrotis

segetum)

Natural enemies include Braconid wasps (Cotesia species and others) and

Tachinid fly larvae. Predators include ground beetles, lacewings, praying manits and weaver ants.

Post-harvest sanitation; remove and destroy crop residue and weeds.

Control weeds around edges of field.


every 10-20 rows to repel cutworms.

Sunflowers and cosmos can also be planted as a trap crop in or around fields.

Plow and harrow fields properly before planting.


Monitor—walk around field edge to find heavily infested spots (areas), do

spot treatments of only these areas.

Use botanical and homemade extracts

include basil, neem.

Use spot treatments of synthetic

insecticides containing indoxacarb.

Cotton Stainer and Lygus bugs

(Dysdercus

superstitiosus and Lygus species)

Other crops are more attractive to lygus than cotton. Many weeds like Russian thistle, mustards and radishes are also attractive to Lygus. These include

alfalfa (seed and hay), safflower, sugarbeet, tomato, beans, and potato. As

these crops are prepared for harvest, winged adults migrate out of the field in search of new hosts. As these alternate host plants begin to dry, check for

Lygus stage; if adults, spray the field; if larvae, disc or plow under.

Use plantings of any of the above as trap crops to lure and trap Lygus.

Use of synthetic insecticide treatments may result in secondary outbreaks of

spider mites, aphids, or other pests.

Carefully use synthetic insecticides

containing indoxacarb, novaluron,

dimethoate or acephate, as needed on

upwind weeds and crops infested with

Lygus.

Verticillium wilt

(Verticillium dahliae)

Use tolerant varieties (these include most Acala varieties and Pima varieties).

Rotate cotton with corn, wheat, barley, sorghum, safflower, or rice.

Delay first irrigation if disease pressure is high (more than 10 microsclerotia

per gram of soil) and air temperatures are cool.

Take soil samples and have them analyzed. Where a single susceptible cotton

variety is planted without rotation, a level of 10 or more microsclerotia per gram of soil usually results in significant yield loss.

Fungicides are generally not economical

for control of Verticillium wilt.

103

Remove and destroy any plants that exhibit symptoms of Verticillium wilt.

Soil solarization in sunny climates can be useful.

Bacterial blight of

cotton (Xanthomonas

malvacearum)

Maintain proper plant density.

Use properly drained soil.

Use hot water (56 degrees C, 10 min) seed treatment.

Use disease-free or certified seed.

Use crop rotation and control weeds.

Sanitation—post-harvest removal of stalks and debris for fire fuel or compost.

Treatment of seed with other bacteria like Pseudomonas fluorescens may

elicit an induced resistance response in cotton against blight.

Use inorganic copper sulfate as a

suspension seed treatment.

Seed & Oil Crop: Sesame

Aphids (several

species)

Many natural enemies and parasites control aphids.

Eliminate ant colonies near field.

Do not over-apply nitrogen fertilizers.

Aluminum foil or gray mulches deter aphids.

Natural insecticides containing

insecticidal soap, neem oil, and narrow-

range oil (e.g., supreme or superior parafinic-type oil) provide temporary

control.


malathion, permethrin.

Leaf-eating

caterpillars/moth

larvae (several

species)

Eliminate nearby weeds.

Use natural insecticide sprays containing

BT, spinosad or neem oil.

Thrips (several species)

Use resistant cultivars.

Use reflective mulches.

Maintain good plant vigor with irrigation and fertilization.

Floating row covers can exclude thrips and other pests.

Sanitation: Remove and dispose of old, spent flowers.

No pesticide provides complete control of thrips.

Use natural narrow-range oil,

azadirachtin neem seed extract, neem oil,

pyrethrins combined with insecticidal

soaps.

Mildew (Plasmopara

halstedii)


Provide good air circulation.

Do crop rotation.

Use a seed treatment with azoxystrobin.

Foliar fungicides are not economical and

not generally used.

104

Control weed hosts near field.

Avoid wetting foliage, use drip irrigation if possible.

Downy mildew

(Peronospora species)



Do crop rotation.

Control weed hosts near field.

Avoid wetting foliage, use drip irrigation if possible.

Use a seed treatment with azoxystrobin.

Foliar fungicides are not economical and

not generally used.

Powdery mildew

(Erisiphe species)



Use natural controls containing oils,

neem oil, potassium bicarbonate and

sulfur.

Weeds: Sunflower

broomrape

(Orobanche cumana) and others

Control measures include the use of resistant cultivars with obligatory crop

rotation.


management).


intercropping.



Maintain cleanliness on the irrigation canals.

Keep the surroundings of your farm free of weeds, unless they are maintained

and intended as habitats for natural enemies.



Use intercropping.

Hand weeding and composting (do not compost weeds that have flowered and

set

Hoeing, mowing, and cutting.

Can use herbicides containing

pendimethalin as pre-emergence spray 3

days after sowing.

Bush Crop: Henna Bush (Niger)


Weeds


needed

None Henna contains numerous phytochemicals that repel insects and fungal

diseases, giving it natural resistance to pests. Extracts from Henna can be

Pesticides generally are not used on

Henna in Niger.

105

used to make artisanal pesticides.

Bush Crop: Hibiscus (aka Bissap, Jamaican Sorrel, Roselle)

Aphids, Scales,

Mealybugs &

Leafhoppers

Parasitic wasps and ladybeetle larvae serve as important parasites and

predators of these pests.

Use natural or artisanal insecticides

containing limonene, soaps and oils.


imidacloprid, bifenthrin, acephate, deltamethrin.

Cotton bollworm

larvae (Earias biplaga,

Earias insulana)


families and Trichogramma egg parasitoids. Predators include damselflies,

hoverflies, lacewings, ladybird beetles and larvae, minute pirate bugs, praying mantis and spiders.




Two weeks before planting, remove weeds and grasses to destroy larvae and

adults harboring in those weeds and grasses.


pupae of corn earworm to chicken, birds, ants and other predators. Cotton

bollworm pupates in the soil.




containing BT Kurstaki (various

products).


flubendiamide.

Cotton Leaf Stainer

(CLS) bug (Dysdercus superstitiosus, feeds

on ripening Hibiscus calyces)

Other crops are more attractive to CLS than Hibiscus. Many weeds like

Russian thistle, mustards and radishes are also attractive to Lygus. These include alfalfa (seed and hay), safflower, sugarbeet, tomato, beans, and

potato. As these crops are prepared for harvest, winged adults migrate out of the field in search of new hosts. As these alternate host plants begin to dry,

check for Lygus stage; if adults, spray the field; if larvae, disc or plow under.

Use plantings of any of the above as trap crops to lure and trap CLS.

Use of synthetic insecticide treatments

may result in secondary outbreaks of spider mites, aphids, or other pests.

Carefully use synthetic insecticides

containing indoxacarb, novaluron, dimethoate or acephate, as needed on

upwind weeds and crops infested with

CLS.

Root knot nematodes (Meloïdogyne spp.;

Heterodera rudicicola)

Use certified nematode-free planting stock.

Use more resistant varieties.

Use fallowing, crop rotation, and soil solarization (these methods reduce

Nematicides are not recommended for smallholder farmer use, as most are too

toxic.

106

nematodes in the top foot of soil, so they are effective only for about a year).

Ensure sufficient water management and nutrition to keep plants strong.

French marigolds, Tagetes species, (varieties include Nemagold, Petite Blanc,

Queen Sophia, and Tangerine) suppress root knot and lesion nematodes.

Stem Canker, Stem

Burn, Collar Rot

(Phytophthora

nicotianae var. parasitica)

Resistance has been found in fiber-type Roselle cultivars—use resistant

varieties.

Keep soils well drained.


Can use fosetyl-aluminum, phosphorous

acid, thiophanate-methyl.

Hibiscus stem canker

and leaf spot (Coniella

musaiaensis var. hibisci)

Sanitation: Remove dead or dying plants from plantation, and burn.


Take care not to injure tissues when planting, transplanting, or during orchard

work or harevest.

There are no fungicides recommended

for treating cankers.

Leaf Spot (Cercospora

hibisci)

Avoiding overhead irrigation

Keep the leaves dry

Sanitation: remove and dispose of fallen plant debris.

Fungicide treatments are not warranted.

Mildews, Powdery

mildew (Oïdium

abelmoschi) and

Downy Mildew (

A pest from October to November, at the end of the growing season.

Sanitation: As rains are beginning, prune dead and heavily diseased branches,

and sterilize tools between cuts and bushes. Remove heavily diseased plants.

To reduce humidity, plant Hibiscus in full sun with proper spacing between plants.

A sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)

solution can be used as a preventative.

Can use mancozeb, copper or sulfur-

based fungicides.

Shrub/Tree Crop: Moringa/Cabbage Tree (Niger)


Weeds


needed

Mites During dry, cool weather, mites may break out.

Manage plant watering.

Pesticides generally are not used on

Moringa in Niger.

Caterpillars


families and Trichogramma egg parasitoids. Predators include damselflies,

hoverflies, lacewings, ladybird beetles and larvae, minute pirate bugs, praying

mantis and spiders.


containing BT Kurstaki (various

products).

107




Two weeks before planting, remove weeds and grasses to destroy larvae and adults harboring in those weeds and grasses.


pupae of corn earworm to chicken, birds, ants and other predators. Cotton

bollworm pupates in the soil.



Termites

Can be a problem when cuttings are planted.

Applying mulches of castor oil plant leaves, mahogany chips, Tephrosia

leaves or Persian lilac leaves around the base of the plants.

Heaping ashes around the base of seedlings.

Spreading dry and crushed stems and leaves of lion's ear or Mexican poppy

around the base of plants.

Cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats will eat Moringa seedlings, pods and leaves.

Protect Moringa seedlings from livestock by installing fence or by planting a hedge around the plot.

Insecticides are not recommended.

Diplodia root rot

(Diplodia species)

Plant Moringa in mounds so water can drain out of the soil.

Fungicides are not recommended.

Tree Cash Crop: Cocoa


Weeds


needed

Cocoa Mirid

(Sahlbergella singularis)

Cocoa Capsid

(Distantiella

thoebroma)

Use new improved varieties.

Maintain adequate shade using fruit and banana plants and allow cacao to be

well aerated with some sun.

Sanitation: Remove and regularly destroy chupons (suckers growing from the

base of the tree).

Insecticides must be timed correctly

(usually early in the season).

Use spot applications only where mirids

and capsids are present, not the entire

orchard.

Can use insecticides containing imidacloprid.

Ants (Lasius species) Use orange trees for shade to attract ants away from cacao. Pesticides are not used.

108

Remove and destroy ant nests.

Woodpecker bird

(Melanerpes striatus)

Maintain adequate shade.

Regularly collect mature fruit pods before birds can attack them.

Slingshots are used in many places to scare birds from the plantation.

Protect natural bird predators like snakes.

Pesticides are not used.

Rats (Rattus rattus)

Maintain adequate shade.

Regularly collect mature fruit pods before birds can attack them.

Boil some coco pieces with high salt

quantities (3 lbs per coco) and place in

every 10 linear meters near the trees.

Can use rodenticides containing

brodifacoum, chlorophacinon, or

difethialone.

Black pod

(Phytophthora species)

Maintain adequate shade using fruit and banana plants and allow cacao to be

well aerated with some sun.

Sanitation: Remove and destroy diseased pods.

Remove soil from around cocoa tree trunks to remove spore-carrying ant habitat.

Control weeds.

Immediately after cacao harvest initiate pruning by carefully removing

diseased branches and burning them.

Use plant grafts.

Can use fungicides containing copper

compounds and metalaxyl.

Tree Cash Crop: Cashew fruit & nut



needed

Mirid bugs, Tea mosquito bug (TMB),

Helopeltis theivora

and other species

Coconut bug,

Vigilant monitoring: During the rainy season or whenever there are flushes of new leaves, bug outbreaks appear suddenly.

Conserve natural enemies of the bug, like weaver ants, which build nests in

cashew trees and attack and eat the bugs.

Do not interplant cashew with other crops (such as cotton, tea, sweet potato,

Fresh garlic extract may repel and kill the TMB.

Make and use natural artisanal neem oil,

neem seed extract or soapy water.


109

(Pseudotheraptus

wayi)

guava and mango) that are highly susceptible to bug.

Control weeds in and around plantation.

deltamethrin, spinosad or lambda-

cyhalothrin to manage TMB.

Trunk borer, Apate

terebrans

Vigilant monitoring: Borer damage generally is restricted to a small number

of trees, and with continuous vigilance through monitoring and mechanical control, it can be kept under control quite easily.

Mechanical control: Insert a flexible wire like a bicycle spoke into the tunnels

to kill the larvae or adults.

Insecticidal control is not recommended.

The cashew weevil

(Mecocorynus loripes)

Sanitation: Cut away bark from damaged areas of lightly infested trees and

kill the larvae and pupae underneath. Repeat this every month for a further six

months if required.

Destroy severely infested trees. First collect and destroy all adult weevils;

then fell the tree and remove the bark to expose all larval galleries; kill all larvae and pupa and burn the tree.


Cashew stem girdler,

Paranaleptes

reticulate

Once a year (in November or December) collect and burn all girdled branches

should be collected and burned. Only the dead or dying part of the branch

above the girdle needs to be collected.


Cashew leaf miner,

Acrocercops (= Eteoryctis) syngramma

/gemoniella

Rake up and burry leaves and soil at foot of tree where larvae pupate (be

careful not to dig and damage tree roots).

Remove and destroy heavily mined leaves.

Pheromone traps may be available to draw the adult moths away from the

cashew plantation.


Powdery mildew

(PMD), Oïdium

anacardii

Use improved genotypes of cashew.

Prune trees to open the canopy so it can dry out better and allow sun in.

Sanitation: Remove infected shoots over a large area.

Sprays of powdered kelp, potassium /

sodium bicarbonate and sulfur provide

good control of powdery mildew.

Sprays of wettable sulfur used with motorized sprayers may provide some

control.

Systemic fungicides containing

triadimenol may be used on larger

plantations.

Leaf and nut blight,

Cryptosporiopsis

species

A new disease that occurs during off-season rains.

Do vigilant monitoring to detect the disease.


110

Tree Cash Crop: Shea Nut



needed

Foliage eaters, Cirina butyrospermum and

Anacridium moestum

Some of these pests are used as food, cooked and eaten by locals.

Handpick from tree.

Insecticidal control is not recommended or used.

Fruit eaters/borers,

Muissida nigriveriella and fruit fly Ceratitis

silvestrii

Sanitation: Remove and destroy infested fruits. Insecticidal control is not recommended

or used.

Leaf spots which are

caused by Pestalotia

heterospora and Fusidadium

butyrospermi

Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected leaves. No fungicides are recommended or used.

Strangler figs (Ficus

spp.) and hemiparasitic plants (Tapinanthus

spp.)

Sanitation: Remove and destroy infested branches. No pesticides are recommended or used.

Tree Fruit Crop: Mango


Weeds


needed

Mango seed weevil

(Sternochetus mangiferae)

Continuous monitoring to ensure timely intervention is important (a weevil

attack can be detected by monitoring for egg-laying marks on young fruit). Regular fruit scouting is important to detect adult activity during fruit growth.

Ensure good orchard sanitation by collecting and destroying all scattered

mango seeds and fallen fruit. All collected fruit and seeds should be buried at

least 50 cm deep.

Insecticidal control is not recommended

or used.

111

Ensure orchard quarantine by restricting movement of fruit from old orchards

or areas known to have mango seed weevils to areas where young orchards,

free of seed weevil, have been established.

Apply sticky bands at the upper end of tree trunks when the trees start

flowering to reduce migration of weevils to branches for egg laying.

Mango fruit flies

(Bactrocera invadens)

Use resistant grafted planting materials.

Removal of fruit as it matures.

Sanitation: Pruning trees to open up canopy. Cleaning up and destroying

dropped infested mangoes.


spinosad combined with a liquid

attractant as bait sprays on single trees.

Mango scales (Aulacaspis

tubercularis)

Mango mealy bugs

Natural enemies such as parasitic wasps control scales in the orchard.

Eliminate other host plants on or near the plantation.

Cut back on shade by pruning.

Use natural controls such as refined mineral- or vegetable-based horticultural

oils.

Thrips (Selenothrips

rubrocinctus)

Natural enemies such as minute pirate bugs; lacewing or predatory thrips

control thrips in the orchard.

Eliminate other host plants on or near the plantation. Maintain a clean

plantation.

Resistance can form if insecticides are

not rotated. Rotate among natural insecticides containing spinosad and

synthetic pyrethroid permethrin.

Mites (Eryophhes

mangiferae)

Eliminate other host plants on or near the plantation.

Maintain a clean plantation.

Use natural controls such as refined

mineral- or vegetable-based horticultural

oils and homemade neem seed extract.

Resistance can form if insecticides are

not rotated. Rotate among miticides

containing acetamiprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when

flowering due to risk to pollinators and

honeybee colony collapse disorder), permethrin or delatmethrin.

Mango white flies

(Aleurocanthus

woglumi)

Mango aphids

(Toxoptera odinae)

Many natural enemies of white flies and aphids control these pests naturally. Insecticidal control is not recommended

or used.

Mango Powdery Maintain a clean plantation. Use biorational fungicide containing

112

mildew (Oídium

mangiferae; Erysiphe spp., Sphaerotheca

spp.)

Trichoderma species.

Can use natural sulfur or copper-

containing fungicides during flowering.

Anthracnosis

(Colletotrichum

gloeosporioides)


Sanitaiton: Removal and destruction of fallen and leftover mangoes and fallen

leaves.

Pruning to promote ventilation of crown.

Can use natural copper-containing

fungicides during flowering.

For other times, management can be done with fungicides containing

difenoconazole and mancozeb.

Mango dieback

(Lasiodiplodia theobromae)


Apply agricultural calcium to soil.

Sanitation: Pruning trees to open up canopy. Cleaning up and destroying dead

branches.

Paint tree trunks with a copper-

containing fungicide.

Tree Fruit Crop: Banana



needed

Bunchy Top Virus

transmitted by

Banana/Plantain aphid

(Pentalonia nigronervosa)

First, kill the aphids that transmit this, then destroy infected banana mat.

A number of coccinellid and syrphid predators, parasitoids and fungal

diseases usually keep aphid populations below damaging levels.

Maintain adequate soil moisture and fertilization (Plants stressed for water or

nutrients are more susceptible to and suffer greater damage from aphids).

Use regular monitoring and trapping with yellow sticky traps.

Sanitation: Immediately remove and destroy infected plant material. Field disking and destruction of crop residues are important for control of aphids.

Avoid excessively high soil nitrogen levels.

Spray only the whorl and upper part of

the plant.

Use natural controls such as refined

mineral- or vegetable-based horticultural

oils or soapy water.





Black Sigatoka

(Mycosphaerella fijiensis)

Yellow Sigatoka

(Mycosphaerella musicola)

Use clean and certified material of tolerant varieties.

Use plants produced from disease-free tissue culture.

Use good drainage and do moisture management.

Site selection and preparation: do not use sites with a history of Sigatoka.

Do canopy management to open up and aerate canopy.

Removal of weeds, plant debris, diseased parts and dead leaves.

Use natural controls such as mineral- or

vegetable-based horticultural oils.

Rotate among of synthetic fungicides

containing difenoconazole, mancozeb

and azoxystrobin.

113

Cercospora

(Cercospora musae)

Treat plant with amino acids.

Banana thrips

(Chaetanaphothrips orchidii and C.

signispermis and

Frankiniella parvula)

Monitor populations to determine infestation levels.

Bag fruit bunches to exclude thrips.

Rotate natural controls such as mineral-

or vegetable-based horticultural oils,

artisanal neem seed extract and

insecticidal soap with synthetic

insecticide containing permethrin.

Banana/Plantain

weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus)

Maintain healthy, properly fertilized and vigorous plants.

Hot water treatment of corms.

Baiting/trapping using ground traps with freshly cut corm with or without

pheromone Cosmolure.

Cover banana plant wound with soil after pruning or harvesting.

Field sanitation: clean up crop debris and control weeds.

Dip plant suckers in a fungicide

containing 20% azadirachtin/neem tree

seed extract solution.

Can use natural nematodes that attack

weevil larvae.

Nematodes (various

Meloydogyne species)

Can use tissue culture or nematode-free transplants for propagation material

and hot water treatment.

Use fallow and cover crops.

Use 2 kilos of compost per plant to enhance soil organic matter and microbial

composition.

Prop plants with wires.

Maintain good soil drainage.

Do crop rotation to non-host crops.

Sanitation: Remove or compost crop residues after harvest. Thoroughly clean

all equipment with disinfectant water. Do not allow irrigation water to flow

from an infested field to other fields without impounding. Prevent animal grazing and movement from infested to uninfested fields.

Marigold (Tagetes minuta and T. patula, respectively) plowed under the soil

to suppress nematode populations.

Can use natural hot water treatment for

propagation material.

Artisanal water extracts of basil, garlic,

neem tree seed extract may reduce

populations.

Use botanical/microbial extracts of Tagetes erecta or Paecilomyces

lilacinus.

Corona rot (fungal

species complex with Colletotrichum,

Antragnosis and

Sclerotium)

Reduce contact of the harvested fruit with leaf or other plant material to

reduce contamination.

Use natural controls such as mineral- or

vegetable-based horticultural oils.

Can use a rinse with chlorine (sodium

hypochlorite).

114

Poultry/Fowl: Turkeys, Geese, Ducks, Chickens, Guinea Fowl, Pigeons

Primary Pests, Diseases Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate Recommended Chemical Controls, when

needed

Newcastle disease

virus (NDV)

Practice good sanitation and implement a comprehensive biosecurity program.

Use well-designed vaccination schedules, using low-virulence live vaccines.

Administer inactivated oil-emulsion vaccines to the parent flock before onset of egg dropping to ensure passive immunity in day-old chicks. Active

immunization is induced in the chicks when their passively acquired antibody

levels are dropping. A second vaccination four weeks later gives life-long protection if proper vaccination procedures are applied.

No chemicals will impact virus.

Sodium hypochlorite may be used for

cleaning up pens.

Gumboro, Infectious

Bursal Disease (IBD)

virus

Use the vaccine that is commercially available.

Practice good sanitation and biosecurity.

Use vitamin-electrolyte therapy.

No chemicals will impact virus.

Sodium hypochlorite may be used for

cleaning up pens.

Fowlpox virus

transmitted by mosquitoes


Do not vaccinate unless the disease becomes a problem on a farm or in the area. Chickens may be vaccinated at 4-6 weeks of age using the wing web-

stick method, and turkeys older than 8 weeks by the thigh-stick method.

Spray natural and synthetic

pyrethrins/pyrethroids to kill mosquitoes.

Coccidiosis internal

protozoan parasites,

species in the following Genera:

Cryptosporidia, Histomonas,

Trichomonas,

Tetratrichomonas, Entamoeba, Eimeria,

and Endolimax

Many poultry gradually become immune to these organisms over time, with

repeated exposure.

Several anticoccidial compounds are

effective: amprolium, sulfadimethoxine,

sulfaquinoxaline and sulfamethazine (note that none of these are considered to

be pesticides; they are veterinary antibiotics, not regulated by 22 CFR

216.3).

Chronic respiratory

disease,

Mycoplasmosis,

Mycoplasma

gallisepticum (MG disease)


Practice good sanitation and biosecurity.

Outbreaks of MG can be controlled with

the use of antibiotics. Erythromycin,

tylosin, spectinomycin, and lincomycin

all exhibit anti-mycoplasma activity, and

have given good results. Administration of most of these antibiotics can be by

feed, water or injection. These are

115

effective in reducing clinical disease.

However, birds remain carriers for life (note that none of these are considered to

be pesticides; they are veterinary

antibiotics, not regulated by 22 CFR 216.3).

Pullorum, Bacillary

White Diarrhea, BWD,

Salmonella pullorum

Fowl Typhoid

(Salmonellosis,

Colibacilliosis),

Salmonellae, Escherichia coli

Ensure that chicks are from pullorum-free (or pullorum typhoid clean)

hatcheries.

Maintain parent stock free from infection, especially in commercial

production. Flocks can be tested serologically, using the rapid plate

agglutination test, confirmed with the tube agglutination test.

Disinfect incubator and hatching units, and if possible, the hatching operation

should be in a pullorum-free area and be quarantined.

The entire flock must be culled and the poultry house properly disinfected and

left empty for about a month before re-stocking.

Keep poultry away from areas frequented by wild fowl.

Keep strict control over access to poultry houses.

Keep equipment cleaned and disinfected before taking it into poultry houses.

Do not keep bird feeders or create duck ponds close to poultry barns as they

attract wild birds.

Maintain high sanitation standards.

Disinfect the poultry house with sodium

acid sulphate, calcium hypochlorite.

Use pharmaceutical antibiotics (note that

none of these are considered to be

pesticides; they are veterinary

antibiotics, not regulated by 22 CFR

216.3).

Aspergillosis,

(Aspergillus

fumigatus, A. niger, A. flavus)

It is important to thoroughly clean and disinfect the brooding area between

broods. Use only clean litter, preferably soft wood shavings. Do not use

sawdust, litter high in bark content, or shavings that have been wet. Move feeders and waterers periodically.

Recovery: Cases will re-occur if fungi can grow in feedstuffs or litter on the

farm because it is not handled properly. If, however, the cause of the contamination is corrected and/or the source removed, there is no residual

risk.

Clean and disinfect the house and spray

it with 1:2000 copper sulphate or other

suitable fungicide. Few and expensive birds can be treated with Nystatin or

Amphotericin-B or other anti-mycotic

agents (note that none of these are considered to be pesticides; they are

veterinary antibiotics, not regulated by 22 CFR 216.3). These are given together

with antibiotics to prevent secondary

bacterial infections.

The spread can be controlled by

improving ventilation, eliminating the

source of the infection, and adding a

fungistat (mycostatin, mold curb, sodium or calcium propionate, or gentian violet)

116

to the feed and/or copper sulfate or

acidified copper in the drinking water for 3 days. The litter can be sprayed lightly

with an oil-base germicide to control

dust and air movement of fungal spores.

Internal parasites,

endoparasites (nematodes, cestodes,

termatodes and protozoans)

The feasible control method is rearing the birds on wire (off the ground).

Separate young birds from old birds when kept in enclosures.

Moisture levels and ventilation should be monitored.

Control and prevention is by separation of birds from possible transport and

intermediate hosts, and effective cleaning of poultry houses and premises.

Use poultry antibiotics that are specific

for each type of parasite (note that none of these are considered to be pesticides;

they are veterinary antibiotics, not regulated by 22 CFR 216.3).

Livestock: Camels, Cattle, Sheep & Goats for Meat, Milk & Hides

Primary Pests, Diseases Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate Recommended Chemical Controls, when

needed

Brucelosis (Brucella

abortus)

Use vaccinations. No disinfectants are recommended.

Savannah and Riverine

Tsetse flies (Glossina

species)

Tsetse flies transmit

trypanosomes to

livestock that lead to

Trypanosomiasis or

Nagana, Trypanosoma brucei, T. vivax

Use, on an area-wide basis, odor baited traps and targets with insecticide to

attract and kill savannah tsetse.

Use, on an area-wide basis, specially colored traps with insecticides to attract

and kill savannah tsetse.

If available through KARI, the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) can be used on

an area-wide basis to reduce tsetse fly populations significantly.

Use fly repellents if the technology becomes available in Kenya.

Use indigenous plant extracts to repel flies.

Rotate among pour-on formulations of

insecticides containing deltamethrin, or

spray-on formulations containing amitraz

or lambda cyhalothrin.

Inject anti-trypanosome drugs.

Livestock ticks

(Boophilus microplus,

other species)

Use tick resistant cattle breeds.

Use clean syringes if blood entry or transfer occurs.

Check animals routinely for ticks and remove ticks by hand.

Some local aromatic shrubs provide extracts that can be used as tick

repellents.

Brush removal and mowing the vegetation next to wooded areas.

Preventive vaccination of cattle against

tick-borne diseases.

Treat cattle with pour-on acaricides

containing deltamethrin every 21 days.

117

Rotate livestock away from the pastures that are heavily infested with ticks.

Sanitation: Where animals are concentrated in night corrals, clean up and

remove all weeds and animal waste.

Mange mites

(Demodex and

Sarcoptes species)

Don’t over-crowd animals. Provide animals with sufficient space, so they are

not in close contact with each other.

Use indigenous knowledge and saltpan dips and washes to reduce mites.

Use indigenous plant extracts to reduce mites.

Use of miticides is rarely justified.

However if desired, pour-on

formulations containing deltamethrin,

lambda-cyhalothrin, pyrethrin or spray-on amitraz used against ticks and flies

will reduce mite populations.

Biting flies/Tabanids

Stable fly (Stomoxys

calcitrans)

Some biting flies

transmit trypanosomes

to livestock

Eliminate development sites such as decomposing vegetation.

Sanitation: Clean up and remove all fresh animal manure and manure pats.

If compost piles of manure are maintained for horticultural use, put fresh

grass clippings into them and turn them regularly to disrupt face fly breeding.

Use indigenous plant extracts to repel flies.

Chemical control is not usually cost-

effective, as animals would need to be

treated every other day with a pyrethroid

pesticide like deltamethrin, lambda

cyhalothrin, or pyrethrins.

Face flies (Musca

autumnalis)

Sanitation: Clean up and remove all fresh animal manure and manure pats.

Find where the face flies hibernate (usually in cracks and other spaces

somewhere on the south or west sides of buildings warmed by fall or winter

sun) and treat them there.

Use of ear tags impregnated with

synthetic insecticides like amitraz, and formulations containing a synthetic

pyrethroid like deltamethrin.

Cattle screwworm

(Cochliomya

hominivorax)

Reduce any injuries to the livestock hides, skin or horns.

Monitor livestock daily for wounds or fly larvae.

Remove fly larvae manually.

Use pour-on formulations of insecticides

containing deltamethrin, amitraz or

lambda-cyhalothrin.

Brucelosis (Brucella

abortus)

Use vaccination.

Use great care so that this zoonotic disease is not transmitted to people.

No disinfectants are recommended.

Mastitis bacteria

(Streptococcus and

Staphilococcus

species)

Maintain clean technique when milking.

Clean milking equipment daily.

Treat animal teats with a solution of

chlorine or iodine and lanoline.

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Annex 2: Guidelines for PMPs for West Africa Crops and Beneficiaries

What is a PMP17?

Pest Management Plans or Guides provide field crop, livestock production or project decision-makers –

farmers and farm managers – with best production practices recommendations, usually adapted by region, crop phenology and seasons. The aims of PMPs are to reduce the risks to production from pests by using

a combination of best practices, including IPM, Integrated Vector Management (IVM) and Integrated Weed Management (IWM), that maximize crop or livestock health, and thus resilience to or tolerance of

pests, and without an over-reliance on pesticides needed when best practices are not followed. Thus,

prevention of pests plays a strongly pivotal role in the PMP, followed closely by management of pests

when prevention alone is not adequate for the level of control needed or desired.

Who are the PMP’s intended audiences and users?

Farm land preparation and crop production decision-makers

Farmers

Farm managers

Why is a PMP being done?

PMP Objectives:

Prevent or reduce pest damage risk to agricultural production or health

Protect the health of farmers, farm family members, laborers and community members from pesticide risks

Maintain economically sound practices

Reduce environmental pollution and degradation risks

Enhance the overall quality and quantity of biodiversity on the sustainable farm work

environment

Respond to foreign market demand for the use of agriculture sector best management practice

standards, also called Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) which include IPM measures, to

achieve farm and produce certification

Comply with local, regional, donor and international laws, conventions, and regulations

Organization of the PMP

The following pieces of crop- or livestock-specific background information are used to build a PMP base

General information on the crop/livestock/sector

Crop/livestock common/species names:

Crop/livestock developmental stages:

17 PMPs or Year-Round (seasonal) IPM Programs are state of the art in many developed countries, and they help institutionalize IPM in planning and practice. PMPs provide agriculture managers and farmers

with a tool to predict and prevent many crop pests of each crop throughout a season. See examples of

PMPs at http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html, upper left corner under “Year-Round IPM Programs”.

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html

119

Production regions and how they differ by soil type, pH, fertility, etc

Overall concerns and priorities for crop/livestock production

Crop/livestock cultural best practices

Crop/livestock Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) including some IPM (see PERSUAP section on GAPS and IPM) recommendations

Individual Pest Prevention and Management Sections for each of the following pest types:

Invertebrate (Insects, Mites, Slugs/Snails, Nematodes)

Diseases (Fungi, Bacteria, Viruses, Other)

Weeds (annual grasses, broadleaves, perennial grasses, broadleaves, sedges, others)

Vertebrates (birds, rodents, other)

For each pest type, first, identify overall priorities for pest prevention and management in the target crop or livestock.

Next, identify individual pest species noting the type of damage incurred; part of plant damaged:

roots/rhizomes/tubers, stems/stalks, leaves, florescence, or seeds (field or stored); or if livestock, part of animal affected.

To best understand how to manage a pest, one needs to understand how, where, when and on what parts

of the plant or animal the pest feeds. For field pests and stored grain/food pests, many PMPs are designed and outlined as follows, for each major species of pest (insects, mites, slugs/snails, nematodes):

Photographs of each pest, life stages

Photographs of plant or livestock damage

Description of the pest, life cycle and survival strategies18:

Description of damage symptoms

Best Prevention Practices

o Use any and all of the above GAPs including IPM o Country or region-specific information

Best Management Practices

o Focus on prevention (above) o Country or region-specific information

Information on PMP-recommended pesticides:

Information needed for each pesticide referenced in the above PMP, by pest (so the farmer/farm manager

has the information at their fingertips and do not need to refer to other documents and tables to find it):

Pesticide essential information needed

Active Ingredient (AI) name

Product Trade names (with EPA and WHO Acute Toxicity Classifications in parenthesis)

18 Survival strategies: All pests have survival strategies that allow them to live and breed in each crop’s farming systems. Knowing the survival strategies, including overwintering habit and alternate host plants, that are employed by the pest can help with decision making at the farming systems-level (e.g. choice of rotation crops) and also can help to anticipate pest outbreaks.

120

Amounts to use per hectare

Price

Pre-Harvest Interval (PHI)

Special comments on best application methods and frequency

Any resistance management strategies needed

Pesticide application record sheet

Guidelines for reducing spray drift

Re-entry interval (REI): field safe re-entry period after spraying

Maximum residue levels (MRL) permitted by markets

Pesticide precautions with use including

Reading the label

Legal responsibilities and permitted registration uses

Permit requirements for possession and use

Recommended and obligated use of PPE and best practices

First aid and antidotes

Transportation best practices

Storage best practices

Safe use best practices

Container disposal best practices

Leftover pesticide disposal best practices

Protection of non-pest animals, plants, endangered species and water body quality

Protect natural enemies & honeybees: http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r584310111.html

Posting signage in treated fields

Some chemicals not permitted on processed crops

Potential for phytotoxicity (crop injury) on some crops

Documentation and record-keeping on farms

Information needed on Natural Enemies of Pests:

Common Names of Predators and Parasitoids effective against above pests: For a list of common natural

enemies of crop pests, see http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/NE/index.html. Genera will likely be the

same around the world, with different species in different continents, filling similar niches.

Additional Information Needed:

Will there be an IPM Coordinator, an IPM Advisory Committee, Education and Licensing for

Applicators, Currency and Approval of the PMP?

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r584310111.html

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/NE/index.html

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Annex 3: Elements of an IPM Program

Elements of IPM19 Program

Although farmers are likely using numerous IPM tactics, without really calling them that, IPM

philosophy or planning is not generally an active part of crop production in most emerging market

countries; thus, a basic understanding of the steps or elements needed in an IPM program are addressed below.

Step 1: Learn and value farmers’ indigenous IPM tactics.

Most farmers are already using their own forms of GAPs and IPM, many of which are novel, self-created,

adapted for local conditions, and many of which work well. These local tools and tactics need to be well understood and taken into account when making PMPs. Accurate assessments of these farmers’ GAP

and IPM technologies, as well as an understanding of actual losses due to different constraints in farmers’ fields are required before designing a crop production and pest management program. Standards and

Certification (S&C) farmers will have records of historical pesticide use and trends, as well as

information on current use of artisanal or local IPM tactics.

Step 2: Identify key pests for each target crop.

Although perhaps up to ten species of pests may impact a crop and yields at different plant growth stages,

generally only two or three are considered serious enough to spend money controlling. Farmers should be

encouraged to monitor their population size, their life cycle, the kind of damage they cause and actual

losses. Note that crop loss figures based on farmers’ perceptions of damage and loss are often

overestimated.

Step 3: Evaluate all management options.

Use of best management practices, preventive measures, and “organic” options to control pest impacts

may eliminate the need for synthetic pesticides.

Step 4: Choose IPM methods, identify needs and establish priorities.

Continue dialog with project field staff, ministry extension staff and farmers when choosing methods to

be used. Consider the feasibility of attractive methods, including the availability of resources needed, farmers’ perceptions of pest problems, their abilities to identify pests, their predators, diseases and

parasitoids, and to act upon their observations.

Step 5: Do effective activities and training to promote IPM.

Next, identify strategies and mechanisms for fostering the transfer of the needed IPM technology under various project and institutional arrangements, mechanisms, and funding levels. Define what is available

for immediate transfer and what may require more adaptation and validation research. Set up an initial planning workshop (with a COP-supported and signed Action Plan) to help define and orient

implementation activities, and begin to assign individual responsibilities.

Learning-by-doing/discovery training programs

The adoption of new techniques by small-, medium- and large-holder farmers occurs most readily when program participants acquire knowledge and skills through personal experience, observation, analysis,

experimentation, decision-making and practice. At first, frequent (usually weekly) sessions are conducted

for 10–20 farmers during the cropping season in farmers’ fields by trained instructors or extension agents.

19http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad487e/ad487e00.htm; http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad487e/ad487e02.htm;

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmer_Field_School; http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html

http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad487e/ad487e00.htm

http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad487e/ad487e02.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmer_Field_School

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html

122

Smallholder support and discussion groups

Weekly meetings of smallholders, held during the cropping season, to discuss pest and related problems can be useful for sharing the success of various control methods. However, maintaining attendance is

difficult except when there is a clear financial incentive (e.g., credit, advance knowledge of nearby

infestations for early action leading to yield improvement).

Educational material

In many countries, basic written and photographic guides to pest identification and crop-specific

management techniques are unavailable or out of date. Videos featuring graphic pictures of the effects of

acute and chronic pesticide exposure, and interviews with poisoning victims can be particularly effective.

Youth education

Promoting and improving the quality of programs on IPM and the risks of synthetic pesticides has been

effective at technical schools for rural youth. In addition to becoming future farmers, these students can bring informed views back to their communities.

Food market incentives (especially important in the last decade)

Promoting Organic, GlobalGAP, BRC, Fair Trade or other certification for access to the lucrative and

rapidly growing S&C systems-driven international and regional food markets can be, and is, a strong incentive to adopt IPM.

Step 6: Partner successfully with other IPM implementers.

The following design steps are considered essential.

Articulate the partnership’s vision of IPM

Organizations may forge partnerships based on a common commitment to “IPM” – only to discover too

late that that their visions of IPM differ considerably. It is therefore highly important that partners

articulate a common, detailed vision of IPM, centered on the crops and conditions the project will encounter.

Confirm partner institutions’ commitment

The extent of commitment to IPM integration into project, design, and thus implementation depends

strongly upon the following key variables:

IPM program integration into larger project. The IPM program is likely to be part of a larger

“sustainable agriculture” project. The IPM program must fit into a partner’s overall goals. The extent of

this integration should be clearly expressed in the proposed annual work plan.

Cost sharing. The extent of funds (or in-kind resources) is a good measure of a genuine partner

commitment.

Participation of key IPM personnel. Organizations should have staff with expertise in IPM. In strong

partnerships, these staff members are actively involved in the partnership.

Step 7: Monitor the fields regularly.

123

At minimum twice a week, farmers should monitor their fields for pests, as some pest populations

increase rapidly and unexpectedly; this increase is usually related closely to the stage of crop growth and weather conditions, but it is difficult to predict the severity of pest problems in advance.

Step 8: Select and appropriate blend of IPM tools.

A good IPM program draws from and integrates a variety of pest management techniques, like those presented in the above list. Flexibility to fit local needs is a key variable. Pesticides should be used only

if no practical, effective, and economic non-chemical control methods are available. Once the pesticide

has been carefully chosen for the pest, crop, and environment, it should be applied only to keep the pest population low, not necessarily eliminate it.

Step 9: Develop education, training and demonstration programs for extension workers.

Implementation of IPM depends heavily on education, training, and demonstration to help farmers and

extension workers develop and evaluate the IPM methods. Hands-on training conducted in farmers’

fields (as opposed to a classroom) is a must. Special training for extension workers and educational

programs for government officials and the public are also important.

Step 10: Monitoring, record keeping and evaluation.

Develop data collection forms and checklists, collect baseline GAP/IPM data at the beginning of the

project, and set targets.

For the use and maintenance of Good Agriculture Practices (that include safe pesticide storage, use and

disposal), maintain farm or project files of: farmer and farm employee training records certification; farm

soil, water, biodiversity, cropping and pesticide use maps; pesticide purchase and stock records; price increases or decreases, chemical application instructions including target pest, type of chemical applied,

dosage, time of spray, rates at which pesticides were applied, harvest interval days, application

machinery, PPE required and used, and any special instructions on mixing, exposure to children or dangers.

Further, for project staff, beneficiaries, produce processing facilities, food warehouses, seed multipliers, or farmers that store seed or food and deal with stored seed and food pests, there are warehouse BMPs

and monitoring reports that incorporate some IPM tactics. These monitoring forms track, by location or warehouse, use of pallets, stacking, general hygiene and sanitation, damaged packages, actual infestations

or signs of rodents, molds, insects, drainage, locks and security measures, use of IPM tactics including

least toxic chemicals and strict BMPs, including restricted access, for use of common but hazardous fumigants like aluminum phosphide.

124

Annex 4: Botanical Active Ingredients in Pesticides, Repellents, and Baits Regulated by USEPA

This table, as well as the table in Annex 5, identifies many botanical pesticides that are useful for repelling or killing pests. These natural products are presented to

emphasize the range of products possible for artisanal (homemade) use, and small-scale production, should the West African MOAs be encouraged to support

and/or register their production and use for small-scale farmers. These are not presently requested for approval by this PERSUAP (and therefore are not approved

for use in USAID/WA projects).

Name Other Names Use Toxicity EPA Tracking Number

Allium sativum Garlic Repels insects Low 128827

Allyl isothiocyanate Oil of Mustard Kills & repels insects Questionable 004901

Anise Oil Repels vertebrates Low 004301

4-allyl anisole Estragole Kills beetles Low 062150

Azadirachtin Azadirachta indica Neem tree

extract

Kills & repels insects Low, IV 121701

Bergamot Repels vertebrates 129029

Canola Oil Brassica Napus B. Campestris Kills many insects Low 011332

Capsaicin Capsicum frutescans Repels vertebrates Low, III 070701

Castor Oil Repels vertebrates Low 031608

Cedarwood Oil Repels moth larvae Low 040505

Cinnamaldehyde Ceylon and Chinese cinnamon oils Kills insects, fungi & repels vertebrates* Low 040506

Citronella Oil Repels insects & vertebrates Low 021901

Cloves, Crushed Low 128895

Dihydroazadirachtin Neem tree extract Azadirachta indica

Kills & repels insects III-IV 121702

Eucalyptus Oil Repels insects, mites fleas & mosquitoes Low 040503

Eugenol Oil of cloves Kills insects** Low 102701

Geraniol Oil of rose isomeric w/ linalool Repels vertebrates** Low 597501

Geranium Oil Low 597500

Indole from all plants Trap bait: corn rootworm beetles Low 25000-

Jasmine Oil Low 040501

Jojoba Oil Kills & repels whitefly kills powdery mildew Low 067200

Lavandin Oil Repels clothes moth Low 040500

Lemongrass Repels vertebrates Low 040502

Linalool Oil of Ceylon isomeric w/geraniol Repels insects, ticks, mites & spiders Low 128838

Maple lactone Roach trap bait Low 004049

Methyl salicylate Oil of wintergreen Repels moths, beetle & vertebrates May be Toxic in 76601-

125

Name Other Names Use Toxicity EPA Tracking Number

large quantity

Mint Herb Kills aphids Low 128892

Mint Oil Kills aphids Low 128800

Mustard Oil Repels insects, spiders & vertebrates Low 004901

Neem Oil Kills whitefly, aphids Low 025006

1-Octen-3-ol From clover, alfalfa Trap bait: mosquitoes Low 69037-

Orange Repels vertebrates Low 040517

p-Methane-3,8 diol Eucalyptus sp. Repels biting flies, mosquitoes Low

2-Phenylethyl-

propionate

From peanuts Kills insects, ticks, mites & spiders Low 102601

Pyrethrum Chrysanthemum sp. Stored products use III

Red pepper Chilli Repels insects Low 070703

Rosemary Herb Low 128893

Rotenone Derris sp., Tephrosia Controls ticks III

Ryania Ryania speciosa Kills thrips, codling moth, corn borers

Sabadilla Schoenocaulon sp. III

Sesame Oil Sesamum indicum Pyrethroid synergist Low

Soybean Oil Soja Kills insects, mites Low 031605

Thyme Herb Controls aphids Low 128894

1,2,4 Trimethoxy-benzene

From squash Trap bait: corn rootworm, cucumber beetles Low 40515-

Verbenone From pine trees Repels bark beetles Low 128986

* attracts corn rootworm beetles, ** attracts Japanese beetles. Not all plant extracts are listed. More detailed information available for most oils: http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm. Natural Source: Only one or a few sources are listed. Most of these chemicals are found in many different

plants.

Since the time in the late 1990s when EPA did register biological ingredients listed above, it has since developed a list of botanical extracts (mostly essential oils)

under “Minimum Risk Pesticides Exempted under FIFRA Section 25(b)20”. Some of the very same ingredients are in both lists. However, most US states and USAID consider botanical extracts and essential oils used to kill, destroy, mitigate, or repel pests to be analyzed and treated as pesticides. So, only those included

in this PERSUAP would be available for use by USAID/WA projects covered by this PERSUAP.

20 http://www.epa.gov/oppbppd1/biopesticides/regtools/25b_list.htm

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm

http://www.epa.gov/oppbppd1/biopesticides/regtools/25b_list.htm

126

Annex 5: Natural Pesticides That Have Been Commercialized

Both the introductory and final notes above to Annex 5 also apply to this annex.

Insecticides

azadirachtin—component in neem oil botanical extract

Bacillus thuringiensis-BT microbial Beauveria basiana microbial

cartap hydrochloride marine worm (Lumbriconereis heterodopa)

extract chili pepper extract botanical (spice)

emamectin benzoate botanical extract

garlic extract/allicin botanical extract (spice) harpin protein plant induced resistance elicitor

kaolin clay inorganic mineral d-limonene citrus extract (spice)

Metarhizium anisopliae microbial

narrow range dormant oil paraffin oil neem oil botanical extract

nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) microbial

Paecilomyces lilacinus microbial Paecilomyces fumosoroseus microbial

pyrethrin botanical extract

pyriproxyfen IGR (Juvenile Hormone mimic) ryania botanical extract

soap (insecticidal) fatty acids spinosad microbial extract

buprofezin IGR (Chitin Synthesis inhibitor)

Fungicides

Bacillus subtilis microbial

Bordeaux mix inorganic (Bordeaux ingredients EPA registered) copper inorganic

copper hydroxide inorganic

copper oxychloride inorganic

copper sulfate inorganic

harpin protein plant induced resistance elicitor sulfur inorganic

Trichoderma species microbial

Nematocides

Myrothecium verrucaria microbial

tomatillo oil + thyme oil extracts (Promax21) botanical + spice extracts—soil biopesticide

Molluscicide

iron phosphate inorganic

21 http://www.bhn.name/humagro/biopesticides.html

http://www.bhn.name/humagro/biopesticides.html

127

Annex 6: Acute Toxicity of Pesticides: EPA and WHO Classifications

General Toxicity

Pesticides, by necessity, are poisons, but the toxicity and hazards of different compounds vary

greatly. Toxicity refers to the inherent intoxicating ability of a compound whereas hazard refers to the risk or danger of poisoning when the pesticide is used or applied. Pesticide hazard depends

not only on toxicity but also on the chance of exposure to toxic amounts of the pesticide.

Pesticides can enter the body through oral ingestion, through the skin or through inhalation. Once inside the body, they may produce poisoning symptoms, which are either acute (from a single

exposure) or chronic (from repeated exposures or absorption of smaller amounts of toxicant).

EPA and WHO Toxicity Classifications

Basically, there are two systems of pesticide toxicity classification. These are the USEPA and the WHO systems of classification. It is important to note that the WHO classification is based on

the active ingredient only, whereas USEPA uses product formulations to determine the toxicity class of pesticides. So, WHO classification shows relative toxicities of all pesticide active (or

technical) ingredients, whereas EPA classification shows actual toxicity of the formulated

products, which can be more or less toxic than the active ingredient alone and are more representative of actual dangers encountered in the field. The tables below show classification of

pesticides according to the two systems.

a) USEPA classification (based on formulated product = active ingredient plus inert and other ingredients)

Class Descriptive

term

Mammalian

LD50

Mammalia

n

Inhalation

LC50

Irritation Aquatic

invert/fi

sh (LC50

or

EC50)2

Honey

bee

acute

oral

(LD50)

Oral Dermal Eye1 Skin

I Extremely

toxic 50 200 0.2 Corrosiv

e

Corrosiv

e

< 0.1

II Highly toxic 50-

500

200-

2000

0.2-2.0 Severe Severe 0.11-1.0 < 2

µg/bee

III Moderately

toxic

500-

5000

2000-

20000

2.0-20 No

corneal

opacity

Moderate 1.1-10.0 2.1-11

µg/bee

IV Slightly

toxic 5000

20000 20 None Moderate

or slight

10.1-100

Relatively non-toxic

101-1000

128

Practically non-toxic

1001-10,000

> 11 µg/bee

Non-toxic > 10,000

1 Corneal opacity not reversible within 7 days for Class I pesticides; corneal opacity reversible

within 7 days but irritation persists during that period for Class II pesticides; no corneal opacity

and irritation is reversible within 7 days for Class III pesticides; and Class IV pesticides cause no irritation 2 Expressed in ppm or mg/l of water

b) WHO classification (based only on active or ‘technical’ ingredient)

Class Descriptive term

Oral LD50 for the rat

(mg/kg body wt)

Dermal LD50 for the rat

(mg/kg body wt)

Solids Liquids Solids Liquids

Ia Extremely hazardous 5 20 10 40

Ib Highly hazardous 5-50 20-200 10-100 40-400

II Moderately hazardous 50-500 20-2000 100-1000 400-4000

III Slightly hazardous 501 2001 1001 4001

U Unlikely to present acute

hazard in normal use 2000 3000 - -

129

Annex 7: PERSUAP Analyses of Active Ingredients in Pesticides Registered in West Africa

Introduction to Annex 7

Annex 7 below compiles all of the AIs in pesticides (natural and synthetic) for which BEO approval is being

requested (also listed in the Executive Summary), and registered for use in West African countries and

proposed for imminent registration. Project decision-makers—especially those who interface at the field

level with beneficiary farmers—are encouraged to look at the label of potential pesticide choices to determine the AIs contained in them and then use this Annex as a quick reference guide to attributes and

issues with each chemical.

The pesticide attributes include pesticide class (to manage resistance by rotating chemicals from different

classes), EPA registration and Restricted Use Pesticide (RUP) status (to comply with Regulation 216) and

acute toxicity (judged by this document to be safe, or not, for smallholder farmers—most Class I chemicals

are not considered safe for smallholder farmers to use). Annex 7 also presents chronic health issues, water

pollution potential, and potential toxicities to important non-target organisms like fish, honeybee pollinators,

birds and several aquatic organisms.

Further, Annex 7 contains basic pieces of human safety and environmental data needed for the various analyses required throughout the PER; ergo it is referred to throughout this document. Thus, this PERSUAP

provides useful tools for evaluating and choosing among IPM options, including natural and synthetic

pesticides, while adhering to 22 CFR 216.

See Annex 7 Matrix, below.

Key to matrix:

Red shading: Do not promote products containing AIs shaded in red strikethrough color on USAID-

supported farms or wood processing

Green shading: Can be promoted on USAID-supported farms

Yellow shading color: Some products accepted; some products rejected

RUP: Few = one or two products; Some = a third of products; Most/All = most or all products

WHO Acute Toxicity Classes: O = Obsolete; Ia = Extremely Hazardous; Ib = Highly Hazardous;

II = Moderately Hazardous; III = Slightly Hazardous; U = Unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use

EPA Acute Toxicity Classes: I = Extremely Toxic; II = Highly Toxic; III = Moderately Toxic; IV = Slightly Toxic

Chronic Human Toxicity: KC = Known Carcinogen; PC = Possible Carcinogen; LC = Likely Carcinogen; ED = Potential Endocrine Disruptor; RD = Potential Reproductive & Development Toxin; P = Risk of

Parkinson’s

Ecotoxicity: NAT = Not Acutely Toxic; PNT = Practically Not Toxic; ST = Slightly Toxic; MT =

Moderately Toxic; HT = Highly Toxic; VHT = Very Highly Toxic

References used to find pieces of data contained in Annex 7: See references at the end of the report.

130

2014 INSAH Homologized Insecticides

Ecotoxicity

Active Ingredients Class

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abamectin/avermectin microbial extract yes some NL II, III ED, RD no data ST HT PNT MT HT VHT VHT

acetamiprid neonicotinoid yes no NL III NL potential NAT MT HT NAT allethrin synthetic pyrethroid no no III III ED no data VHT MT ST HT VHT HT

alpha-cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes all II II, III PC no data HT HT PNT MT VHT VHT VHT

aluminum phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MT azadirachtin/neem seed extract botanical yes no NL III ED no data ST NAT NAT MT MT

Bacillus sphaericus microbial yes no U III NL no data

Bacillus thuringiensis/BT microbial yes no III III NL no data MT PNT NAT NAT ST ST bendiocarb/benthiocarb carbamate no some II II, III RD no data MT HT HT MT HT VHT

bifenthrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III PC, ED, RD no data VHT HT MT HT

cartap hydrochloride nereistoxin no no II II NL no data MT MT

chlorpyrifos (ethyl) organophosphate no some II II, III ED no data HT HT HT MT PNT MT VHT HT MT

cyantraniliprole anthranilic diamide no U IV NL no data MT MT NAT MT HT

cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid no some NL II, III PC, ED, RD no data HT HT PNT MT VHT VHT VHT

deltamethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes cotton II I, II, III ED no data HT MT VHT NAT VHT VHT

diflubenzuron insect growth regulator yes some U III ED no data ST NAT PNT NAT NAT NAT ST MT

emamectin benzoate botanical no some NL I, II, III NL potential HT MT HT HT HT

fenitrothion organophosphate no no II II, III ED no data MT HT MT MT MT MT VHT HT MT

fenothrin/phenothrin synthetic pyrethroid yes no U III ED no data VHT ST HT VHT VHT

flubendiamide benzen dicarboxamide yes no NL III NL no data HT NAT MT MT HT

fludioxonil/fludioxonyl phenylpyrrole yes no U III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

imidacloprid neonicotinoid yes no II II, III NL potential NAT MT VHT

Indoxacarb, S-isomer oxadiazine yes no O III NL no data MT HT HT NAT MT

lambda cyhalothrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III ED no data VHT HT PNT VHT VHT VHT VHT

lufenuron benzoyl urea yes no NL III NL no data MT ST MT MT HT ST

malathion organophosphate yes no III II PC, ED potential MT HT MT HT ST VHT MT VHT HT Metarhizium flavoviride anisoplae microbial yes no NL III NL no data NAT NAT NAT

novaluron insect growth regulator yes no NL II, III NL no data MT MT MT MT HT

permethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes no II III PC, ED no data VHT VHT PNT ST ST ST VHT MT MT

pyrimiphos methyl organophosphate yes no II, III I, II, III NL no data MT HT MT MT VHT VHT

profenofos organophosphate yes all II III NL potential HT VHT VHT VHT

spinetoram unclassified yes no NL III NL no data MT NAT MT MT

spinosad microbial yes no U III NL no data MT HT PNT ST HT MT

131

spirotetramat keto-enol yes no NL II, III NL no data MT MT MT MT

Tagetes oil botanical yes no NL no data

teflubenzuron insect growth regulator no no U IV NL no data ST MT ST ST HT HT HT HT HT

tetramethrin pyrethroid yes no U III PC, ED no data VHT HT NAT HT MT

thiamethoxam neonicotinoid yes few NL III PC no data PNT HT PNT PNT PNT PNT PNT thyme oil botanical yes no III NL no data ST

zeta cypermethrin pyrethroid yes some Ib II, III PC, ED no data VHT VHT NAT NAT VHT VHT VHT

2014 INSAH Homologized Rodenticide

brodifacoum (brodifacouma) coumarin yes no Ia III none no data MT MT

2014 INSAH Homologized Fungicides

Ecotoxicity


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azoxystrobin strobin yes no U III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT VHT

copper sulfate (pentahydrate) inorganic yes no II I, II, III

iprodione dicarboximide yes no U III LC, ED potential MT NAT ST HT

mancozeb dithiocarbamate yes no U III PC, ED, RD no data MT MT ST HT NAT

metalaxyl-M (mefenoxam) phenylamide yes no II II, III NL potential MT NAT MT MT MT

myclobutanil azole yes no III III ED, RD no data MT ST MT MT MT HT

pencycuron urea no no U IV NL no data HT MT MT MT MT

thiram/TMTD (diothio) carbamate yes no III III ED, RD no data HT NAT PNT VHT HT NAT HT HT

132

2014 INSAH Homologized Herbicides

Ecotoxicity


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2 4 D chlorophenoxy acid yes no II III PC, ED potential ST HT MT ST NAT NAT NAT ST ST

2 4 D amine chlorophenoxy acid yes no NL NL PC no data

acetochlor chloroacetanilide yes most III II, IIII PC, ED potential MT MT ST MT MT

aclonifen diphenyl ether no no U NL NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

bensulfuron sulfonyl urea yes no U II, III NL no data NAT MT ST MT ST NAT

bensulfuron methyl sulfonyl urea yes no U II, III NL potential NAT MT ST MT ST NAT

clethodim cyclohexenone yes no NL II, III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

clomazone isoxazolidinone yes no II II, III NL potential MT MT NAT MT MT HT

cycloxydim cyclohexanone no no U NL NL no data NAT MT MT MT MT

diuron urea yes no U III LC, ED, RD known ST ST ST ST MT ST

fluazifop-P-butyl propionic acid yes no III III NL no data MT ST PNT ST

fluometuron urea yes no U III PC potential ST ST MT

glyphosate phosphonoglycine yes no U I, II, III NL potential ST ST NAT PNT MT ST

haloxyfop-R-methyl a propionic acid no no NL NL LC no data HT MT MT MT

hexazinone triazinone yes no III I, III NL known NAT MT NAT NAT ST ST

isoxaflutole isoxazole yes most NL III LC no data ST MT ST MT MT MT

mesotrione unclassified yes no NL II, IIII NL no data NAT MT MT MT NAT

metolachlor chloroacetamide yes no III III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

nicosulfuron sulfonylurea yes no U II, III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

orthosulfamuron pyrimadinylsulfonylurea yes no NL III PC potential NAT NAT MT MT

oxadiargyl unclassified no no NL NL NL no data MT NAT MT MT NAT

oxadiazon oxidiazole yes no U II, III PC, RD no data MT MT ST MT MT ST HT

pendimethalin dinitroanaline yes no III III PC, ED no data MT NAT ST MT MT

penoxysulam/penoxsulam triazolopyrimidine yes no U III PC potential MT MT MT NAT NAT

pretilachlor chloroacetanilide no no U NL NL no data MT MT ST MT

prometryn triazine yes no U III ED, RD potential MT NAT PNT ST NAT NAT ST ST

propanil anilide yes no III II, III PC potential MT NAT MT ST NAT ST ST ST

propaquizafop a propionic acid no no U NL NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

pyribenzoxim(e) unclassified no no NL NL NL no data MT MT

s-metolachlor chloroacetanilide no no NL III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

terbuthylazine triazine yes no U III NL no data MT MT MT MT MT HT

terbutryn(e) triazine no no U II, III PC potential MT NAT NAT MT MT

thiobencarb(e)/benthiocarb thiocarbamate yes no II III NL potential MT ST NAT MT MT MT MT HT

triclopyr chloropyridinyl yes no III I, II, III NL no data MT NAT ST

trifloxysulfuron sodium sulfonylurea yes no NL III NL potential NAT MT MT MT NAT

133

2014 Benin Registered Insecticides

Ecotoxicity

Active Ingredients * Class

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abamectin/avermectin p microbial extract yes some NL II, III ED, RD no data ST HT PNT MT HT VHT VHT

acetamiprid b neonicotinoid yes no NL III NL potential NAT MT HT NAT alpha-cypermethrin h synthetic pyrethroid yes all II II, III PC no data HT HT PNT MT VHT VHT VHT

beta cyfluthrin h synthetic pyrethroid yes few II II, III ED no data VHT HT PNT ST VHT VHT

beta cypermethrin h synthetic pyrethroid yes some NL II, III PC, ED no data HT HT ST HT

bifenthrin p synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III PC, ED, RD no data VHT HT MT HT

carbosulfan h carbamate no no II II NL no data HT HT HT HT HT

chlorpyrifos (ethyl) b organophosphate no some II II, III ED no data HT HT HT MT PNT MT VHT HT MT

cyfluthrin h synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III ED no data VHT HT PNT ST VHT VHT

cypermethrin b synthetic pyrethroid no some NL II, III PC, ED, RD no data HT HT PNT MT VHT VHT VHT

deltamethrin b synthetic pyrethroid yes cotton II I, II, III ED no data HT MT VHT NAT VHT VHT

emamectin benzoate p botanical no some NL I, II, III NL potential HT MT HT HT HT

flubendiamide h benzene dicarboxamide yes no NL III NL no data HT NAT MT MT HT

imidacloprid b neonicotinoid yes no II II, III NL potential NAT MT VHT

Indoxacarb, S-isomer b oxadiazine yes no O III NL no data MT HT HT NAT MT

lambda cyhalothrin b synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III ED no data VHT HT PNT VHT VHT VHT VHT

malathion h organophosphate yes no III II PC, ED potential MT HT MT HT ST VHT MT VHT HT

novaluron p insect growth regulator yes no NL II, III NL no data MT MT MT MT HT

profenofos b organophosphate yes all II III NL potential HT VHT VHT VHT

pyrimiphos methyl p organophosphate yes no II, III I, II, III NL no data MT HT MT MT VHT VHT

spinetoram p unclassified yes no NL III NL no data MT NAT MT MT

spinosad h microbial yes no U III NL no data MT HT PNT ST HT MT

spirotetramat h keto-enol yes no NL II, III NL no data MT MT MT MT

triazophos h organophosphate no no Ib NL NL no data HT MT HT MT HT

* provisional registration = p; harmonized registration = h; b = both

134

2014 Benin Registered Fungicides

Ecotoxicity


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mancozeb p dithiocarbamate yes no U III PC, ED, RD no data MT MT ST HT NAT

pencycuron p urea no no U IV NL no data HT MT MT MT MT

thiram/TMTD p (diothio) carbamate yes no III III ED, RD no data HT NAT PNT VHT HT NAT HT HT

2014 Benin Registered Herbicides

2 4 D chlorophenoxy acid yes no II III PC, ED potential ST HT MT ST NAT NAT NAT ST ST

2 4 D dimethylamine salt chlorophenoxy acid yes no II I, II, III PC, ED potential NAT NAT ST NAT NAT

aclonifen diphenyl ether no no U NL NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

clethodim cyclohexenone yes no NL II, III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

flumetralin dinitroaniline yes no U I, II, III NL no data VHT MT MT HT VHT

fluometuron urea yes no U III PC potential ST ST MT


haloxyfop-R-methyl a propionic acid no no NL NL LC no data HT MT MT MT

haloxyfop R methyl ester a propionic acid no no NL NL LC no data HT MT MT MT

isoxaflutole isoxazole yes most NL III LC no data ST MT ST MT MT MT



oxadiargyl unclassified no no NL NL NL no data MT NAT MT MT NAT


prometryn/prometrine triazine yes no U III ED, RD potential MT NAT PNT ST NAT NAT ST ST

propanil analide yes no III II, III PC potential MT NAT MT ST NAT ST ST ST

prosuler (psoralen) furo-benozopyran no NL NL NL no data

pyraflufen-ethyl pyrazolylphenyl yes no I, II, III LC no data MT MT MT MT MT

terbutryn(e) triazine no no U II, III PC potential MT NAT NAT MT MT


135

2014 Cote d'Ivoire Registered Insecticides

Ecotoxicity


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acephate organophosphate yes no III II, III PC, ED potential MT HT MT ST ST ST

acetamiprid neonicotinoid yes no NL III NL potential NAT MT HT NAT allethrin/bio-allethrin synthetic pyrethroid no no III III ED no data VHT MT ST HT VHT HT


aluminum phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MT

Bacillus thuringiensis/BT microbial yes no III III NL no data MT PNT NAT NAT ST ST bifenthrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III PC, ED, RD no data VHT HT MT HT

carbofuran carbamate yes most Ib I, II ED potential MT HT HT ST MT MT HT HT VHT

carbosulfan carbamate no no II II NL no data HT HT HT HT HT

chlorantraniliprole/rynaxypyr anthranilic diamide yes no NL III NL no data NAT MT MT MT HT


deltamethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II I, II, III ED no data HT MT VHT NAT VHT VHT

ethofenprox synthetic pyrethroid yes no U III PC, ED no data HT HT MT MT HT


fipronil pyrazole yes some II II, III PC, ED potential HT HT HT HT HT


iodofenphos organophosphate no no NL NL NL no data HT VHT


magnesium phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data MT HT MT

malathion organophosphate yes no III II PC, ED potential MT HT MT HT ST VHT MT VHT HT



propoxur carbamate yes no II II, III PC no data MT HT VHT ST NAT ST HT ST MT

spinosad microbial yes no U III NL no data MT HT PNT ST HT MT

thiamethoxam neonicotinoid yes few NL III PC no data PNT HT PNT PNT PNT PNT PNT triazophos organophosphate no no Ib NL NL no data HT MT HT MT HT

136

2014 Cote d'Ivoire Registered Miticides

Ecotoxicity


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abamectin/avermectin microbial yes some none II, III RD no data ST HT PNT HT VHT VHT

acetamiprid chloro-nicotinyl yes no NL III NL no data NAT MT NAT acequinocyl unclassified yes no none III none no data MT MT MT MT HT

acrinathrin synthetic pyrethroid no no U IV ED no data MT ST MT MT MT

carbofuran carbamate yes some Ib I, II NL potential MT HT HT ST MT MT HT HT VHT

cypermethrin pyrethroid no some NL II, III PC, ED, RD no data HT HT PNT MT VHT VHT VHT

dimethoate organophosphate yes no II II PC potential ST VHT VHT HT MT VHT HT VHT MT

lambda cyhalothrin pyrethroid yes some II II, III ED no data VHT HT PNT VHT VHT VHT VHT

triazophos organophosphate no Ib NL NL no data HT MT HT MT HT

2014 Cote d'Ivoire Registered Molluscicides

metaldehyde aldehyde yes no II II, III PC potential ST PNT HT PNT PNT VHT PNT PNT PNT

thiodicarb carbamate yes no II II PC no data MT MT PNT MT VHT HT

2014 Cote d'Ivoire Registered Nematicides

Ecotoxicity


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carbofuran C carbamate yes most Ib I, II none potential MT HT HT ST MT MT HT HT VHT

ethoprop(hos) C organophosphate yes all Ia I LC potential MT MT HT MT MT

oxamyl C carbamate yes most Ib I none no data ST HT VHT HT ST MT

137

2014 Cote d'Ivoire Registered Rodenticides

Ecotoxicity


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chlorophacinone C indandione yes no Ia II, III none no data HT MT HT

difethialone C coumarin yes no Ia II, III none no data VHT HT MT HT

zinc phosphide C inorganic yes some Ib I, II, III RD no data HT VHT HT MT

2014 Cote d'Ivoire Registered Herbicides

Ecotoxicity


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2 4 D amine salt C M R chlorophenoxy acid yes no NL NL PC no data

2 4 D dimethylamine salt C chlorophenoxy acid yes no II I, II, III PC, ED potential NAT NAT ST NAT NAT

2 4 D isooctyl ester R chlorophenoxy acid yes no NL III PC potential ST MT

acetochlor C M chloroacetanilide yes most III II, IIII PC, ED potential MT MT ST MT MT

aclonifen C M diphenyl ether no no U NL NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

alachlor(e)/alaclor C M chloroacetanilide yes most III II, III LC, ED, RD known MT NAT NAT MT MT ST ST

ametryne/amethrin C M triazine yes no III III ED potential ST MT NAT MT MT ST

amicarbazone M triazolone yes no NL III NL no data NAT MT MT NAT

atrazine C M triazine yes most U III PC, ED known ST NAT PNT ST ST ST ST ST ST

bentazon/bendioxide R benzothiazinone yes no III III NL no data NAT MT MT MT ST MT

bispyribac-sodium R unclassified yes no U III NL potential MT ST NAT MT MT

clomazone R isoxazolidinone yes no II II, III NL potential MT MT NAT MT MT HT

cyanazine M triazine no no II II, III PC, ED, RD known ST MT MT MT ST MT HT

cyclosulfuramon R sulfonylurea no no U NL NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

diuron C M R urea yes no U III LC, ED, RD known ST ST ST ST MT ST

fluometuron M urea yes no U III PC potential ST ST MT

138

fluroxypyr C M unclassified yes no U III NL no data MT MT MT MT MT HT

glyphosate R phosphonoglycine yes no U I, II, III NL potential ST ST NAT PNT MT ST

haloxyfop-R-methyl C a propionic acid no no NL NL LC no data HT MT MT MT

isoxaflutole M isoxazole yes most NL III LC no data ST MT ST MT MT MT

mesotrione M unclassified yes no NL II, IIII NL no data NAT MT MT MT NAT

metolachlor C M chloroacetamide yes no III III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

metsulfuron-methyl R sulfonyl urea yes no U III NL potential NAT MT NAT MT NAT

nicosulfuron M sulfonylurea yes no U II, III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

oxadiazon R oxidiazole yes no U II, III PC, RD no data MT MT ST MT MT ST HT

pendimethalin M R dinitroanaline yes no III III PC, ED no data MT NAT ST MT MT

penoxysulam R triazolopyrimidine yes no U III PC potential MT MT MT NAT NAT

piperofos R organophosphate no no II II NL no data MT MT ST MT HT

pretilachlor R chloroacetanilide no no U NL NL no data MT MT ST MT

propanil M R analide yes no III II, III PC potential MT NAT MT ST NAT ST ST ST

propisochlor M chloroacetanilid no no III III NL no data MT MT MT MT

pyrazosulfuron-ethyl R sulfonylurea no no U NL NL no data NAT MT NAT NAT

pyribenzoxim(e) R unclassified no no NL NL NL no data MT MT

s-metolachlor M chloroacetanilide no no NL III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

saflufenacil R amide yes no NL II, III NL no data

terbuthylazine M triazine yes no U III NL no data MT MT MT MT MT HT

terbutryn(e) C M triazine no no U II, III PC potential MT NAT NAT MT MT

thiobencarb(e)/benthiocarb R thiocarbamate yes no II III NL potential MT ST NAT MT MT MT MT HT

triclopyr M R chloropyridinyl yes no III I, II, III NL no data MT NAT ST

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2014 Ghana Registered Insecticides

Ecotoxicity


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abamectin/avermectin microbial extract yes some NL II, III ED, RD no data ST HT PNT MT HT VHT VHT

acephate organophosphate yes no III II, III PC, ED potential MT HT MT ST ST ST

acetamiprid neonicotinoid yes no NL III NL potential NAT MT HT NAT allethrin/bio-allethrin synthetic pyrethroid no no III III ED no data VHT MT ST HT VHT HT


aluminum phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MT

Bacillus sphaericus microbial yes no U III NL no data

Bacillus thuringiensis/BT microbial yes no III III NL no data MT PNT NAT NAT ST ST bifenthrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III PC, ED, RD no data VHT HT MT HT

cadusafos organophosphate no no Ib NL NL no data HT HT HT HT HT HT

carbofuran carbamate yes most Ib I, II ED potential MT HT HT ST MT MT HT HT VHT

carbosulfan carbamate no no II II NL no data HT HT HT HT HT

chlorpyrifos (ethyl) organophosphate no some II II, III ED no data HT HT HT MT PNT MT VHT HT MT


diazinon organophosphate yes some II II, III ED, RD potential MT HT VHT MT MT MT HT HT HT

dimethoate organophosphate yes no II II PC, ED, RD potential ST VHT VHT HT MT VHT HT VHT MT

emamectin benzoate botanical no some NL I, II, III NL potential HT MT HT HT HT


fenvalerate synthetic pyrethroid no no II III ED no data VHT HT ST HT VHT HT HT HT VHT

fipronil pyrazole yes some II II, III PC, ED potential HT HT HT HT HT



magnesium phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data MT HT MT

malathion organophosphate yes no III II PC, ED potential MT HT MT HT ST VHT MT VHT HT

Metarhizium anisopliae microbial yes no NL III NL no data NAT NAT NAT

novaluron insect growth regulator yes no NL II, III NL no data MT MT MT MT HT

oxamyl carbamate yes some Ib I NL no data ST HT VHT HT ST MT



profenofos organophosphate yes all II III NL potential HT VHT VHT VHT

pyrethrum botanical yes no II III PC no data HT HT ST MT HT

sulfur/sulphur Inorganic yes no U III NL no data NAT NAT NAT NAT NAT

temephos organophosphate yes no U II, III NL no data ST MT MT NAT HT VHT HT

tetramethrin pyrethroid yes no U III PC, ED no data VHT HT NAT HT MT

thiamethoxam neonicotinoid yes few NL III PC no data PNT HT PNT PNT PNT PNT PNT

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thiocyclam hydrogen oxalate nereistoxin no no II NL NL no data HT MT HT HT HT

2014 Ghana Registered Fungicides

Ecotoxicity


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azoxystrobin strobin yes no U III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT VHT

captan thiopthalamide yes no NL I, II, III KC (hi dose) no data HT NAT PNT MT MT NAT MT MT

carbendazim benzimidazole yes no U III PC, ED no data MT NAT ST ST ST HT

copper-fixed or tribasic inorganic yes no NL I, II, III NL no data MT HT PNT HT HT VHT ST ST

copper (cupric) oxide (CuO) inorganic yes no NL I, II, III NL no data NAT ST ST

copper (cupric) hydroxide inorganic yes no II I, II, III NL no data HT MT MT MT HT NAT HT HT

cuprous oxide (Cu2O) inorganic yes no II II, III NL no data HT HT HT VHT

dichlofluanid sulphamide no no U NL NL no data HT MT NAT MT MT MT VHT

difenoconazole azole yes no III III PC, ED no data MT MT ST MT MT HT

fenpropimorph morpholine no III I NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

folpet thiophthalimide yes no U II, III LC no data HT PNT ST HT MT ST HT MT

fosetyl aluminum unclassified yes no NL II, III NL potential NAT ST ST MT NAT MT

mancozeb dithiocarbamate yes no U III PC, ED, RD no data MT MT ST HT NAT

maneb carbamate yes no U III PC, ED, RD no data MT NAT PNT ST ST HT

metalaxyl benzanoid yes no III II, III NL potential ST PNT PNT ST

propiconazole azole yes no II II, III PC, RD potential MT MT ST MT MT

sulfur (sulphur, hydrogen sulfide) inorganic yes no U III NL no data NAT NAT NAT NAT NAT

thiophanate methyl benzamidazole yes no U III PC, RD potential MT PNT NAT ST

triadimenol triazole yes no III II, III PC, ED no data MT ST MT MT

Trichoderma asperellum microbial yes no NL III NL no data

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Ghana Registered Herbicides & PGRs

Ecotoxicity


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2 4 D amine chlorophenoxy acid yes no NL NL PC no data

2 4 D amine salt chlorophenoxy acid yes no NL NL PC no data

2 4 D isobutylate chlorophenoxy acid no no NL IV NL potential MT VHT HT ST ST

bensulfuron methyl sulfonyl urea yes no U II, III NL potential NAT MT ST MT ST NAT

bentazon benzothiazinone yes no III III NL no data NAT MT MT MT ST MT

bispyribac-sodium unclassified yes no U III NL potential MT ST NAT MT MT

bromacil uracil yes no U II, III, IV PC, ED known NAT MT NAT ST ST

butachlor chloroacetanilid no no U III PC no data HT MT NAT MT MT MT HT MT

cycloxydim cyclohexanone no no U NL NL no data NAT MT MT MT MT

diuron urea yes no U III LC, ED, RD known ST ST ST ST MT ST

ethephon organophosphate PGR yes no U I, III NL no data NAT ST MT NAT NAT NAT

fluazifop-P-butyl propionic acid yes no III III NL no data MT ST PNT ST

gibberellic acid botanical PGR yes no U II, III NL no data NAT


haloxyfop a propionic acid no no II NL NL no data ST ST MT

imazapyr/imazapir imidazolinone yes no U III NL no data ST MT ST MT NAT

mesotrione unclassified yes no NL II, IIII NL no data NAT MT MT MT NAT



oxyfluorfen diphenyl ether yes no U II, III PC no data HT PNT PNT HT HT HT

paraquat (dichloride) bipyridylium yes most II I P potential ST NAT MT ST ST ST NAT ST


propanil analide yes no III II, III PC potential MT NAT MT ST NAT ST ST ST

propaquizafop a propionic acid no no U NL NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

terbuthylazine triazine yes no U III NL no data MT MT MT MT MT HT


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Annex 8: Training Topics and Safe Pesticide Use Web Resources

GAP/IPM

Pest identification: How to recognize common important pests and diseases

Monitoring: The importance of frequent crop monitoring for pests, diseases and weeds

GAP and IPM concepts, tactics and tools found in Annex 1 that can reduce pesticide use and associated

risks on specific pests of project target crops

PMPs—Pest Management Plans: Creating and using these farm crop-management tools

Pesticides

Understanding pesticides: Quality, types, classes and acute toxicities of common pesticides

Regulations: US, EU and West African laws that guide pesticide registration and use

Natural pesticides: Raise awareness of and promote the use of natural pesticides found in Annexes 1, 4, 5

and 7 as well as green-label synthetic pesticides with relatively low risks

Spot Treatments: The importance of spot treatments if needed (instead of crop-wide treatments)

MSDS: How to use MSDSs for pesticide-specific information on risks and risk reduction measures

REI—Re-Entry Intervals: Pesticide-specific risks associated with entering a sprayed field too soon after

the spray operation

PHI—Pre-Harvest Interval: Pesticide-specific risks associated with harvesting a crop before pesticides

have had a chance to break down

MRL—Maximum Residue Level: Risks associated with pesticide residues on human food

Vulnerable individuals: The importance of keeping children, pregnant women, elderly and infirm away

from the field while spraying and kept out after spraying

Human and environmental risks: Risks associated with more commonly-used pesticides (use information

from MSDSs and Annex 7)

When to spray: Early in the morning, late in the afternoon, or night without wind or rain

Use of recommended PPE: Why it is used (see product MSDSs, product labels and web reference below)

Proper use and maintenance of sprayers, including proper sprayer calibration and spray nozzle choice

Proper clean-up & post spray hygiene

Safe Use: How to purchase, transport, store and use pesticides safely (“safe purchase” requires quality,

brand-name products)

Maintenance: of PPE and sprayers

Monitoring for the development of pesticide resistance

Proper collection and disposal of pesticide rinseate and packaging (see disposal web reference below and

MSDSs)

The use of pesticide spray buffer zones near schools, water resources, organic crop production, apiaries,

bird sanctuaries, biodiversity enclaves, national parks or other sensitive areas.

How to reduce and mitigate risks to critical environmental resources and biodiversity (found in PER

Factors E and G)

Honeybees: Ensuring pesticide applicators notify beekeepers about spray activities, and spray early

morning or late afternoon when no heavy winds or rain are present

Water Pollution: Raise awareness of pesticides (especially some herbicides) with high ground water

contamination potential where water tables are high or easy to reach (use Annex 7 and MSDSs)

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Exposure routes: Ways pesticides enter the body and ways to mitigate entry

Basic first aid: Understanding how to treat pesticide poisonings (see first aid web reference and MSDSs)

Record-keeping: Pesticide used, when used, which crop, how applied, who applied

Web Safe Pesticide Use Training Resources

General Mitigation of Potential Pesticide Dangers General Measures to Ensure Safe Use: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK154.pdf, Chapter 13

EPA Recommended Worker Protection Standards:

http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/workers/equip.htm (all types of PPE) http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d001701-d001800/d001797/d001797.html (respiratory PPE)

Routes of Pesticide Exposure and Mitigation of Risks:

http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK154.pdf, Chapter 13

Basic First Aid for Pesticide Overexposure:

http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK154.pdf, Chapter 13

International PIC & POPs Lists:

PIC Pesticides and Industrial Chemicals (http://www.pic.int)

POPs Pesticides and Chemicals (http://www.pops.int)

Pesticide Disposal Options:


http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK154.pdf


http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d001701-d001800/d001797/d001797.html



http://www.pic.int/



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Annex 9: Field Monitoring Form for Farmer Best Practices including GAP and IPM options

Name of USAID Staff Responsible for Monitoring Demonstration Farms:

Name of Demonstration Farmer: Crop: Date:

What are the major pests encountered by the farmer?:

Which of the attached Preventive and Curative GAP and IPM tools and tactics are used by farmer?

Are pesticides used by demo farmer? Yes__ No__

How are pesticides applied? backpack sprayer__ other__

What are the names of the pesticides used?:

Which PPE does farmer have and use? gloves___ overalls___ boots___

respirator___ goggles___

Has the farmer had IPM and Safe Pesticide Use training? Yes__ No__

Are there any empty pesticide containers scattered in the field? Yes__ No__

Are there signs that the backpack sprayer has leaks? Yes__ No__

Does the farmer understand the pesticide label information? Yes__ No__

Is the pesticide stored safely out of the house or away from kids? Yes__ No__

Does the farmer use gloves for mixing the pesticide with water? Yes__ No__

What times of the day are the pesticides applied? ________

Are pesticides applied during rain or windy conditions? Yes__ No__

Are women or children permitted to apply pesticides? Yes__ No__

Are empty pesticide containers are used to store water? Yes__ No__

Does the farmer rinse equipment away from streams and open water? Yes__ No__

Does the farmer wash clothes after applying pesticides? Yes__ No__

How does the farmer dispose of empty pesticide containers? puncture/bury__ burn__

Is there any evidence that pesticides are becoming less effective? Yes__ No__

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Preventive and Curative GAP and IPM options:

Preventive Preventive Curative

Soil nutrient, texture and pH testing Farmer ability to correctly identify

pest predators, parasitoids and

diseases

Mechanical insect control by hand

picking

Pest resistant/tolerant seed/plant

variety

Weekly field scouting to assess pest

levels/damage

Farmers make & apply local

artisanal plant extracts (neem,

pyrethroid, garlic, chili, other)

Early/late plantings or harvestings to

avoid pests

Use of trap crops to trap and destroy

pests

Weed control by machine

cultivation, hoe or hand

Seed treatment with pesticides Removal/pruning of diseased or

heavily infested plants/tree

branches

Purchase and release of predators or

parasitoids to control major pests

Soil moisture testing Planting parasite-attracting plants on

field margins

Use of pheromone traps to reduce

overall pest levels

Raised-bed production or mounding Put baits and use other practices to

encourage predator/parasite build-up

Use of pheromone inundation to

confuse pest mating

Irrigation and drip irrigation Use of pheromone traps to monitor pest levels

Spot treatment of pest hotspots with insecticides, miticides or

fungicides

Use of natural fertilizers (manure,

compost)

Inter-planting crops with aromatic

herbs (celery, cilantro, parsley, dill or local plants) that repel pests

Area spraying (complete field

coverage) using synthetic and natural insecticides, miticides or

nematocides

Use of purchased mineral fertilizers Mulching with organic materials or

plastic to control weeds

Use of synthetic and natural

fungicides or bactericides

Combinations of organic and mineral

fertilizers

Plant living barriers or bamboo/tree

barriers on windward edge of field

Use of herbicides for weed control

Crop rotation Exclude insect pests by using

vegetable tunnels and micro-tunnels

Farm use of a locked storage

building for pesticides

Use of green manure crops Use of biodiversity or energy conservation practices

Farmer use of pesticide in-ground compost trap for depositing and

capturing spilled or leftover

pesticides

Farmer ability to correctly identify

pests and their damage

Crop stalks, residue and dropped fruit

destruction/composting season end

Farmer use of receptacle for empty

pesticide bottle disposal

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Annex 10: Farm and Project Record Keeping Associated with Pesticide Use

148

1.- Control Card for Pesticides Use.- This card will stay with farmer, to keep a record on the use of pesticide by crop.

GENERAL DATA

FARMERS NAME

Community: Municipality: Province: Altitude:

USE OF PESTICIDES - 1st TREATMENT

CROP: SURFACE:

Pest to be treated Name of material Date and time of application Quantity used

Environmental conditions:

Justification for use

Other recommended control measures

Result of application

NAME AND SIGNATURE OF IG AND NRM SUPERVISOR:

USE OF PESTICIDES - 2nd TREATMENT

CROP: SURFACE:

Pest to be treated Name of material Date and time of application Quantity used

Environmental conditions:

Justification for use

Other recommended control measures

Result of application

NAME AND SIGNATURE OF IG AND NRM SUPERVISOR:

CONTROL FORM FOR THE USE OF PERTICIDES

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Annex 11: PERSUAP References

Baker EL, Zack M, Miles JW, Alderman L, Warren M, Dobbins RD, Miller S, Teeters WR (1978) Epidemic malathion poisoning in Pakistan malaria workers. The Lancet, January: 31–33.

Websites: Website references used to develop the PERSUAP

International Treaties and Conventions:

POPs website: http://www.pops.int

PIC Website: http://www.pic.int

Basel Convention: http://www.basel.int/

Montreal Protocol: http://www.unep.org/OZONE/pdfs/Montreal-Protocol2000.pdf

Pakistan malaria poisonings: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACQ047.pdf.

Pesticide poisonings:

http://www.panna.org/resources/panups/panup_20080403

http://magazine.panna.org/spring2006/inDepthGlobalPoisoning.html

IPM and PMP websites:

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pg058

http://www.ipmcenters.org/pmsp/index.cfm

http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/154769/Cotton-pest-management-guide-1.pdf

Pesticide Research Websites:

http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ghindex.html (Extoxnet Oregon State database with ecotox)

http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/pesticides/f_2.htm (all types of application equipment)

http://www.greenbook.net/Search/AdvancedSearch (pesticide Material Safety Data Sheets)

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm (EPA Registration Eligibility Decisions)

Ecotoxicity:

http://www.ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2161.html (pesticide toxicity to honeybees)

http://wihort.uwex.edu/turf/Earthworms.htm (pesticide toxicity to earthworms)

Safety:

http://www.epa.gov/oppbppd1/biopesticides/ingredients/index.htm (EPA regulated biopesticides)

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/index.html (IPM, PMPs and pesticide recommendations)

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/PI/PI07300.pdf (Restricted Use Pesticides)

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/ (EPA Health & Safety)

http://www.epa.gov/opppmsd1/PPISdata/index.html (EPA pesticide product information)

PPE:

http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/workers/equip.htm (all types of PPE)

http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d001701-d001800/d001797/d001797.html (respiratory PPE)


http://www.pic.int/

http://www.basel.int/

http://www.unep.org/OZONE/pdfs/Montreal-Protocol2000.pdf

http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACQ047.pdf

http://www.panna.org/resources/panups/panup_20080403

http://magazine.panna.org/spring2006/inDepthGlobalPoisoning.html

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pg058

http://www.ipmcenters.org/pmsp/index.cfm

http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/154769/Cotton-pest-management-guide-1.pdf

http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ghindex.html

http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/pesticides/f_2.htm

http://www.greenbook.net/Search/AdvancedSearch

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm

http://www.ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2161.html

http://wihort.uwex.edu/turf/Earthworms.htm

http://www.epa.gov/oppbppd1/biopesticides/ingredients/index.htm

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/index.html

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/PI/PI07300.pdf

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/

http://www.epa.gov/opppmsd1/PPISdata/index.html


http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d001701-d001800/d001797/d001797.html

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ACRONYMS

ACTEI African Competitiveness and Trade Expansion Initiative AI Active Ingredient (pesticide reference)

AOR Agreement Officer’s Representative (USAID)

ARZIKI Support the Niger Food Security Project BEO Bureau Environmental Officer

BMP Best Management Practice BRC British Retail Consortium

BT Bacillus thuringiensis (a bacteria that produces a toxin used as a pesticide)

CCD Colony Collapse Disorder

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CILSS Comité permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel

CLI CropLife International (Private Sector Pesticide Companies Trade Association) CLUSA Collaborative League of the USA

COP Chief of Party

COR Contracting Officer’s Representative (USAID) CORAF Conseil ouest et centre africain pour la recherche et le développement agricoles

(WECARD in English)

DS Powders for dry seed treatment (pesticide formulation)

DCHA Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance

EA Environmental Assessment EC Emulsifiable Concentrate (pesticide formulation)

EC50 Effective Concentration 50 (acute toxicity measure)

ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EPA US Environmental Protection Agency (also known as USEPA)

ETOA Environmental Threats and Opportunities Analysis

EU European Union EurepGAP European Good Agriculture Practices

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (United Nations agency) FDA Food and Drug Administration (US)

FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act

FRAC Fungicide Resistance Action Committee FS Flowable concentrate for Seed treatment (pesticide formulation)

FTF Feed the Future

GAP Good Agriculture Practice GDP Gross Domestic Product

GEF Global Environment Fund

GlobalGAP Global Good Agriculture Practices, a certification system GMO Genetically Modified Organism

GUP General Use Pesticide Ha Hectares

HRAC Herbicide Resistance Action Committee

HT Highly Toxic ID Identification

IEE Initial Environmental Examination

IFDC International Fertilizer Development Center IGR Insect Growth Regulator

INSAH Institut du Sahel

151

IP Implementing Partner

IPM Integrated Pest Management IR Intermediate Result

IRAC Insecticide Resistance Action Committee

ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

LC50 Lethal Concentration 50 (acute toxicity measure)

LD50 Lethal Dose 50 (acute toxicity measure) LDC Least Developed Country

MASL meters above sea level

MOA Ministries of Agriculture M&E Monitoring and Evaluation

MD Micro Dispersion (pesticide formulation)

MEO Mission Environmental Officer

MOE Ministry of Environment

MRL Maximum/Minimum Residue Level/Limit

MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet MT Metric Tons

MT Moderately Toxic NAT Not Acutely Toxic

NCAT National Center for Appropriate Technology

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act (US EPA)

NIFA National Institute of Food and Agriculture

PAN Pesticide Action Network

PEA Programmatic Environmental Assessment PER Pesticide Evaluation Report

PERSUAP Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan

pH log of Hydrogen concentration, measure of acidity PGR Plant Growth Regulator

PHI Pre-Harvest Interval PIC Prior Informed Consent (a treaty, relates to toxic pesticides)

POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants (a treaty, relates to toxic persistent pesticides)

PMP Pest Management Plan PNT Practically Non-Toxic

P-PERSUAP Programmatic PERSUAP

PPE Personal Protection Equipment R&D toxin Reproductive and Developmental toxin

REA Regional Environmental Advisor

Reg 216 Regulation 216 (USAID Environmental Procedures) REGIS-ER Resilience and Economic Growth in the Sahel-Enhanced Resilience

REI Re-Entry Interval (safety period after pesticide spraying) RUP Restricted Use Pesticide

S&C Standards and Certification

SC Suspension Concentrate (pesticide formulation) SOW Scope of Work

ST Slightly Toxic

SUAP Safe Use Action Plan UC University of California

UEMOA West African Economic and Monetary Union

UN United Nations USAID/WA United States Agency for International Development/West Africa

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

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USEPA US Environmental Protection Agency (also known as EPA)

VHT Very Highly Toxic WCA West and Central Africa

WECARD West and Central African Council For Agricultural Research and Development

(CORAF in French)

WHO World Health Organization

WP Wettable Powder (pesticide formulation) WS Water dispersible powder for Slurry treatment (pesticide formulation)

West Africa Regional Programmatic PERSUAP (P … · · 2015-03-19Business cell phone:...

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Transcript of West Africa Regional Programmatic PERSUAP (P … · · 2015-03-19Business cell phone:...