Wellbeing and the Gentle Art: Emotion, Engagement, Meaning ...

Wellbeing and the Gentle Art: Emotion, Engagement, Meaning and

Accomplishment in Brazilian Jiu Jitsu Practitioners

Siobhan Fogarty

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Higher Diploma in Psychology at Dublin

Business School, School of Arts, Dublin.

Supervisor: Dr. Rosie Reid

Word Count: 8,904

April 2020

Department of Psychology

Dublin Business School

1

Table of Contents

Declaration ................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................................... 3

Wellbeing and the Gentle Art: Emotion, Engagement, Meaning and Accomplishment in Brazilian Jiu Jitsu

Practitioners ................................................................................................................................................................. 5

Brazilian Jiu Jitsu ..................................................................................................................................................... 7

Positive and Negative Emotion ................................................................................................................................. 8

Engagement ............................................................................................................................................................. 10

Meaning .................................................................................................................................................................. 13

Accomplishment ...................................................................................................................................................... 15

Degree of Practice .................................................................................................................................................. 16

Rationale ................................................................................................................................................................. 17

Methods ...................................................................................................................................................................... 20

Participants ............................................................................................................................................................. 20

Design ..................................................................................................................................................................... 21

Materials ................................................................................................................................................................. 22

Procedure ................................................................................................................................................................ 24

Ethics ....................................................................................................................................................................... 25

Results ......................................................................................................................................................................... 26

Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................................................... 26

Inferential Statistics ................................................................................................................................................ 29

Discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 35

Key Findings ........................................................................................................................................................... 35

Strengths and Limitations ........................................................................................................................................ 39

Implications and Future Research .......................................................................................................................... 40

Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................................. 41

References .................................................................................................................................................................. 42

Appendix A ................................................................................................................................................................. 57

Appendix B ................................................................................................................................................................. 68

2

Declaration

‘I declare that this thesis that I have submitted to Dublin Business School for the award of HDip

Psychology is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated, where it is

clearly acknowledged by references. Furthermore, this work has not been submitted for any other

degree.’

Word count: 8,904

Signed: Siobhan Fogarty

Date: 10th April, 2020

3

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr. Rosie Reid and Dr. Pauline Hyland for their patience and expertise. My

parents for their love and support, and Little Face for her unwavering friendship.

To all the JiuJiteiros, may we have post-pandemic training together soon.

4

Abstract

Research suggests that subjective wellbeing decreases the risk of chronic illness and mental health

issues, and is therefore a pertinent personal and societal concern. Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ) has been

associated with a range of desirable social and psychological outcomes. This quantitative study

examined if significant differences would exist between practitioners and non-practitioners in

levels of negative emotion and wellbeing (as measured by positive emotion, engagement, meaning

and accomplishment). A further aim was to investigate if degrees of practice might influence these

variables in practitioners. Participants (N = 653) completed an online questionnaire including a

modified PERMA-profiler measure. Analysis showed that practitioners demonstrated

significantly higher levels of wellbeing. Advanced practitioners demonstrated lower levels of

negative emotion, while frequent practitioners exhibited higher levels of wellbeing. Future

research is recommended to establish a causal relationship between BJJ and wellbeing as the sport

may show promise as a mental health intervention.

5

Wellbeing and the Gentle Art: Emotion, Engagement, Meaning and Accomplishment in

Brazilian Jiu Jitsu Practitioners

Wellbeing can be understood as the “experience of feeling good and functioning well”

(Huppert, 2014, p. 9). However, wellbeing is considered “intangible, difficult to define, and even

harder to measure” (Thomas, 2009, p. 11). Seligman argues that it is a construct consisting of

several measurable components which contribute to wellbeing but do not define it (2011). Recent

research has defined wellbeing in terms of the ability to fulfil goals (Foresight Mental Captial

and Wellbeing Project, 2008) and happiness (Pollard & Lee, 2003). Further, Seligman (2010)

posits that happiness consists of three elements: positive emotion, engagement and meaning.

Historically, two approaches have emerged in relation to the study of subjective wellbeing: the

hedonic approach which emphasised positive affect, low negative affect and happiness (e.g.

Kahneman, Diener & Schwarz, 2003); and the eudaimonic approach which accentuated human

development and purpose in life (e.g. Rogers, 1961; Ryff, 1989). The multi-dimensional

approach to wellbeing, which combines both hedonic and eudaimonic aspects, has been adopted

by multiple researchers (e.g. Huppert, 2014; Seligman, 2011).

Shah and Marks assert that an important goal for any democratic government should be

citizens with high levels of wellbeing (2004). Hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing are pertinent to

quality of life as people age and research suggests that subjective wellbeing reduces the risk of

chronic illness and promotes longevity (Steptoe et al., 2015). Keyes (2004) has shown that those

with low levels of wellbeing are at a much greater risk of developing depression and health

issues such as cardiovascular disease. It has been shown that even a small change in the average

level of symptoms in the population results in a large decrease in the number with disorder;

hence, an intervention which promotes even a small positive change may result in a large

6

increase in wellbeing on a population level (Huppert et al., 2005). Lyubomirsky and her

colleagues propose that intentional activities are important drivers of psychological wellbeing

(Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006). Thus, an intentional activity such as

martial arts may increase wellbeing.

Martial Arts and Wellbeing

Empirical research regarding the effect of martial arts practice on wellbeing is divided as

participation has been associated with both positive and negative outcomes (Vertonghen &

Theeboom, 2012). In a well-cited longitudinal study (N = 477) Endresen and Olweus (2005)

reported concerning findings amongst power athletes. Similar findings, regarding increased

aggression, have been found (e.g. Mutz, 2012; Sofia & Cruz, 2017). However, martial arts have

been associated with a range of desirable social and psychological outcomes. In a cross-sectional

study (N = 72) Steyn and Roux (2009) found that wellbeing was significantly higher in

taekwondo practitioners in relation to personal growth and self-acceptance scores when

compared with hockey players and a non-sport group. Some studies have argued that martial arts

can contribute to a high level of wellbeing known as flourishing (Hackney, 2013; Croom, 2014)

and many researchers propose that martial arts might be an effective therapeutic intervention

(Fuller, 1988; Woodward, 2009). Additionally, a recent metanalysis (N = 507) (Harwood,

Lavidor, & Rassovsky, 2017) found that martial arts reduced problematic externalising

behaviour and these findings have been substantiated in several articles (e.g. Zivin et al., 2001;

Twemlow et al., 2008).

Contention within the field may be due to a failure to differentiate between the various

arts. Traditional martial arts (e.g. karate, aikido, judo) seem to reduce negative outcomes, while

modern competitive martial arts (e.g. boxing, MMA, wrestling) may increase problematic

7

behaviours (Nosanchuk & MacNeil, 1989). For example, research has found that aikido and

karate practitioners displayed less aggression than boxers (Graczyk et al., 2010). Findings

suggest that martial arts have their own qualities which lead to different outcomes and grouping

them together (e.g. Endresen and Olweus, 2005) is problematic. To address this limitation the

current study focuses on benefits associated with a single martial art, Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ).

Zivin et al. Proposed that outcome differences between the martial arts may be due to the varying

philosophical foundations associated with them (2001). BJJ arguably has the appropriate

philosophical foundations to improve wellbeing as mastering the art is considered a way of

mastering oneself in and outside of the dojo (Gracie & Danaher, 2003). Practitioners claim that

BJJ improved their lives through increased self-confidence, perseverance, stress relief and

physical health (Chinkov, 2014; Chinkov & Holt, 2016).

Brazilian Jiu Jitsu

BJJ is a modern martial art with a traditional ethos. Known as “The Gentle Art”, it is a

form of ground fighting which utilises joint locks and strangles and is characterised by live

sparring without strikes. Developed from traditional Japanese Jiu Jitsu, it incorporates the

concept of “Ju” which denotes “giving way”. BJJ is founded upon the philosophy of maintaining

control through positional leverage as opposed to brute force. Thus, it is possible for a physically

weaker person to neutralise a stronger opponent. Further, BJJ is known as the gentle due to the

utilisation of submissions not punches or kicks. In traditional martial arts (e.g. Karate),

practitioners may practice techniques without a resisting opponent (kata). In BJJ there is no kata,

the live sparring (rolling) aspect of the art is practiced using maximal effort against a resisting

opponent. The risk of injury is mitigated by allowing practitioners to signal submission by

“tapping out” whenever they feel discomfort from a choke or lock (Hogeveen, 2013).

8

There is a dearth of research in the literature regarding BJJ and wellbeing specifically.

One such study found that BJJ practitioners (N = 63) had increased optimism and life satisfaction

when compared with non-practitioners (N = 76) (Wojdat et al., 2017). However, it has been

argued that a measure of life satisfaction does not adequately capture the essence of wellbeing

and that effective measures must include an evaluation of eudaimonic elements (Huppert, 2014).

The transformative potential of BJJ has been argued (e.g. Reusing, 2014; Chinkov & Holt, 2016)

and the idea that it shows promise as an intervention is explored explicitly in several studies (e.g.

Gladstone, 2018). Specifically, Farrer (2019) argues that BJJ is a form of embodied therapy that

promotes camaraderie and Collura posits that this aspect of the sport can be employed as a tool

for veteran reassimilation (2018). Resilience has been shown to be an important factor of

wellbeing (Smith & Smith, 2015). Resilience refers to an ability to implement adaptive strategies

to cope with discomfort and adversity (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). BJJ is known as the human

game of chess (Hogeveen, 2013) referring to a unique aspect of the art which utilises an overall

fighting strategy as well as specific positions (Gracie & Danaher, 2003). These strategies are

adapted based on opponent responses during a match, making BJJ the ideal vehicle for

developing resilience.

Positive and Negative Emotion

Historically, mental health interventions largely assumed that in reducing negative emotion

wellbeing would naturally occur and that a reduction in negative emotions was the limit to what

was achievable. With the advent of positive psychology (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2014),

increasing positive emotion is now seen as a necessary adjunct to traditional methods of treating

pathology. Authors have acknowledged the need for positive and negative affects to be seen as

distinct dimensions (Heady, 2006); rather than opposite ends of the same continuum (Bradburn,

9

1969). Indeed, the inclusion of both positive and negative affect is required for an accurate

assessment of hedonic wellbeing (Steptoe, 2015). A relationship exists between life satisfaction

and the organisation of positive versus negative concepts in memory (Robinson and Hippel,

2006) and positive and negative emotion has been shown to inversely effect both present and

projected wellbeing (Busseri, Choma and Sadava, 2012). Research asserting that positive

emotion is a key component of wellbeing abounds within positive psychology (Seligman, 2010;

Fredrickson 2006) and beyond (Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011). The adaptive function of

negative emotion is often acknowledged in the literature (e.g. Nesse, 1994; Keltner and Gross,

1999). More recently, the importance of positive emotion in a range of functions has been

demonstrated; these include stress (Folkman, 2008), physical health (Kok et al., 2013) and

improved cognition (Isen, 2004). Recent literature has shown that positive emotion has an

enduring effect on resilience and optimism, this negates negative emotions such as depression

(e.g. Fredrickson, 2003; Peterson and Seligman, 1984)

The role that martial arts might play in increased positive emotion is largely absent from

the literature and the current study seeks to address this deficit. Chen and Cheesman (2013)

briefly included positive cognitions such as optimism and joy in their investigation of mental

toughness in MMA (N = 136). Bodin and Martinsen (2004) conducted one of few studies in the

literature which addressed both positive and negative affect. They observed significant increases

in positive affect; reductions in negative affect and state anxiety; and increased self-efficacy

during martial arts. Interestingly, the authors found no significant changes during physical

activity that did not involve martial arts. Higher levels of positive emotion and sustained

psychological wellbeing have been documented in the literature when physical activity is

habitual (e.g. Pasco et al., 2011; Vallerand, 2012). Recent research found that Karate practice

10

may be useful in decreasing anger in adolescent boys (Ziaee et al., 2012) and an early study

found that Judo had a positive effect on anger scores (Reynes & Laurent, 2004). Toskovic (2001)

showed that a single bout of Taekwondo practice resulted in improvements in depression and

anger scores. Further, a recent study (N = 24) suggested that martial arts which integrate

mindfulness may result in positive emotional regulation outcomes (Milligan et al., 2017).

Recent martial arts research has primarily focused on aggression (Vertonghen &

Theeboom, 2010). This trend is apparent in the BJJ literature which shows decreased aggression

in practitioners (e.g. Wojdat et al., 2017; Blomqvist, 2019). The rolling aspect of BJJ

distinguishes it from other combative arts and ensures practitioners are frequently engaged in

mindfulness and rigorous exercise. Physical exercise results in increased levels of serotonin

(Young, 2007), higher levels of which have been related to positive mood (Flory et al., 2004). As

a grappling art, physical touch is significantly higher in BJJ than in other martial arts. Physical

touch increases endogenous oxytocin (Morhenn et al., 2008) which is related to a broad range of

positive effects including decreased stress (Uvnäs-Moberg, 1998). Seligman, Parks and Steen

(2004) demonstrated that interventions which target positive emotion are effective in decreasing

depression and increasing happiness. As such, additional research identifying potential activities

which increase positive emotion is of great value. Authors now widely agree that the hedonic

approach only accounts for a part of wellbeing (Huppert, 2014). It is important to consider other

eudaimonic components in a multidimensional conception of wellbeing.

Engagement

Engagement refers to a state of complete absorption, interest, and involvement in an

activity or the world in general (Seligman, 2004; 2011). Within positive psychology engagement

is used interchangeably with the concept of flow, “the holistic sensation that people feel when

11

they act with total involvement” (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000, p. 36). Flow may be understood as a

state of maximal engagement. Flow is related to concepts such as peak experience and peak

performance (Maslow, 1964; Williams, 1993; Privette, 1983) and corresponds to an optimal

psychophysical state (Biasutti and Frezza, 2009). While flow became popularised through

positive psychology (Czikszentmihalyi, 1990) similar concepts exist within Eastern traditions

(e.g. Taoism). Engagement is frequently associated with wellbeing across a broad range of areas

in the literature (e.g. Bryce & Haworth, 2002; Bakker, 2005). Seligman posits that engagement

plays an important role in improving human experience and a meaningful life (2004; 2012).

Further, Rath et al. (2010) consider engagement to be one of five essential elements in

developing wellbeing. Rogatko (2009) demonstrated that engaging in flow promoting activities

resulted in higher levels of positive emotion in university students (N = 57) and Schueller and

Seligman (2010) showed that engagement was correlated with higher levels of subjective

wellbeing in a large study (N = 13,565). They suggest that engaging and meaningful activities

more strongly influence wellbeing than positive emotion alone.

Csikszentmihalyi observed that the martial arts are an ideal vehicle for flow (1997). Indeed,

flow state is similar to the concept of Mushin (no mind) in martial arts (Krein & Illundain, 2014).

Despite an abundance of literature relating to flow in sports (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Jackson,

1992), comparatively little research has been conducted on flow in martial arts specifically. One

of few studies demonstrated flow state in elite Judo athletes (N = 8) over a 14-week period

(Ruiz-Barquín et al., 2014). BJJ provides many of the conditions necessary to attain a flow state.

Clear proximal goals and immediate feedback are important conditions for achieving flow

(Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009). BJJ provides clear proximal goals and the rolling aspect

provides immediate feedback on the efficacy of a performed technique. The Challenge/Skill ratio

12

is an integral condition for achieving flow (Nakamura & Csikszentmihayli, 2009). In order to

maintain a flow state, an activity must be neither too challenging (resulting in anxiety) nor too

easy (resulting in boredom). In BJJ when two players of similar technical skill are sparring the

challenge/skill ratio is optimal for flow. Additionally, when one player possesses more skill than

their opponent it is possible for them to modify their approach in order to increase the level of

challenge and presumably reenter flow. Due to the endless complexity of technique in BJJ it is

possible to engage progressively more complex challenges. Thus, the opportunities for flow are

endless (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997).

In a study of subjective wellbeing and flow in music students (N = 84, challenge/skill

balance was found to be an important predictor of both positive and negative affect. Further,

clear goals were found to be an important predictor of satisfaction with life (Fritz & Avsec,

2007). Kotler & Diamandis (2015) identify additional environmental conditions that may enable

flow state: a high consequence, rich environment and deep embodiment. BJJ provides high

consequence and an environment rich in novelty, unpredictability and complexity due to the

immense scope of technique and variation in style. BJJ involves deep embodiment where

practitioners experience a multi-sensory immersion. Additionally, flow state is related to

intrinsically motivated or autotelic activities (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). BJJ involves task-

oriented goals, suggesting that practitioners are intrinsically motivated and assess their progress

in terms of effort and improvement (Øvretveit, Sæther & Mehus, 2018). Research is very limited

concerning flow and BJJ specifically. In one study Pope (2019) suggests that flow state is

common in BJJ and that it can be understood in the context of spiritual practice. Considering the

possibility for high levels of engagement in BJJ and the link between flow and increased

wellbeing more research is needed.

13

Meaning

Meaning in life refers to the pursuit of worthwhile goals and life purposes (Rekker, 2000)

and belonging to and serving something bigger than yourself (Seligman, 2012). Meaning is

frequently proposed as one of the essential elements of wellbeing (e.g. Seligman, 2012; Ryff &

Singer, 2008) and a lack of meaning is strongly associated with wellbeing deficits in later life

(Steger, Oishi & Kashdan, 2008). Meaning acts as a protective factor in relation to mental health

issues including stress and depression (Halama, 2014). Some potential correlates of meaning

have been suggested in the literature. Identity and goal development are possible important

components of personal meaning (Dittman-Kohli & Westerhof, 2000). Positive emotions have

been suggested as potentially predisposing individuals to experiencing life as meaningful (King,

Hicks, Krull & Del Gaiso, 2006). Additionally, religion is frequently cited as an important

mechanism for deriving meaning (e.g. Van Tongeren, Hook & Davis, 2013). Empirical research

on developing and understanding meaning in life is sparse and possible correlates relatively

disparate. Given its relevance to overall wellbeing, additional research regarding increased

meaning in life is required. The way in which martial arts may affect a sense of meaning is a

largely unexplored area.

The limited existing research would seem to support the notion that martial arts can

provide a greater sense of meaning. The literature suggests that meaning may be derived from

martial arts through identity formation. One such example, investigating the effect of martial arts

training on female participants, found that practicing Karate profoundly altered their self-concept

(Guthrie, 1995). A more recent ethnography argued that MMA encouraged identity exploration

and that practitioners craft stories which imbue the physical training with meaning (Green,

2016). Martial arts may contribute to meaning formation in that it often becomes a spiritual

14

endeavor for practitioners. An ethnographic study of Kung Fu that spanned six years found that

Wing Chun develops from a secular activity into a practice that holds sacred meaning for

practitioners (Jennings, Brown & Sparkes, 2010). In fact, the search for spiritual meaning may

contribute to an individual’s choice to pursue martial arts initially. In a study by Twemlov,

Lerma and Twemlow (N = 170) the search for spiritual meaning was reported by 111

participants as a key motivating factor in choosing to pursue martial arts (1996) and BJJ is often

cited as being a spiritual endeavor for practitioners (e.g. Nelson, 2018).

Purpose, significance and coherence are highlighted in the literature as central

components of meaning (e.g. Martela & Steger, 2016; Heintzelman & King, 2014). Purpose

alludes to pursuing goals and significance refers to the extent that an individual believes their life

has value or importance. Coherence relates to the degree of routine in a person’s life, which

allows life to make some degree of sense to that person. Ludwig (1997) found that routine

facilitates wellbeing by providing meaning. BJJ may bring additional meaning for its

practitioners by providing purposeful attainment of various goals related to the practice. This

develops self-efficacy, significance related to a sense of belonging and greater coherence from

the routine of a consistent training schedule. BJJ practice is an opportunity for social interaction

and provides a sense of belonging within the specific academy and the wider BJJ community.

Social relationships are considered an important aspect of that which makes life meaningful

(Hicks, Schlegel & King, 2010). Lambert et al. found that experimentally increasing

belongingness increased the sense that one’s life is meaningful (2013). This finding supports

previous research showing that meaning in life is positively related to the degree that a person

feels their relatedness needs are being met (Hicks & King, 2009). Further, the literature

emphasises the importance of meaning in both a global and daily sense. In a study examining

15

how an individual’s daily experiences influenced their perceived sense of meaning (N = 62) it

was found that positive daily social and achievement events were related to greater daily

meaning (Machell, Kashdan, Short & Nezlek, 2015). As BJJ provides the opportunity for

positive social interaction and accomplishment it is a possible unexplored avenue for both an

increased sense of meaning in life and increased daily meaning.

Accomplishment

Even in the absence of positive emotion, engagement and meaning; individuals are none

the less still motivated to achieve (Foregard, Jayawickreme, Kern & Seligman, 2011). Recent

literature frequently associates a sense of accomplishment with increased wellbeing (e.g.

Seligman, 2004; 2011) and accomplishment has been additionally associated with increased

meaning in life (e.g. James, 2005). One study (N = 218) found that intrinsic motivation to

academic accomplishment was positively associated with life satisfaction and optimism in

university students (Hamdan-Mansour, Hamaideh, Arabiat & Azzeghaiby, 2014). Wellbeing has

been defined in terms of the ability to fulfil goals (Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing

Project, 2008) and Ryff and Singer posit that environmental mastery contributes to overall

wellbeing (2008). A relationship between positive emotions, negative emotions and

accomplishment has been suggested regarding academic and athletic achievement (e.g.

Seligman, Kamen and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1988; Seligman, Nolen-Hoeksema, Thornton &

Thornton, 1990). Additionally, Brunstein (1993) found that goal achievement had a mediating

effect on other aspects of personal goal setting and subjective wellbeing in a student population

(N = 88). More recent support for the association between wellbeing and accomplishment is

provided by Hassanzadeh and Mahdinejad (2013). They reported a significant relationship

between happiness and achievement motivation in graduate students (N = 50) following

16

administration of the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) and the Achievement Motivation

Questionnaire (AMQ).

Martial arts practice may contribute to a sense of accomplishment in a variety of both

tangible and personal ways. Twemlow and Sacco (1998) allude to how participation in marital

arts may contribute to this sense through tangible markers of accomplishment such as belt testing

and special rewards. BJJ provides tangible markers of accomplishment involving belt

progression and is a competitive sport with the potential for medal and title attainment in both

professional and amateur practitioners. The martial arts offer practitioners concrete status and

recognition (Twemlow & Sacco, 1998). A recent study by Ko and Kim (2010), conducted to

examine why people participate in martial arts, demonstrated that establishing a sense of

personal accomplishment may be a motivating factor in participation. The study (N = 307) found

that growth related factor means, including achievement, were high and that participation in

martial arts is highly motivated by growth-related motivation (such as value development and

actualisation). As practitioners appear to focus on the achievement of mastery goals (Øvretveit,

Sæther & Mehus, 2018), accomplishment within BJJ may be defined by self-improvement or

skill development. Accomplishment resulting from skill acquisition has been shown to contribute

to overall feelings of wellbeing (Wilkinson, 1996). Despite this, there is little in the recent

literature examining whether BJJ contributes to a sense of accomplishment.

Degree of Practice

Vertonghen and Theeboom (2010) posit that classic martial arts studies primarily focused

on the personality traits of practitioners and employed cross-sectional designs. Further, the

majority of cross-sectional designs comprised groups based on the level of experience in a

specific martial art. The majority of studies have found that the number of years training has a

17

positive impact on personality traits (e.g. Duthie et al., 1978; Kurian et al., 1994). However,

Kroll and Carlson (1967) found no significant personality profile differences between karate

practitioners of various levels of experience (N = 61). Layton (1990) identified that advanced

karateka demonstrated decreased state and trait anxiety when compared with their less

experienced counterparts (N = 93). It has been noted that many cross-sectional studies comparing

the different levels of experience in martial arts practitioners fail to account for self-selection

effects (Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010). Failure to account for such effects is a limitation as

participants in such studies may have demonstrated certain personality traits that inclined them

toward martial arts initially or caused them to give up practice.

Research regarding degree of practice has received little attention in the BJJ literature.

One of few examples was recently undertaken by Faro and colleagues (2019) in a cross-

sectional, in-event study to assess the effect of belt rank on competition anxiety (N = 113).

Interestingly, the less experienced athletes demonstrated no change in self-confidence following

their first fight, despite decreased anxiety. Comparatively the more experienced practitioners

experienced an increase in self-confidence as they advanced. The authors concluded that belt

level did not affect competitive anxiety or self-confidence generally but it did affect how it

changed during a competition. This suggests that degree of practice may affect the experience of

some personality traits or negative emotions in certain settings. Current research in relation to

experience level has been somewhat inconsistent and research regarding the effect of training

frequency has been neglected in the literature.

Rationale

Research on martial arts has largely focused on dysfunction and as detailed here, is often

inconclusive. Given the paucity of research regarding the martial arts and wellbeing, the current

18

study seeks to address this deficit in the literature. There is little research on BJJ generally and

even less in relation to wellbeing and the aforementioned components. This study will employ a

multidimensional approach to wellbeing incorporating both hedonic and eudaimonic elements.

An assessment of both negative and positive emotions will fulfil the hedonic requirement; while

meaning, accomplishment and engagement encompass the eudaimonic approach. Each wellbeing

component is conceptually linked and aligns with the underlying philosophy of BJJ. Thus, the

current study will explore negative emotion and wellbeing in BJJ practitioners as measured by

these individual components and address a further gap in the literature regarding degree of

practice. Given the importance of wellbeing for both individuals and societies (Steptoe, 2015), an

additional aim of this study is to identify a possible wellbeing intervention.

Hypothesis 1

There will be a significant difference between BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners in the

components of wellbeing.

Hypothesis 2

There will be a significant difference between BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners in levels of

negative emotion.

Hypothesis 3

There will be a significant difference between training frequency groups in the components of

wellbeing.

Hypothesis 4

19

There will be a significant difference between training frequency groups in levels of negative

emotion.

Hypothesis 5

There will be a significant difference between training duration groups in the components of

wellbeing.

Hypothesis 6

There will be a significant difference between the training duration groups in levels of negative

emotion.

20

Methods

Participants

A sample of 653 participants were included in the final analysis, thus satisfying the

required sample size (Cohen, 1992). Participants were sampled from both a general and BJJ

practitioner population via online social media platforms (Facebook and Instagram).

Participation was voluntary and no incentives were provided. Data was collected using an online

questionnaire through convenience and snowball sampling. Participants were from a wide range

of countries which included: Ireland (35%), the United Kingdom (21%) and the United States

(13%). Only participants over 18 years of age were included and there was no upper age limit.

Those under 18 (N = 12) were removed. Participants chose from four age categories: 18-25 (N =

193), 26-35 (N = 307), 36-50 (N = 125) and over 50 (N = 23), see Table 1. Five participants did

not disclose age information.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics for Age Categories.

Group Age

Frequency Valid Percent

BJJ Practitioner 18-25 156 34.40

26-35 227 50.00

36-50 70 15.40

50+ 1 .20

Total 454

Non-Practitioner 18-25 37 19.10

26-35 80 41.20

36-50 55 28.40

50+ 22 11.30

Total 194

21

Participants were asked to declare if they currently practiced BJJ. Two central groups

were defined as BJJ practitioners (N = 455) and non-practitioners (N = 198). Male participants

dominated the practitioner group (N = 329) and the non-practitioner group was predominantly

female (N = 118). Two participants from the practitioner group did not disclose gender

information. In addition, those in the non-practitioner group included participants who exercised

regularly (N = 114). The BJJ practitioner group was further delineated into degree of practice

groups relating to frequency of training and duration of training. The frequency of training group

consisted of practitioners who trained infrequently (2 or less training sessions per week),

moderately (3-5 sessions) and frequently (6 or more sessions). The duration of training group

consisted of novice (training for 2 years or less), intermediate (3-5 years) and advanced

practitioners (6 years or more).

Design

The current study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional approach. Specifically, a

differential, between subjects, non-equivalent group design was used in relation to all

hypotheses. This design allowed for non-randomised group assignment. This was preferred given

that participants self-selected into the BJJ practitioner or non-practitioner groups. The

practitioners were assigned to degree of practice groups based on their answers regarding the

number of years training and the number of training sessions per week. For hypothesis 1 the

independent variable (IV) was BJJ practice. The dependent variable (DV) was wellbeing

(positive emotion, engagement, meaning and accomplishment) as measured by the PERMA-

profiler (Butler & Kern, 2015). For hypothesis 2 the IV was BJJ practice and the DV was

negative emotion, as measured by the PERMA-profiler. For hypothesis 3 the IV was training

22

frequency and the DV was wellbeing. For hypothesis 4 the IV was training frequency and the

DV was negative emotion. For hypothesis 5 the IV was training duration and the DV was

wellbeing. Finally, for hypothesis 6 the IV was training duration and the DV was negative

emotion.

Materials

The online questionnaire consisted of an information sheet preceding three sections

comprising 26 items in total, see Appendix A. The first section contained demographic questions

related to gender, location and age. The second section included a modified version of the

PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of flourishing (PERMA-profiler; Butler &

Kern, 2015), see Appendix A. The third section consisted of researcher-developed questions to

ascertain if the participant was a BJJ practitioner (“Do you currently practice Brazilian Jiu

Jitsu?”), the training duration (“How long have you been training?”) and the training frequency

(“On average, how many times a week do you train?”). Additionally, the section included

questions for non-practitioners. These related to how often they exercised (“Do you exercise

regularly?”) and the type of exercise (“What is the main type of exercise you engage in?”).

Participants were shown a debrief message upon completion of the questionnaire, see Appendix

B.

The PERMA-profiler is a 15-item (three per domain) non-diagnostic, self-reported

measure designed to assess Seligman’s five pillars of wellbeing: positive emotion, engagement,

relationships, meaning and accomplishment (2011). Three items regarding negative emotion can

also be included to provide additional information (Butler & Kern, 2015). All of the relationship

items (e.g. “To what extent do you feel loved?”) were removed in the current study as the

remaining items were deemed more appropriate in assessing the chosen sample. Removing this

23

item had no implications for scoring as the total score of each domain is calculated separately by

the average of the three items. Further, it has been suggested that the five PERMA domains can

be defined and measured as separate but correlated constructs (Seligman, 2011).

The PERMA-profiler comprises an 11-point Likert scale, with 0 indicating extremely low

levels and 10 indicting extremely high levels. Labels appear only on the end points as anchors

(e.g. “not at all” and “completely”). All items are worded in a positive direction and there is no

reverse scoring. For positive emotion the PERMA-profiler measures general tendencies towards

feeling contentment and joy (e.g. “In general, how often do you feel positive?”). For negative

emotion the Profiler measures tendencies towards feeling sad, anxious and angry (e.g. “In

general, how often do you feel anxious?”). Engagement items measure a tendency towards being

absorbed, interested, and involved in an activity or the world itself (e.g. “How often do you lose

track of time doing something you enjoy?”).

The meaning items measure a tendency towards having a sense of purpose in life (e.g. “In

general, to what extent do you lead a purposeful and meaningful life?”). For accomplishment the

PERMA-profiler measures subjective feelings of accomplishment and staying on top of daily

responsibilities (e.g. “How often are you able to handle your responsibilities?”). Brief

instructions preceded the PERMA-profiler which asked the participant to read each question and

indicate a number (0-10) which they felt best described them. They were reminded to answer as

honestly as possible and that all answers were anonymous, see Appendix A. Each domain was

demonstrated to have good internal reliability. Cronbach’s alpha was .88 for positive emotion,

.71 for negative emotion, .72 for engagement, .90 for meaning, and .79 for accomplishment

(Butler & Kern, 2016). Support was also found for convergent and divergent construct validity

(Ryan et al., 2019).

24

Procedure

A link to the questionnaire was posted on Instagram and Facebook along with a brief

description of the study. Participants were encouraged to share the study to ensure snowball

sampling and a number of high-profile BJJ athletes did so. Upon beginning the questionnaire,

participants were initially met with an information sheet inviting them to take part, see Appendix

A. The BJJ focus of the study was not initially revealed in order to prevent priming of the

participants prior to completion. Participants were assured that the questionnaire had been widely

used in research and that contact information for support services would be provided on the final

page.

It was highlighted that the questionnaire was voluntary and confidential. Therefore,

participants were advised that following submission it would not be possible to withdraw from

the study. Inclusion criteria was stated (i.e. Participants must be over 18 years of age). It was

necessary for participants to confirm they were over 18 and consent to the study before they

could proceed. Following the demographic and standardised questionnaire sections of the study,

participants were presented with the BJJ question. Branching was used to direct practitioners and

non-practitioners to the appropriate subsequent items. The average time of completion was four

minutes and 28 seconds. Following completion of the questionnaire, participants were directed to

a debriefing page which thanked them for taking part. It informed them of the BJJ aspect of the

study and provided them with contact information for support services should they need them,

see Appendix B.

25

Ethics

The current study was completed in line with the Psychological Society of Ireland (PSI)

and Dublin Business School ethical guidelines. The research proposal received approval from the

Dublin Business School Ethics Board. As participants are drawn from a general and BJJ

population over the age of 18, vulnerable participants were not targeted. Given the nature of the

PERMA-profiler, there was a possibility that some items may cause distress. For this reason, a

debrief procedure was included in order to provide contact information for support services. All

participants were required to provide consent before it was possible to proceed with the

questionnaire. The study involved a low level of deception in that the BJJ aspect of the study was

not initially stated. However, participants were informed of the nature of the study in its entirety

as part of the debriefing procedure. This ensured informed consent. All data collected was de-

identified as no participant was asked for any identifying information, thus ensuring anonymity

and confidentiality. For this reason, the right to withdraw could only be extended until

submission of the questionnaire. Participants were made aware of this via the information page.

All data was stored in a secure manner at all times on a password protected computer. The

information sheet also informed participants of any dissemination or reporting.

26

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics for the entire sample (N=671), such as mean and standard deviation

(SD) measures for each psychological variable, are presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Descriptive Statistics of Psychological Measures for Overall Sample

Variable

N Mean SD Range Min Max Variance α

Positive Emotion 664 6.46 1.77 9 1 10 3.14 .84

Negative Emotion 670 4.62 1.90 10 0 10 3.61 .74

Engagement 669 7.29 1.60 10 0 10 2.57 .65

Meaning 668 6.75 2.09 10 0 10 4.35 .88

Accomplishment 668 6.93 1.52 10 0 10 2.32 .70

All of the mean wellbeing component scores were above the midpoint of the scale.

Scores ranged from positive emotion as lowest (M = 6.46) to engagement as highest (M = 7.29).

Negative emotion scores (M = 4.62) were close to the midpoint in a range of scores from 0 to 11.

There was a good range of scores as demonstrated by the min and max. Mean scores were

comparatively lower than general population results (Butler & Kern, 2016). However, the

comparison sample (N = 31,966) was predominantly American. In addition, Table 2 shows

reliability indicators. Cronbach’s Alpha established satisfactory levels of internal reliability for

each of the variables, with the exception of engagement which didn’t perform as adequately as

desired (α = .65).

27

Central tendency and dispersion measures were carried out for wellbeing components by

group. The BJJ practitioner group constituted 69.7% of the sample (N = 455), while 198 were

non-practitioners. 57.3% of non-practitioners exercised regularly (N = 114). Participants that did

not disclose if they were practitioners or non-practitioners were removed from the sample (N =

18). Thus 653 participants were included in the hypothesis testing. Table 3 showcases descriptive

statistics of psychological measures for BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners.

Table 3

Descriptive Statistics of Psychological Measures for BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners

Group Variable Mean SD Range Min Max

Variance

BJJ Positive Emotion 6.68 1.60 9 1 10 2.55

Negative Emotion 4.43 1.82 10 0 10 3.31

Engagement 7.61 1.39 8 2 10 1.93

Meaning 7.01 1.85 8 2 10 3.41

Accomplishment 7.20 1.32 7 3 10 1.75

Non-BJJ Positive Emotion 6.22 1.85 8 2 10 3.43

Negative Emotion 4.93 1.95 9 1 10 3.80

Engagement 6.85 1.57 7 3 10 2.45

Meaning 6.42 2.20 9 1 10 4.83

Accomplishment 6.51 1.59 7 3 9 2.53

As can be seen in Table 3, BJJ practitioners had higher mean scores across the wellbeing

components and lower negative emotion (M = 4.43) than non-practitioners. Component scores

ranged from positive emotion as lowest (M = 6.68) to engagement as highest (M = 7.61). The

mean score for engagement (M = 7.61) is considered a moderately high score in the context of

the range going from 0 to 11. Component scores ranged from positive emotion as lowest (M =

6.22) to engagement as highest (M = 6.85) for non-practitioners. The mean scores for both

28

positive emotion (M = 6.22) and meaning (M = 6.42) indicate sub-optimal functioning in the

non-practitioner sample.

The practitioner sample was further demarcated to form groups concerning degrees of

practice, see Table 4 for descriptive statistics regarding training frequency and training duration.

Table 4

Descriptive Statistics of psychological measures for Degrees of Practice Groups

Groups

N % Variable Mean SD

Training Frequency

Infrequent 92 20.3 Positive Emotion 6.42 1.57

Engagement 7.13 1.48

Meaning 6.86 1.86

Accomplishment 6.85 1.33

Negative Emotion 4.59 1.61

Moderate 275 60.7 Positive Emotion 6.68 1.66


Meaning 6.91 1.91



Frequent 86 19.0 Positive Emotion 6.70 1.81


Meaning 7.21 1.99



Training Duration

Novice 205 47.1 Positive Emotion 6.49 1.71



Meaning 6.81 1.92


Intermediate 156 35.9 Positive Emotion 6.69 1.69



Meaning 7.00 2.07


Advanced 74 17.0 Positive Emotion 6.95 1.46



Meaning 7.50 1.43


29

Table 4 demonstrates slightly higher mean scores across the wellbeing components and

lower mean scores for negative emotion as training duration increases. Training frequency mean

scores follow a similar trajectory with the exception of negative emotion scores between those

who train frequently (M = 4.50) and a moderate amount (M = 4.40). The training duration group

consisted of predominately novice practitioners (N = 205), while advanced practitioners were the

least represented (N = 74). In relation to training frequency, 275 practitioners reported training a

moderate amount, while those who train frequently were the least represented (N = 86).

Inferential Statistics

Hypothesis 1

A one-way multivariate ANOVA was conducted to identify if BJJ practitioners and non-

practitioners differed significantly in levels of wellbeing. A series of regressions were run to

identify and remove multivariate outliers by checking whether all mahal distances were below

the critical level (13.82). It was necessary to correct for nine outliers in the practitioner group and

14 in the non-practitioner group. Multivariate results are reported at a .025 significance level as

Levene’s test indicated that equality of variance could not be assumed across the components in

the current result. Pillai’s Trace was employed throughout as it is more robust to cope with

unequal N values.

The test revealed that there was a statistically significant difference in levels of wellbeing

between BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners (F(4, 614) = 12.06, p< .001, effect size = .07).

Following a Bonferroni adjustment to .0125, significant univariate differences were found for the

groups on all wellbeing components, see Table 5.

30

Table 5

Univariate MANOVA Results for Practice Groups (df = 617) in Wellbeing Components

Variable

BJJ practitioner Non-practitioner F P η2

M SD M SD

Positive Emotion 6.68 1.60 6.20 1.86 10.28 <.001* .02

Engagement 7.61 1.39 6.87 1.57 33.68 <.001* .05

Meaning 7.00 1.84 6.41 2.20 11.44 .001* .02

Accomplishment 7.20 1.32 6.49 1.59 32.79 <.001* .05 *p< .0125

The null hypothesis states that no significant differences would exist between the groups

in the components of wellbeing; therefore, the null was rejected. The results imply that BJJ may

be important in terms of its potential as an intervention for increased wellbeing. Specifically, in

relation to increased positive emotion, engagement, meaning and accomplishment (Figure 1).

Hypothesis 2

An independent samples t-test was conducted to identify if a significant difference would

exist between BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners in levels of negative emotion. The t-test

found that there was a statistically significant difference between negative emotion level of BJJ

practitioners (M = 4.44, SD = 1.82) and non BJJ practitioners (M = 4.95, SD = 1.95) (t(627) = -

3.06, p = .002, CI (95%) -.82 -> -.18). The null hypothesis states that no difference would exist

between the groups on levels of negative emotion; therefore, the null was rejected. The results

imply that BJJ may be important in terms of its potential as an intervention for decreased

negative emotion. Significant mean comparisons for negative emotion and the components of

31

wellbeing between BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners are demonstrated graphically in Figure

1.

Figure 1

Comparison of Wellbeing and Negative Emotion of Practitioners v. Non-Practitioners

Hypothesis 3

A one-way multivariate ANOVA was conducted to identify if training frequency groups

differed significantly in levels of wellbeing. The test found that there was a statistically

significant difference in levels of wellbeing between training frequency groups (F(8, 882) = 3.25,

p = .001, effect size = .03). However, following a Bonferroni adjustment to .0125, significant

univariate differences were found only for engagement (F(2, 444) = 7.46, p = .001, effect size =

.03) and accomplishment (F(2, 444) = 5.03, p = .007, effect size = .02). No significant

32

differences for the groups on meaning (F(2, 444) = .95, p = .39) or positive emotion (F(2, 444) =

.89, p = .41) were found.

More specifically, a Hochberg’s GT2 post hoc analyses revealed that those who train

frequently had significantly higher levels of accomplishment than those who train infrequently

(Mean difference = .64, p = .004, CI [95%] .16, 1.12). Those who train frequently also had

significantly higher levels of engagement than those who train infrequently (Mean difference =

.81, p < .001, CI [95%] .30, 1.31). Further, those who train a moderate amount had significantly

higher levels of engagement than those who train infrequently (Mean difference = .51, p = .008,

CI [95%] .11, .92). It was found that increased training frequency resulted in higher levels of

wellbeing (in relation to engagement and accomplishment) in BJJ practitioners (Figure 2).

Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected.

Hypothesis 4

A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to identify if a significant difference

would exist between training frequency groups in levels of negative emotion. The test showed

that levels of negative emotion did not differ significantly between the three training frequency

groups (F(2, 450) = .40, p = .668). Therefore, the null hypothesis failed to be rejected. These

findings imply that training frequency may not be as important as other variables in terms of

decreased negative emotion in BJJ practitioners. Mean comparisons for negative emotion and the

components of wellbeing between training frequency groups are demonstrated graphically in

Figure 2.

33

Figure 2

Comparison of Mean Wellbeing and Negative Emotion for Training Frequency Groups

Note. Engagement and accomplishment differed significantly at the .0125 level.

Hypothesis 5

A one-way multivariate ANOVA was conducted to identify if training duration groups

differed significantly in levels of wellbeing. The test found that there was no statistically

significant difference in levels of wellbeing between the training duration groups (F(8, 848) =

.99, p = .441, effect size = .01). Following a Bonferroni adjustment to .0125, no significant

differences for the groups were found on accomplishment (F(2, 426) = .1.60, p = .203),

engagement (F(2, 426) = .21, p = .809), positive emotion (F(2, 426) = .2.18, p = .809) or

meaning (F(2, 426) = 3.16, p = .043). Therefore, the null hypothesis failed to be rejected.

Hypothesis 6

34

A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to identify if a significant difference would exist

between training duration groups in levels of negative emotion. The test showed that levels of

negative emotion differed significantly between the training duration groups (F(2, 432) = 5.45, p

= .004). More specifically, a Hochberg’s GT2 post hoc analyses highlighted that advanced

practitioners had significantly lower levels of negative emotion than novice practitioners (Mean

difference = -.81, p = .003, CI [95%] -1.40, -.23) and intermediate practitioners (Mean difference

= -.65, p = .033, CI [95%] -1.26, -.04). Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is

demonstrated in Figure 3, these findings suggest that as training duration increases negative

emotion decreases.

Figure 3

Comparison of Mean Negative Emotion for Training Duration Groups

35

Discussion

Key Findings

The central aim of this study was to identify if significant differences would exist in

levels of negative emotion and wellbeing amongst BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners.

Further, the research hypotheses sought to examine the effect of training duration and frequency

on levels of negative emotion and wellbeing in BJJ practitioners. Group differences were

explored from a global perspective through the idea of wellbeing but also in relation to negative

emotion and the individual wellbeing components: positive emotion, engagement, meaning and

accomplishment. This research aimed to address major deficits in the martial arts literature

regarding the relationship between wellbeing and BJJ, and in relation to the influence of training

frequency more generally.

Hypothesis 1 predicted that significant differences would exist between BJJ practitioners

and non-practitioners in the components of wellbeing. The research hypothesis was supported as

practitioners demonstrated higher levels of wellbeing than non-practitioners across all of the

components. These results were aligned with previous research that reported increased wellbeing

in martial artists when compared with a non-practitioner group (Steyn & Roux, 2009). Moderate

effect sizes were found for both accomplishment and engagement. This is in line with previous

research which reported a correlation between engagement and higher levels of subjective

wellbeing (Schueller & Seligman, 2010), and with research suggesting that martial arts may be

an ideal vehicle for flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Further, the findings support the contention

that a sense of accomplishment is associated with increased wellbeing (Seligman, 2004).

Hypothesis 2 predicted that significant differences would exist between BJJ practitioners

and non-practitioners in levels of negative emotion. The research hypothesis was supported as

36

practitioners demonstrated lower levels of negative emotion than non-practitioners. Literature

regarding the effect of martial arts on negative emotion has been divided. However, the current

study looked at a specific martial art and is aligned with previous research that reported lower

levels of negative emotion amongst karate (Ziaee et al., 2012) and judo practitioners (Reynes &

Laurent, 2004). Over half of non-practitioners (57.3%) stated that they exercised regularly; thus,

the current study shows possible support for previous research that reported no significant

changes in negative affect during physical activity that did not include martial arts (Bodin &

Martinsen, 2004).

Hypothesis 3 predicted that a significant difference would exist between training

frequency groups in the components of wellbeing. The research hypothesis was supported as

significant differences existed amongst the groups in overall wellbeing, specifically in relation to

accomplishment and engagement. This result is aligned with previous research that reported an

association between goal achievement and increased wellbeing (Brunstein, 1993) and research

that considered engagement an essential element in developing wellbeing (Rath et al., 2010).

Post Hoc analysis revealed that those who train frequently had higher levels of accomplishment

than those who train infrequently. This aligns with research by Twemlow and Sacco (1998) who

suggest that participation in marital arts may contribute to a greater sense of wellbeing through

tangible markers of accomplishment (Twemlow and Sacco, 1998). BJJ practitioners who train

the most frequently are typically competitors who attain tangible rewards through competition

success.

Previous research has shown that accomplishment resulting from skill acquisition

contributes to overall feelings of wellbeing (Wilkinson, 1996). The current study aligns with this

research as those who train most frequently presumably acquire skills at a faster rate than those

37

who train infrequently. Contrary to the assertion that accomplishment is additionally associated

with increased meaning in life (James, 2005), no differences were found regarding meaning and

training frequency despite increased levels of accomplishment. This incongruity may be the

result of sample and measurement differences or imply that, for those who train frequently,

increased levels of accomplishment are experienced as distinct from a sense of meaning.

Post Hoc analysis further highlighted that those who train infrequently reported lower

levels of engagement than those who train frequently and a moderate amount. This aligns with

previous research that demonstrated flow state in elite Judo athletes (Ruiz-Barquín et al., 2014).

To reach an elite level, athletes must train frequently. Thus, it follows that in the current study

those who train frequently demonstrated higher levels of engagement than those who trained less

frequently. Previous research by Rogatko (2009) demonstrated that engaging in flow promoting

activities resulted in higher levels of positive emotion. Therefore, it was expected that those

engaging in such an activity more frequently would demonstrate higher levels of positive

emotion. However, in the current study frequent training resulted in higher levels of engagement

but not significantly different levels of positive emotion. This suggests that training frequency

has a greater effect on levels of engagement than positive emotion in BJJ practitioners.

Hypothesis 4 predicted that training frequency groups would differ significantly in levels

of negative emotion. The research hypothesis could not be supported as no significant

differences were found. There is a dearth of research relating to the effect of training frequency

in martial arts. However, the current result aligns with a study by Toskovic (2001) showing that a

single bout of Taekwondo practice resulted in improvements in depression and anger scores.

This suggests that extensive martial arts practice may not be required to demonstrate lower levels

of negative emotion. It is worth noting that, although not significant, those who train frequently

38

demonstrated slightly higher mean negative emotion scores than those who train moderately. The

frequent training group consisted of practitioners who train more than six times per week, many

of whom are professional athletes. One such athlete indicated to the researcher that training

professionally may have a negative effect on emotions such as anxiety. Additional research

concerning the effect of training frequency in professional BJJ athletes may be required.

Hypothesis 5 predicted that a significant difference would exist between training duration

groups in the components of wellbeing. The research hypothesis could not be supported as no

such differences were found. These results were aligned with research by Kroll and Carlson

(1967) who found no significant personality profile differences between karate practitioners of

various levels, suggesting that level of experience may not be an important factor in relation to

certain variables. However, contrary to the current findings; the majority of studies regarding

personality traits found training duration had a positive effect (e.g. Duthie et al., 1978; Kurian et

al., 1994). The current study focuses on different variables, concerning a different martial art and

as such any comparative analysis is tenuous. More research is required in relation to wellbeing

and BJJ generally so that meaningful comparisons can be made.

Hypothesis 6 predicted that training duration groups would differ significantly in levels of

negative emotion. The research hypothesis was supported as post hoc analysis revealed that

advanced practitioners demonstrated significantly lower levels of negative emotion than both

novice and intermediate practitioners. These findings suggest that training duration has a positive

effect on negative emotion in BJJ practitioners. This aligns with previous research by Layton

(1990) that identified that advanced karateka demonstrated less anxiety than less experienced

practitioners. There is little cross-sectional research regarding negative emotion and training

39

duration in the BJJ literature. However, the current result is aligned with findings by Faro et al.

(2019) who suggested that anxiety may work differently depending on the athlete's skill level.

Strengths and Limitations

A decent sample size was an important strength of the current study as this provides more

statistical power, more variation in the data and more generalisable findings. Further, a

multidimensional approach to wellbeing was adopted. Various elements were incorporated in an

attempt to more adequately capture the essence of wellbeing regarding a novel topic of inquiry.

However, a major limitation of this study was unequal sample sizes. Specifically, in relation to

BJJ practitioner and non-practitioner groups. Imbalance between these groups translated into

significant Levene’s across the wellbeing components. As having both unequal sample sizes and

variances could dramatically affect statistical power and Type 1 error rates it was necessary to

use more conservative answers in order to adjust for differences. Due to the cross-sectional

nature of the study, the research only measured one point in time. As emotional states can be

transient this may have had implications regarding the hedonic components of wellbeing.

The engagement measure did not perform as adequately as desired in the current sample.

This raises questions as to the accuracy of what was reported. However, as the alpha level was

above the lowest acceptable threshold (.60) it was considered acceptable to proceed with the

instrument. Selection bias may have been a confounding factor in this study as non-probability

sampling does not account for individual difference. Gender imbalance between the practitioner

and non-practitioner groups may have been a further confounding factor. As previous research

has not found gender differences regarding similar conceptions of wellbeing (Butler & Kern,

2016; Ryan et al., 2019), it was not considered an overt limitation in the current study. However,

40

future research is recommended to examine gender differences as they relate to BJJ and

wellbeing specifically.

Implications and Future Research

It is hoped that the current study may facilitate a greater understanding of the role BJJ

could play in decreased negative emotion and increased wellbeing. Findings may have important

implications for wellbeing and martial arts research alike. Training frequency was found to be an

important factor in increased wellbeing; given the limited research regarding training frequency,

this finding should inform future martial arts research. Additionally, training duration was found

to be an important factor in decreased negative emotion. Considering that previous martial arts

research has been divided regarding aggression and problematic externalising behaviour, it is

pertinent that BJJ was found to have a positive impact on negative emotion both in the short term

and with continued practice.

Given the importance of wellbeing in a range of positive personal and societal outcomes,

BJJ is a worthy topic of inquiry for future research to discern possible applications. The current

study provides insight as to the applicability of BJJ as a possible intervention and it is

recommended that future research employs longitudinal and experimental designs in order to

establish causal relationships. Additionally, future research is required to address limitations in

the current study such as implementing random group assignment and probability sampling. It is

recommended that studies employ a more reliable measure of engagement. Further delineation of

degree of practice groups might provide more meaningful comparisons. For example, those who

have trained frequently in the short term might be compared with those who have trained

moderately over many years etc.

41

Conclusion

In conclusion, this research sought to examine differences in wellbeing and negative

emotion amongst BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners. Practitioners demonstrated higher

levels of wellbeing across all of the components and lower levels of negative emotion when

compared to non-practitioners. In addition, those who trained more frequently demonstrated

higher levels of wellbeing in relation to engagement and accomplishment specifically. Finally,

training duration was found to have a positive effect on levels of negative emotion. Findings

suggest that training duration may be an important factor in decreasing levels of negative

emotion, while increased training frequency was associated with higher levels of wellbeing.

It is worth noting that given the small to moderate effect sizes demonstrated, proposed

applicability of the findings is tentative. However, it has been previously suggested that even a

small shift in wellbeing scores could produce a large increase in the percentage who are

flourishing on a population level (Huppert et al., 2005). The cross-sectional nature of this study

does not allow for the establishing of a cause and effect relationship and given the limitations,

caution should be employed in interpreting the results. Nonetheless, considering the divided

nature of previous martial arts research and the importance of fostering positive wellbeing, the

current study provides valuable insight concerning a nascent area of research.

42

References

Bakker, A. B. (2005). Flow among music teachers and their students: The crossover of peak

experiences. Journal of vocational behavior, 66(1), 26-44.

Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2011). Building a neuroscience of pleasure and

wellbeing. Psychology of Wellbeing: Theory, Research and Practice, 1(1), 1-26.

Biasutti, M., & Frezza, L. (2009). Dimensions of music improvisation. Creativity Research

Journal, 21(2-3), 232-242.

Blomqvist Mickelsson, T. (2019). Modern unexplored martial arts–what can mixed martial

arts and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu do for youth development?. European journal of sport

science, 1-8.

Bodin, T., & Martinsen, E. W. (2004). Mood and self-efficacy during acute exercise in

clinical depression. A randomized, controlled study. Journal of sport and exercise

psychology, 26(4), 623-633.

Bradburn, N. (1969). The structure of psychological wellbeing. Chicago: Aldine.

Brunstein, J. C. (1993). Personal goals and subjective wellbeing: A longitudinal study.

Journal of personality and social psychology, 65(5), 1061.

Bryce, J., & Haworth, J. (2002). Wellbeing and flow in sample of male and female office

workers. Leisure Studies, 21(3-4), 249-263.

Busseri, M. A., Choma, B. L., & Sadava, S. W. (2012). Subjective temporal trajectories for

subjective wellbeing. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(1), 1-15.

43

Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2015). The PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of

flourishing. Available from http://www.peggykern.org/questionnaires.html

Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2016). The PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of

flourishing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(3), 1-48.

Chen, M. A., & Cheesman, D. J. (2013). Mental toughness of mixed martial arts athletes at

different levels of competition. Perceptual and motor skills, 116(3), 905-917.

Chinkov, A. E. (2014). Personal and social benefits associated with participation in Brazilian

Jiu-Jitsu. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 47, 96-102.

Chinkov, A. E., & Holt, N. L. (2016). Implicit transfer of life skills through participation in

Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Journal of applied sport psychology, 28(2), 139-153.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd ed. Hillsdale,

NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological bulletin, 112(1), 155.

Croom, A. M. (2014). Embodying martial arts for mental health: Cultivating psychological

wellbeing with martial arts practice. Budo Science of Martial Arts and Extreme Sports

10, 59-70.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. Journal of

Leisure Research, 24(1)

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday

life. Basic Books.

http://www.peggykern.org/questionnaires.html

44

Diamandis, P. H., & Kotler, S. (2015). Bold: How to go big, create wealth and impact the

world. Simon and Snkovster.

Dittman-Kohli, F., & Westerhof, G. J. (2000). The personal meaning system in a life-span

perspective. In G. T. Reker & K. Chamberlian (Eds.), Exploring existential meaning:

Optimizing human development across the life span.

Duthie, R.B., Hope, L. and Barker, D.G. (1978) Selected personality traits of martial artists

as measured by the adjective checklist. Perceptual and Motor Skills 47, 71-76.

Endresen, I. M., & Olweus, D. (2005). Participation in power sports and antisocial

involvement in preadolescent and adolescent boys. Journal of child Psychology and

Psychiatry, 46(5), 468-478.

Farrer, D. S. (2019). Brazilian jiu-jitsu is therapy. Shifting subjectivities on Guam.

Etnografia e ricerca qualitativa, 12(3), 407-428.

Flory, J. D., Manuck, S. B., Matthews, K. A., & Muldoon, M. F. (2004). Serotonergic

function in the central nervous system is associated with daily ratings of positive

mood. Psychiatry Research, 129(1), 11-19.

Folkman, S. (2008). The case for positive emotions in the stress process. Anxiety, stress, and

coping, 21(1), 3-14.

Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing Project (2008). Final Project report. The

Government Office for Science, London.

45

Forgeard, M. J., Jayawickreme, E., Kern, M. L., & Seligman, M. E. (2011). Doing the right

thing: Measuring wellbeing for public policy. International journal of wellbeing,

1(1).

Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). Unpacking positive emotions: Investigating the seeds of human

flourishing.

Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What good are

positive emotions in crisis? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following

the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of

personality and social psychology, 84(2), 365.

Fritz, B. S., & Avsec, A. (2007). The experience of flow and subjective wellbeing of music

students. Horizons of Psychology, 16(2), 5-17.

Fuller, J. R. (1988). Martial arts and psychological health. British Journal of Medical

Psychology, 61(4), 317-328.

Gladstone, J. (2018). Are Martial Arts an Effective Self-Care Practice for Mental Health

Professionals? (Doctoral dissertation, Antioch University).

Gracie, R., & Danaher, J. (2003). Mastering jujitsu. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Graczyk, M., Hucinski, T., Norkowski, H., Pęczak-Graczyk, A., & Rozanowska, A. (2010).

The level of aggression syndrome and a type of practiced combat sport. Journal of

Combat Sports and Martial Arts, 1(2), 1–14.

Green, K. (2016). Tales from the mat: Narrating men and meaning making in the mixed

martial arts gym. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 45(4), 419-450.

46

Guthrie, S. R. (1995). Liberating the amazon: Feminism and martial arts. Women & Therapy,

16(2-3), 107-119.

Hackney, C. H. (2013). Martial arts as a pathway to flourishing. Positive Psychology, 145-

158). Springer, New York, NY.

Hamdan-Mansour, A. M., Hamaideh, S. H., Arabiat, D. H., & Azzeghaiby, S. N. (2014).

Psychosocial correlates of motivation for academic accomplishment among university

students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 159, 32-36.

Harwood, A., Lavidor, M., Rassovsky, Y. (2017) Reducing aggression with martial arts: A

meta-analysis of child and youth studies. Journal of Aggression and Violent

Behaviour.

Hassanzadeh, R., & Mahdinejad, G. (2013). Relationship between happiness and

achievement motivation: A case of university students. Journal of Elementary

Education, 23(1), 53-65.

Headey, B. (2006). Happiness: Revising set point theory and dynamic equilibrium theory to

account for long term change (No. 607). DIW Discussion Papers.

Heintzelman, S. J., & King, L. A. (2014). Life is pretty meaningful. American Psychologist,

69(6), 561.

Hicks, J. A., & King, L. A. (2009). Positive mood and social relatedness as information about

meaning in life. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 471-482.

47

Hicks, J. A., Schlegel, R. J., & King, L. A. (2010). Social threats, happiness, and the

dynamics of meaning in life judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,

36(10), 1305-1317.

Hogeveen, B. (2013). ‘It Is About Your Body Recognizing the Move and Automatically

Doing It’: Merleau-Ponty, Habit and Brazilian Jiu Jitsu. In Garcia, R. S. & Spencer,

D. C. (2013). (eds) Fighting Scholars: Habitus and Ethnographies of Martial Arts

and Combat Sports. Anthem Press. London.

Huppert, F. A. (2014). The state of wellbeing science: Concepts, measures, interventions, and

policies. Wellbeing: A complete reference guide, 1-49.

Huppert, F.A., Baylis, N., & Keverne, B. (Eds.) (2005). The science of well-being. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Isen, A. M. (2004, April). Positive affect facilitates thinking and problem solving. In

Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam symposium (pp. 263-281). Cambridge

University Press Cambridge, UK.

Jackson, S. A. (1992). Athletes in flow: A qualitative investigation of flow states in elite

figure skaters. Journal of applied sport psychology, 4(2), 161-180.

James, L. (2005). Achievement and the Meaningfulness of Life. Philosophical Papers, 34(3),

429-442.

Jennings, G., Brown, D., & Sparkes, A. C. (2010). ‘It can be a religion if you want’: Wing

Chun Kung Fu as a secular religion. Ethnography, 11(4), 533-557.

48

Kahneman D, Diener E, Schwarz N. (2003) Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic

Psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Kano, J. (2005). Kodokan judo. Kodansha America, Inc.

Keltner, D., & Gross, J. J. (1999). Functional accounts of emotions. Cognition & Emotion,

13(5), 467-480.

Keyes, C.L.M. (2004). The nexus of cardiovascular disease and depression revisited: The

complete mental health perspective and the moderating role of age and gender. Aging

and Mental Health, 8, 266–274.

King, L. A., Hicks, J. A., Krull, J. L., & Del Gaiso, A. K. (2006). Positive affect and the

experience of meaning in life. Journal of personality and social psychology, 90(1),

179.

Ko, Y. J., & Kim, Y. K. (2010). Martial arts participation: Consumer motivation.

International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 11(2), 2-20.

Kok, B. E., Coffey, K. A., Cohn, M. A., Catalino, L. I., Vacharkulksemsuk, T., Algoe, S. B.,

... & Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). How positive emotions build physical health:

Perceived positive social connections account for the upward spiral between positive

emotions and vagal tone. Psychological science, 24(7), 1123-1132.

Krein, K., & Ilundáin, J. (2014). Mushin and flow. Philosophy and the Martial Arts:

Engagement, Abingdon: Routeledge, 139-164.

49

Kroll, W., & Carlson, B. R. (1967). Discriminant Function and Hierarchical Grouping

Analysis of Karate Participants' Personality Profiles'. Research Quarterly. American

Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 38(3), 405-411.

Kurian, M., Verdi, M. P., Caterino, L. C., & Kulhavy, R. W. (1994). Relating scales on the

children's personality questionnaire to training time and belt rank in ATA taekwondo.

Perceptual and Motor Skills, 79(2), 904-906.

Lambert, N. M., Stillman, T. F., Hicks, J. A., Kamble, S., Baumeister, R. F., & Fincham, F.

D. (2013). To belong is to matter: Sense of belonging enhances meaning in life.

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(11), 1418-1427.

Layton, C. (1990) Anxiety in black belt and non-black-belt additional karateka. Perceptual

and Motor Skills 71, 905-906.

Ludwig, F. M. (1997). How routine facilitates wellbeing in older women. Occupational

Therapy International, 4(3), 215-230.

Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect:

Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855.

Machell, K. A., Kashdan, T. B., Short, J. L., & Nezlek, J. B. (2015). Relationships between

meaning in life, social and achievement events, and positive and negative affect in

daily life. Journal of Personality, 83(3), 287-298.

Martela, F., & Steger, M. F. (2016). The three meanings of meaning in life: Distinguishing

coherence, purpose, and significance. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(5), 531-

545.

50

Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences (Vol. 35). Columbus: Ohio

State University Press.

Milligan, K., Cosme, R., Miscio, M. W., Mintz, L., Hamilton, L., Cox, M., ... & Phillips, M.

(2017). Integrating mindfulness into mixed martial arts training to enhance academic,

social, and emotional outcomes for at-risk high school students: A qualitative

exploration. Contemporary School Psychology, 21(4), 335-346.

Morhenn, V. B., Park, J. W., Piper, E., & Zak, P. J. (2008). Monetary sacrifice among

strangers is mediated by endogenous oxytocin release after physical contact.

Evolution and Human Behavior, 29(6), 375-383.

Mutz, M. (2012). Athletic participation and the approval and use of violence: A comparison

of adolescent males in different sports disciplines. European Journal for Sport and

Society, 9(3), 177-201.

Nelson, R. (2018). MANIFESTING THE NEW BEING IN BRAZILIAN JIU-JITSU.

Nesse, R. M. (1994). Fear and fitness: An evolutionary analysis of anxiety disorders.

Ethology and sociobiology, 15(5-6), 247-261.

Nosanchuk, T. A., & MacNeil, M. C. (1989). Examination of the effects of traditional and

modern martial arts training on aggressiveness. Aggressive Behavior, 15(2), 153–159.

Øvretveit, K., Sæther, S. A., & Mehus, I. (2018). Achievement goal profiles, and perceptions

of motivational climate and physical ability in male Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners.

Budo Science of Martial Arts and Extreme Sports 14(311).

51

Pasco, J. A., Jacka, F. N., Williams, L. J., Brennan, S. L., Leslie, E., & Berk, M. (2011).

Don't worry, be active: Positive affect and habitual physical activity. Australian &

New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 45(12), 1047-1052.

Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression:

Theory and evidence. Psychological review, 91(3), 347.

Pollard, E., & Lee, P. (2003). Child well-being: a systematic review of the literature, Social

Indicators Research, 61(1), 9–78.

Pope, M. (2019). Flow with the go: Brazilian Jiu Jitsu as embodied spirituality. Practical

Theology, 12(3), 301-309.

Privette, G. (1983). Peak experience, peak performance, and flow: A comparative analysis of

positive human experiences. Journal of personality and social psychology, 45(6),

1361.

Rath, T., Harter, J. K., & Harter, J. (2010). Wellbeing: The five essential elements. Simon and

Schuster.

Reker, G. T. (2000). Theoretical perspective, dimensions, and measurement of existential

meaning. Exploring existential meaning: Optimizing human development across the

life span, 39-55.

Reusing, H. M. (2014). The language of martial arts: The transformative potential of

Brazilian jiu-jitsu through the lens of depth psychology. Pacifica Graduate Institute,

328.

52

Reynes, E., & Lorant, J. (2004). Competitive martial arts and aggressiveness: a 2-yr.

longitudinal study among young boys. Perceptual and motor skills, 98(1), 103-115.

Robinson, M. D., & Hippel, W. V. (2006). Rose-colored priming effects: Life satisfaction

and affective priming. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(4), 187-197.

Rogatko, T. P. (2009). The influence of flow on positive affect in college students. Journal of

happiness studies, 10(2), 133.

Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Ruiz Barquín, R., Vega Marcos, R. D. L., Buitrago González, F., & Gutiérrez García, C.

(2014) Flow state in elite judo athletes: a descriptive analysis of two scales over a

fourteen-week period.

Ryan, J., Curtis, R., Olds, T., Edney, S., Vandelanotte, C., Plotnikoff, R., & Maher, C.

(2019). Psychometric properties of the PERMA Profiler for measuring wellbeing in

Australian adults. PloS one, 14(12).

Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of

psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–

1081.

Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. H. (2008). Know thyself and become what you are: A eudaimonic

approach to psychological wellbeing. Journal of happiness studies, 9(1), 13-39.

Schueller, S. M., & Seligman, M. E. (2010). Pursuit of pleasure, engagement, and meaning:

Relationships to subjective and objective measures of wellbeing. The Journal of

Positive Psychology, 5(4), 253-263.

53

Seligman, M. (2010). Flourish: Positive psychology and positive interventions. The Tanner

lectures on human values, 31, 1-56.

Seligman, M. E. (2002). Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for

lasting fulfillment: Authentic happiness.

Seligman, M. E. (2004). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize

your potential for lasting fulfillment. Simon and Schuster.

Seligman, M. E. (2012). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and

wellbeing. Simon and Schuster.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-

being. New York, NY: Free Press.

Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Positive psychology: An introduction. In

Flow and the foundations of positive psychology (pp. 279-298). Springer, Dordrecht.

Seligman, M. E., Kamen, L. P., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1988). Explanatory style across the

life span: achievement and health. Child development in life-span perspective, 91-

114.

Seligman, M. E., Parks, A. C., & Steen, T. (2004). A balanced psychology and a full life.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological

Sciences, 359(1449), 1379-1381.

Shah, H., & Marks, N. (2004). A well-being manifesto for a flourishing society. London: The

New Economics Foundation.

54

Sheldon, K.M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). How to increase and sustain positive emotion:

The benefits of expressing gratitude and visualizing best possible selves. Journal of

Positive Psychology, 1, 73–82.

Smith, J. L., & Smith, L. (2015). Savoring, resilience, and psychological well-being in older

adults. Aging Mental Health 19, 192–200.

Sofia, R., & Cruz, J. F. A. (2017). Unveiling anger and aggression in sports: The effects of

type of sport, competitive category and success level. Revista de psicología del

deporte, 26(2), 21-28.

Steger, M. F., Oishi, S., & Kashdan, T. B. (2009). Meaning in life across the life span: Levels

and correlates of meaning in life from emerging adulthood to older adulthood. The

Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(1), 43-52.

Steptoe, A., Deaton, A., & Stone, A. A. (2015). Subjective wellbeing, health, and ageing. The

Lancet, 385(9968), 640-648.

Steyn, B. J. M., & Roux, S. (2009). Aggression and psychological well-being of adolescent

Tae Kwon Do participants in comparison with hockey participants and a non-sport

group. Health Education, Recreation and Dance 15(1), 32-43.

Thomas, J. (2009). Working paper: Current measures and the challenges of measuring

children’s wellbeing. Newport: Office for National Statistics.

Toskovic, N. N. (2001). Alterations in selected measures of mood with a single bout of

dynamic Taekwondo exercise in college-age students. Perceptual and motor skills,

92(3_suppl), 1031-1038.

55

Tugade, M. M., Fredrickson, B. L., & Feldman Barrett, L. (2004). Psychological resilience

and positive emotional granularity: Examining the benefits of positive emotions on

coping and health. Journal of personality, 72(6), 1161-1190.

Twemlow, S. W., & Sacco, F. C. (1998). The application of traditional martial arts practice

and theory to the treatment of violent adolescents. Adolescence, 33(131), 505-518.

Twemlow, S. W., Biggs, B. K., Nelson, T. D., Vernberg, E. M., Fonagy, P., & Twemlow, S.

W. (2008). Effects of participation in a martial arts–based antibullying program in

elementary schools. Psychology in the Schools, 45(10), 947-959.

Twemlow, S. W., Lerma, B. H., & Twemlow, S. W. (1996). An analysis of students' reasons

for studying martial arts. Perceptual and motor skills, 83(1), 99-103.

Uvnäs-Moberg, K. (1998). Oxytocin may mediate the benefits of positive social interaction

and emotions. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23(8), 819-835.

Vallerand, R. J. (2012). The role of passion in sustainable psychological wellbeing.

Psychology of wellbeing: Theory, research and practice, 2(1), 1.

Van Tongeren, D. R., Hook, J. N., & Davis, D. E. (2013). Defensive religion as a source of

meaning in life: A dual mediational model. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,

5(3), 227.

Vertonghen, J., & Theeboom, M. (2010). The social-psychological outcomes of martial arts

practise among youth: A review. Journal of sports science & medicine, 9(4), 528.

Vertonghen, J., & Theeboom, M. (2012). Martial arts and youth: An analysis of contextual

factors. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 17, 237-241.

56

Wilkinson, L. K. (1996). The martial arts: A mental health intervention?. Journal of the

American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 2(6), 202-206.

Williams, J. M. E. (1993). Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance.

Mayfield Publishing Co.

Wojdat, M., Kanupriya, R., Janowska, P., Wolska, B., Stępniak, R., & Adam, M. (2017).

Comparative analysis of optimism and life satisfaction in Brazilian male and female

Ju-Jitsu society. Journal of Education, Health and Sport 7(12).

Woodward, T. W. (2009). A review of the effects of martial arts practice on health.

Wisconsin Medical Journal (WMJ), 108(1), 40.

Young, S. N. (2007). How to increase serotonin in the human brain without drugs. Journal of

psychiatry & neuroscience: JPN, 32(6), 394. Study showing the connection between

serotonin release and exercise.

Ziaee, V., Lotfian, S., Amini, H., Mansournia, M. A., & Memari, A. H. (2012). Anger in

adolescent boy athletes: a comparison among Judo, karate, swimming and non

athletes. Iranian journal of pediatrics, 22(1), 9.

Zivin, G., Hassan, N., DePaula, G., Monti, D., Harlan, C., Hossain, K., et al. (2001) An

effective approach to violence prevention: traditional martial arts in middle school.

Adolescence 36, 443- 459.

57

Appendix A

68

Appendix B

Debrief Sheet

Thank you for your answers and participation, it is greatly appreciated! Your responses have

been anonymously recorded.

This study is attempting to ascertain what differences might exist in wellbeing between Brazilian

Jiu Jitsu practitioners and non-practitioners. Should you have any questions regarding the study

please email the researcher at the address provided.

If you feel that answering this questionnaire has raised some issues for you, please consider

contacting one of the support services listed below if living in Ireland, or speak to a friend,

family member or professional.

Some available supports that you may find helpful include:

Samaritans: 116 123

Available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. There is no charge to call.

Aware: 1800 80 48 48

Available Monday - Sunday, 10am - 10pm. There is no charge to call.

Wellbeing and the Gentle Art: Emotion, Engagement, Meaning ...

Documents

Transcript of Wellbeing and the Gentle Art: Emotion, Engagement, Meaning ...